Bundled Notes

Chemistry
CHAPTER 1: KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY

Learning Outcomes:
Candidates should be able to:
a. describe the solid, liquid and gaseous states of matter and explain their interconversion in terms
of the kinetic particle theory and of the energy changes involved
b. describe and explain evidence for the movement of particles in liquids and gases
(the treatment of Brownian motion is not required)
c. explain everyday effects of diffusion in terms of particles, e.g. the spread of perfumes and
cooking aromas; tea and coffee grains in water
d. state qualitatively the effect of molecular mass on the rate of diffusion and explain the
dependence of rate of diffusion on temperature
1.1 States of Matter & Kinetic Particle Theory (KPT)
Matter is a substance that has mass and occupies space.

The Kinetic Particle Theory states that all matter is made up of tiny particles and
these particles are in constant, random motion.
Evidence of KPT: spraying of perfume and smelling it at the other side of the room
Solid Liquid Gas

Diagram
Shape Fixed Not fixed Not fixed
Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed
Cannot be Cannot be
Compressibility Can be compressed
compressed compressed
Particles are very Particles are quite Particles are

Arrangement of closely-packed closely-packed spaced far apart
particles in an orderly in a disorderly in a disorderly
manner manner manner
Particles are
Particles vibrate Particles move by
Movement of moving
in fixed sliding over one
particles randomly at
positions. another.
high speeds.
Kinetic energy
of particles
Very Low Low High
Assumption English School_EXP Chemistry 5076 Revision Notes_Updated 2020 Page 1

1.2 Changes of States and the Kinetic Particle Theory
Processes that take place in the changes of states:
Deposition
Boiling / Evaporation
Differences between Boiling & Evaporation
Boiling Evaporation
Occurs only at boiling point Occurs at temperatures below boiling point
Occurs throughout the liquid Occurs only at the surface of the liquid
Occurs rapidly Occurs slowly
Liquids that evaporate quickly at room temperature are

called volatile liquids .They have low boiling
points are low, and change from (I) to (g) quickly.
(e.g. perfume, alcohol).
Sublimation
Sublimation is a process by which a solid changes directly

to gas without going through the liquid state.
E.g. dry ice, moth balls, ammonium salts, iodine

Class Work 1
Your task: Answer the question and write down your explanations.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Case study 1: Solid melts to form a liquid, liquid boils to form a gas Heating Curve
(s) to (I): Solid melts
Why is this temperature constant?
The solid is melting to form a liquid. Heat

energy is taken in by the particles to
overcome the forces of attraction between the solid particles, instead of
raising the temperature, so temperature is constant.
Solid particles change from vibrating in fixed positions to liquid particles which are sliding over
each other. There is a mixture of solid and liquid particles at this temperature.
The temperature at which melting occurs is known as the melting point.

Case study 2: Gas condenses to a liquid, liquid freezes to a solid Cooling Curve
It is the opposite of a heating curve.
Condensation point
(Similar to boiling point)
Key:
Freezing point
PQ: (g)
(Similar to melting point)
QR: (I) & (g)
RS: (I)
ST: (I) & (s)
TU & UV: (s)
(I) to (s): Liquid freezes
Why is this temperature constant?
The liquid freezes to form a solid. Heat energy is lost by the particles.
Particles move slower and closer to each other. When the temperature is
low enough, the particles no longer have enough energy to move freely. The forces of
attraction pulls the particles to settle in fixed positions in an
orderly arrangement.
Liquid particles change from sliding over each other to solid particles which are vibrating in
fixed positions. There is a mixture of solid and liquid particles at this temperature.
The temperature at which freezing occurs is known as the freezing point (also known as the
melting point).
Class Work 2
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CHAPTER 2: MEASUREMENT AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
Learning Outcomes:
(a) name appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time, temperature, mass and volume,
including burettes, pipettes, measuring cylinders and gas syringes
(b) suggest suitable apparatus, given relevant information, for a variety of simple experiments,
including collection of gases and measurement of rates of reaction
2.1 Measuring Physical Quantities
Physical SI Unit Other Conversion Apparatus to measure

Quantity forms of
units
Kilogram Grams (g) 1. Beam balance

Mass
(kg) Tonnes (t) 2. Electronic balance
Minute
Second 1 h = 60 min
Time (min) 1. Stopwatch
(s) 1 min = 60 s
Hour (h)
Degree
Kelvin 1. Thermometer
Temperature Celsius -
(K) 2. Datalogger
(°C)
For gases,
Cubic
centimetre
Cubic
(cm3) 1 m3 = 1000 dm3
Volume metre
Cubic 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
(m3)
decimetre
1. Gas syringe
(dm3)
For liquids,
1. Burette
2. Pipette
3. Measuring cylinder
4. Beaker

To measure Volumes of Liquids,
Apparatus Sectional Diagram Accuracy

Burette
a. Most accurate.
b. Can measure volume of liquids to

an accuracy of 0.05 cm3,
e.g: 23.50 cm3, 31.90 cm3,
3.45 cm3
c. Can measure variable (many)

readings
Pipette
a. Most accurate.
b. Can measure fixed volumes of

liquids only.
(There is only 1 marking on the

pipette - e.g: 25.0 cm3, 20.0 cm3)
Measuring cylinder
a. 2nd most accurate.
b. Used to measure volumes in 1

cm3 intervals.
c. Can be used to read volumes of

liquids to an accuracy of 0.5 cm3
(e.g: 25.0 cm3, 13.5 cm3)
Beaker
a. Least accurate.
b. Estimate volumes, no accurate

measurement.
How to measure volume?
Meniscus: Curved surface of a liquid

Class Work 1
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2.2 Selecting Suitable Apparatus for Experiments
A lot of reactions produce gases. The gases produced can be used effectively for further
analysis. Before the gases are being analysed, they will be collected and dried by two steps.
Step 1: Collection of gases (4 methods)
Step 2: Drying of gases (3 methods)
Step 1: Methods for collection of gases
1) Gas syringe more suitable for measurement (can be used for all gases)
2) Displacement of water
3) Upward delivery
4) Downward delivery
How to determine which method to use?
Solubility – how soluble the gas is in water

Density – how dense the gas is compared to air
(Air has an estimated molecular mass, Mr, of 30.)

Displacement of water Upward delivery Downward delivery
Suitable to collect gases

that are insoluble / Suitable to collect gases Suitable to collect gases
slightly soluble in with lower density than with higher density
water. air. (Gases Mr to be than air. (Gases Mr to
If there are more than 1 less than 30) be more than 30)
method to collect the Suitable to collect gases Suitable to collect gases
same gas, displacement that are soluble in that are soluble in
of water method is more water. water.
preferred than upward
/downward delivery.
E.g: E.g: E.g:
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Ammonia (Mr of NH3 = 17) Chlorine (Mr of Cl2 = 71)
Hydrogen (H2) Hydrogen chloride
Oxygen (O2) (Mr of HCl = 36.5)
Notice that a gas can be collected using more than one method.
For example, hydrogen (H2) can be collected by displacement of water AND upward
delivery.
Step 2: Drying of gases using drying agents
1) Concentrated sulfuric acid – use to dry acidic gases (reacts and remove alkaline
gas)
2) Quicklime / Calcium oxide – use to dry basic gases (reacts and remove acidic gas)
3) Fused calcium chloride – use to dry neutral gases (removes neutral gas)
How to determine which method to use?
Nature of gas – depends on whether the gas is acidic / basic / neutral

Drying agents
Concentrated sulfuric acid Quicklime / Calcium oxide Fused calcium chloride
Use to dry acidic gases Use to dry basic gases Use to dry neutral gases
(pH < 7) (pH > 7) (pH = 7)
E.g: E.g: E.g:

Hydrogen chloride (HCI) Ammonia (NH3) Hydrogen (H2)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Oxygen (O2)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Chlorine (CI2)
Class Work 2
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Summary of gases
Density
Solubility in Method of
Gas Mr compared Drying agent
water collection
to air
Fused calcium
hydrogen 2 not soluble less dense
chloride
very slightly slightly Displacement Fused calcium

oxygen 32
soluble denser of water chloride
carbon Concentrated
44 slightly soluble denser
dioxide sulfuric acid
Fused calcium
chlorine 71 soluble denser
chloride
hydrogen Downward Concentrated

36.5 very soluble denser
chloride delivery sulfuric acid
Concentrated
sulfur dioxide 64 very soluble denser
sulfuric acid
extremely Upward Quicklime /

ammonia 17 less dense
soluble delivery Calcium oxide
Class Work 3
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CHAPTER 3: SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
Learning Outcomes:
a. describe methods of separation and purification for the components of mixtures, to include:
use of a suitable solvent, filtration and crystallisation or evaporation
sublimation
distillation and fractional distillation
paper chromatography
b. suggest suitable separation and purification methods, given information about the substances
involved in the following types of mixtures:
solid-solid
solid-liquid
liquid-liquid (miscible)
c. interpret paper chromatograms including comparison with ‘known’ samples and the use of Rf
values
d. deduce from the given melting point and boiling point the identities of substances and their
purity
e. explain that the measurement of purity in substances used in everyday life, e.g. foodstuffs and
drugs, is important
3.1 Obtaining Pure Substances from Mixtures
Definition of Mixtures:
Mixtures contain two or more substances that are NOT chemically combined together.
They can be separated using physical methods.
Types of Mixtures Example of Mixtures Physical Methods of Separation

Solid-Liquid 1. Sand + Water 1. Filtration
2. Rice + Oil 2. Evaporation to Dryness
3. Sugar + Water 3. Crystallisation
4. Salt + Water 4. Sublimation
5. Using a Magnet
Solid – Solid 1. Iron + Sulfur 6. Simple Distillation
2. Iodine crystals + 7. Separating Funnel
Salt 8. Fractional Distillation
Liquid – Liquid 9. Chromatography
1. Oil + Water
2. Seawater
3. Water + Alcohol

3.2 Separating a Solid from a Liquid
Depends on solubility of the solid in the liquid.
Method 1: Filtration
Suitable for solids that are insoluble in the liquid.

Insoluble solid will remain in the filter paper as residue and the liquid will pass
through the filter paper as filtrate.
E.g: Sand (insoluble) + Water
liquid and insoluble solid

filter paper
filter funnel
residue (filtered solid)
filtrate
(filtered liquid)
Class Work 1
Your task: Complete the table.
Mixture Residue Filtrate

Sand & water
Oil & soil
Sugar & water

Method 2: Evaporation to Dryness [used to obtain a soluble solid from a
solution by heating solution until all water has boiled off]
Suitable for solids that are soluble in the liquid and do not decompose on strong
heating.
After evaporating all the liquid away, the solid will remain in the evaporating dish.
E.g: Salt (soluble, do not decompose) + Water
evaporating dish
wire gauze
tripod stand
Bunsen burner
Method 3: Crystallisation [used to obtain a PURE solid sample from its solution]
Suitable for solids that are soluble in the liquid and decompose on strong heating.
E.g: Sugar (Soluble, decompose on heating) + Water
A saturated solution is formed.
Class Work 2
Your task: In your own words, define what is a “saturated solution”?
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3.3 Separating Solids
Method 1: Sublimation
Sublimation is used to separate a solid that sublimes from one that does not.
Recall: Sublimation is a change in state from solid directly to gas.
Some substances, such as ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and iodine (I2), sublime.
We can make use of this property to separate a substance that sublimes from one that does
not e.g. salt and iodine.
Method 2: Using a Magnet

A magnet can be used to separate a magnetic substance from a non-magnetic substance.
Some metals are magnetic. We can use this property to separate these metals (e.g. iron,
nickel, cobalt, steel) from mixtures.

3.4 Separating a Liquid from a Solution (Simple Distillation)
Class Work 3
Your task: If given a mixture of salt + water and you want the water instead of the salt, what
should you do?
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Distillation: A process of BOILING the liquid and CONDENSING its vapour. The
liquid obtained is known as the distillate.
This ensures that the thermometer

measures the temperature of the
vapour entering the condenser.

Industrial applications of simple distillation
Obtaining pure water from rainwater (reservoirs)
3.5 Separating Liquids (Miscible) (Fractional Distillation)
Similar to simple distillation.

A process of evaporating a liquid and condensing the vapour repeatedly through a
fractionating column.
Used to separate a mixture of miscible liquids.
Made use of the physical property: difference in boiling points.
The liquid with the lowest boiling point is distilled first and the liquid with the highest
boiling point last.
E.g: Separating a mixture of ethanol (78°C) and water (100°C)

Industrial applications of fractional distillation
Fractional distillation of liquid air - To obtain nitrogen (b.p: -196°C), argon (b.p: -
186°C) and oxygen (b.p: -183°C).
Fractional distillation of crude oil in oil refinery - To obtain various useful fractions
such as petrol, diesel, kerosene, lubricating oil and bitumen.
Fractional distillation of fermented liquor - To obtain beer/wine/whisky.
Class Work 4
Your task: What happens in the fractionating column to ensure that the mixture is
separated efficiently?
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Important points to note for BOTH simple distillation and fractional distillation!
thermometer
water out Volatile liquids:
distillation
liquids with low
flask
boiling points
(e.g: perfume)
salt solution
boiling chips
beaker
water
in pure water
(distillate)
Class Work 5
Your task: Put on your thinking caps and answer the following questions.
(a) What is the use of using boiling chips in the distillation process?
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(b) Why should the thermometer bulb be placed beside the side arm of the distillation flask?
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(c) Why is it necessary to keep the condenser sloping downwards?
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(d) Why is the direction of water moving against gravity?
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(e) Why is it necessary to use a large container with ice to hold the receiver beaker if the
distillate is volatile?
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(f)

3.6 Chromatography
The technique of using a solvent to separate a mixture into its individual
components, using a paper.
used in the separation of small quantities of mixtures
based on the difference in solubility of its components in a
particular solvent (eg. water, ethanol, acetone )
The more soluble the component is, the further the spot will
travel away from the starting line.
identity of component in the mixture can be deduced by comparing its spot
with spots produced by known substances
Uses of Paper Chromatography
1. To separate a mixture into its individual components

2. To identify its components.
3. To determine the purity of the mixture tested.
Procedures:
1. Pour in solvent used

2. Mark beginning of starting line in pencil. (Must be above the solvent level)
3. Spot samples
4. Allow solvent to reach around 1 cm before the end of paper
5. Mark solvent front
6. Air dry the chromatography paper
Applications of Paper Chromatography
To separate
(1) Dyes in ink
(2) Pigments in plants
(3) Amino acids from proteins
To identify
(1) Poisons or drugs
(2) Detect traces of banned substances in food

Important points to note for paper chromatography!
Class Work 6
(a) Why is it necessary to use pencil for markings instead of ink?
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(b) Why is it necessary to spot samples far apart?
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(c) Why is it necessary to prevent the paper from touching the sides of the developing
chamber?
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(d) Why must the starting line be above the solvent level?
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Reading the chromatograms
Unknown mixture = Dye 1

It contains two components at the same spots
as dye 1.
Dyes 2 and 3 are pure as they are made
up of one component only.
Dye 2 is more soluble than dye 3 as dye 2
Unknown dye1 dye2 dye3 dye4
spot travelled further than dye 3 spot. mixture
Dye 4 is insoluble in the solvent as it
did not move from the start line.
Class Work 8
Three different dyes, A, B and C are used to make up four solutions, P, Q, R and S.
The diagram below show the chromatogram obtained.
A B C P Q R S
dyes solutions
(a) Which of the three dyes has the highest solubility in the solvent used? Explain your answer.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Which solution contains:
(i) the least number of dyes? …………
(ii) the most number of dyes? …………
(iii) dyes A and C only? …………

3.7 Methods of Determining Purity of Substances
(1) Determine the melting point of the solid. Pure solids have fixed melting points; they
will melt completely at one temperature only.
Impurities will lower the melting point and cause melting to happen over a range of
temperatures.
(2) Determine the boiling point of the liquid. Pure liquids have fixed boiling points; they
will boil completely at one temperature only.
Impurities will raise the boiling point and cause boiling to happen over a range of
temperatures.
(3) Carry out paper chromatography. Pure substances only have one spot obtained in the
chromatogram.
Class Work 9

CHAPTER 4: ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
Learning Outcomes:
(a) describe the differences between elements, compounds and mixtures
4.1 Elements
Definition:
An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into two or more simpler
substances by chemical processes.
Characteristics:
It can be found in the Periodic Table and represented by chemical symbols.

It only consists of one type of atom. However, they can exist as monatomic,
diatomic or polyatomic.
Recall from Lower Secondary Science:
Atoms are the smallest particles of an element that have the chemical properties of that
element.
A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are chemically combined (joined together).
Elements that are monatomic (single atom):
Group 0 Noble gases:

helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon
Metals
Elements that are diatomic (two atoms):
Gases: nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen

Group VII elements: fluorine, chlorine, bromine,
iodine
Elements that are triatomic (three atoms):
Gases: ozone, O3
Elements that are polyatomic (more than

three atoms):
Phosphorous, P4
Sulfur, S8

Elements can be classified as metals or non-metals.
Non -
Metals
Metals
Properties Metals Non-metals
Appearance Shiny (lustrous) Dull (non-lustrous)

Physical state Mostly solids
Gases, volatile liquids or solids
at r.t.p. (except mercury)
High
Melting and Low
(except for Group I metals and
boiling points (except for carbon and silicon)
mercury)
Ductility and Ductile (can be drawn into Brittle if solid
Malleability wires)
Malleable (can be hammered
into different shapes without
breaking)
Sonorous (makes a ringing
sound when struck)
Heat and Poor conductor

Electrical Good conductor in all states (except carbon in the form of
Conductivity graphite and diamond)
What is the difference between 2H and H2?
H H H
H
2H H2
The 2 atoms are NOT The 2 atoms ARE
chemically combined. chemically combined.

Class Work 1
Your task: Fill up the blanks in the table.
Name of substance Formula of No. of No. of Type of atoms

substance elements atoms
(a) Nitrogen gas
(b) Magnesium metal
(c) Ammonia gas
(d) Copper(II) sulfate CuSO4
(e) Magnesium carbonate MgCO3
(f) Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4

4.2 Compounds
Definition:
A compound is a pure substance containing two or more elements that are chemically
combined in a fixed ratio.
Characteristics:
It has a chemical formula with more than 2 elements.
A compound has different properties from the elements that form it.
A compound can only be decomposed into its elements by chemical processes

such as thermal decomposition (heat is used to break down compounds into elements)
and electrolysis (using electricity).
Examples of compounds
CO H2O C6H12O6 Mg(NO3)2

2 elements: carbon, 2 elements: 3 elements: carbon, 3 elements:
oxygen hydrogen, oxygen hydrogen, oxygen magnesium,
nitrogen, oxygen
2 atoms 3 atoms 24 atoms 9 atoms
Two or more different “circles”

Illustration of compounds
JOINED together.

Chemical Formula (You will learn more about this in Chapter 6.)
A compound can be represented by a chemical formula. The chemical formula of a compound

is written by putting together the chemical symbols of the elements that make up the
compound.
The chemical formula tells us the types of atoms present in the compound;
and the ratio of the different atoms present in the compound.
Rules:
1. For many ionic compounds that contain both metallic and non-metallic elements, the
symbol of the metallic element is written first.
• calcium oxide (CaO)

• sodium chloride (NaCl)
• magnesium carbonate (MgCO3)
2. A compound made up of two elements has a name that ends in -ide.
• zinc oxide (ZnO) oxygen → oxide

• sodium chloride (NaCl) fluorine → fluoride
• carbon dioxide (CO2) chlorine → chloride
bromine → bromide
iodine → iodide
3. A compound containing the following polyatomic ions has its name in the back:
OH- SO42- CO32- NO3-
hydroxide sulfate carbonate nitrate
• calcium sulfate (CaSO4)

• sodium nitrate (NaNO3)
• magnesium carbonate (MgCO3)
4. It is not necessary to write the subscript ‘1’.
• water (H2O, not H2O1)

• calcium oxide (CaO, not Ca1O1)

Class Work 2
Your task: Name the following ionic compounds.
No. Formula Name of cation Name of anion Name of ionic compound

of ionic
compound
(a) KCl
(b) MgO
(c) Na2S
(d) CaF2
(e) Be3N2
(f) Be(NO3)2
(g) CaS
(h) Rb2SO4
(i) Mg(OH)2
(j) Al2(CO3)3
(k) NH4Cl

4.3 Mixtures
Definition:
A mixture is made up of two or more substances that are not chemically combined.
Characteristics:
It does not have a chemical formula.
Different Types of Mixtures

A mixture can exist in various ways:
a) element + element
b) compound + compound Two or more different groups of
c) element + compound “circles” NOT JOINED together.
A mixture of two A mixture of one element

A mixture of two elements,
compounds, e.g. water and one compound, e.g.
e.g. neon (Ne) and
vapour (H2O) and carbon hydrogen (H2) and ammonia
hydrogen (H2)
dioxide (CO2) (NH3)
Differences between Compounds and Mixtures (SPEC)
Compound Mixture
The elements in a compound can only The components of a mixture can be

Separation be separated by chemical methods. separated by physical methods.
(heating, electrolysis) (Refer to Chapter 3)
The physical and chemical The chemical properties of a mixture

properties of a compound are are the same as those of its
Properties components.
different from those of the elements in
the compound.
A chemical reaction occurs when a No chemical reaction takes place

Energy compound is formed. when a mixture is formed.
Changes There is an energy change involved There is little or no energy change
when a compound is formed. involved when a mixture is formed.
The elements in a compound are

The components of a mixture can be
Composition always combined in a fixed ratio.
mixed in any proportion.
(have chemical formula)
Solid mixture: Alloy (bronze, steel etc)

Liquid mixture: Crude oil/petroleum
Gaseous mixture: Air

Class Work 3
Your task: Answer the following questions.
Read the following information about the electrolysis of potassium chloride.
“Potassium chloride has a melting point of over 700°C. Molten potassium chloride can be
electrolysed. Chlorine gas forms at the anode. We might expect potassium metal to form at
the cathode, but in practice, potassium is very soluble in molten potassium chloride. A
solution of potassium in molten potassium chloride forms. This problem means that
electrolysis cannot be used to extract potassium from potassium chloride.”
(a) Identify the element(s), compound(s) and mixture(s) in the above information.
Element(s): ……………………………………………………………………………………
Compound(s): …………………………………………………………………………………
Mixture(s): ……………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Explain 3 differences between a compound and a mixture.
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Class Work 4
Your task: Identify whether there are elements, compounds or mixtures and state their
components.

CHAPTER 5: ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Learning Outcomes:
a) state the relative charges and approximate relative masses of a proton, a neutron and an
electron
b) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the structure of an atom as containing protons and neutrons
(nucleons) in the nucleus and electrons arranged in shells (energy levels)
(Knowledge of s, p, d and f classification is not required; a copy of the Periodic Table will be
available in Papers 1 and 2)
c) define proton (atomic) number and nucleon (mass) number
d) interpret and use symbols such as

e) define the term isotopes
f) deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms and ions given proton
and nucleon numbers
5.1 Structure of an Atom
Sub-atomic Relative Relative Position in the

Symbol
particle charge mass atom
Proton p +1 1 nucleus
Neutron n 0 1 nucleus
1
1840 Outside in the
Electron e –1 (very electron shells
small)
5.2 The Proton Number and Nucleon Number
From the Periodic Table: Nuclide Notation:
Proton number / Mass number /

Atomic number 2 Nucleon number
Chemical symbol
4
Mass number / Proton number /
Nucleon number Atomic number Chemical symbol

What is the atomic number / proton number?
It is the number of protons in an atom. It is also the number of electrons in an atom.
(No. of p = No. of e)
Each element has an unique proton number. Based on the proton number, you can
determine who they are! (like fingerprints!)
number of protons = number of electrons

eg: (+ 2 charges) = (-2 charges)
Therefore, atoms are electrically neutral (0 charge).
What is the nucleon number / mass number?

It is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
number of protons + number of neutron = nucleon number

number of neutron = nucleon number - number of protons
PEN number (e.g He)
PEN number for He

Proton p 2
2
Electron e 2
Neutron n 4–2=2 4

Class Work 1
Your task: Please write down the PEN of the first 20 elements from the Periodic Table.
No. of No. of
No. of
No. Name of element Symbol electrons neutrons
protons (P)
(E) (N)
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

5.3 Isotopes
Definition:
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of
protons and electrons, but different number of neutrons.
Hydrogen-1 Hydrogen-2 Hydrogen-3
Characteristics:
Isotopes have identical chemical properties but their physical properties are different.
Isotopes have identical chemical properties because they have the same number
of valence electrons which are involved in chemical reactions.
Isotopes have different physical properties because they have different masses.
(physical properties are affected by mass)
Why is the mass number of Chlorine not a whole number?
We need to account for the Relative abundance of each isotope when calculating the
mass number of an element.
With 25% of 37Cl and 75% of 35Cl,

calculate the average relative atomic mass of Cl in the air.
25 75
( X 37 ) + ( X 35 ) = 35.5
100 100
Class Work 2
Your task:
Calculate the average relative atomic mass of Na with 80% of Na-23 and 20% of Na-24.

5.4 Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms
Electrons are arranged in electron shells outside the nucleus.

These shells are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on.
For the first 20 elements, the first shell can hold a maximum of 2 electrons, while the
second and third shell can hold a maximum of 8 electrons.
Rules:
1) Electron must be unpaired first before it is paired.
2) Each electron shell can only hold a certain number of electrons.
3) The electron shell nearest to the nucleus must be fully filled before electrons can be
placed in the next shell.

Class Work 3
Your task: Draw the electronic structure and write the electronic configuration of the first 20 elements. An example is given to you for Lithium.
Lithium (2,1)
TRANSITION
METALS

Period
Group
Outermost / Valence electrons
The shell which is the furthest from the nucleus is called the outer shell or the
valence shell.
The electrons in this shell are known as the outer electrons or the valence
electrons.
Important trends to note!
Elements in the same GROUP have the same number of VALENCE electrons.
Elements in the same PERIOD have the same number of ELECTRON SHELLS.

CHAPTER 6: IONIC BONDING
Learning Outcomes:
a) describe the formation of ions by electron loss/gain in order to obtain the electronic
configuration of a noble gas
b) describe the formation of ionic bonds between metals and non-metals, e.g. NaCl ; MgCl 2
c) state that ionic materials contain a giant lattice in which the ions are held by electrostatic
attraction, e.g. NaCl (candidates will not be required to draw diagrams of ionic lattices)
d) deduce the formulae of other ionic compounds from diagrams of their lattice structures, limited
to binary compounds
e) relate the physical properties (including electrical property) of ionic compounds to their
lattice structure
6.1 The Stable Electronic Configuration of a Noble Gas
Noble gases have a fully-filled valence shell.

(2 electrons for He, 8 electrons for Ne, Ar) This is called
noble gas electronic configuration /
stable electronic configuration / octet
electronic configuration.
Itdoes not need to gain, lose or share electrons, and are known to
be stable / inert/ unreactive.
Atoms are not stable when their outermost / valence shell is not full. They will tend to
gain, lose or share electrons in order to achieve the stable electronic configuration.
E.g. 1 2 2,1 2,6 2,8 2,8,4 2,8,8

not stable stable not stable not stable stable not stable stable

Class Work 1
Your task: Helium, Neon and Argon gases are known to be unreactive. Explain why.
WAIT! Before you answer the question, what do we mean by “unreactive” in Chemistry?
Unreactive: ……………………………………………………………………………………………
Answer: …………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………......................................................................................
6.2 Forming Ions
How to be stable like noble gases?
Atoms aim to achieve stability (lowest energy state) with a noble gas configuration.
To achieve,
naturally (noble gases)
by losing electrons to form a positive ion, cation (metals / metallic
element)
– found in IONIC compounds
by gaining electrons to form a negative ion, anion (non-metals /
non-metallic element) – found in IONIC compounds
by sharing electrons (non-metals) – found in COVALENT compounds
Class work 2
Elements Electronic Number of Lose/ Gain Charge of Cation/

in Group configuration of valence electrons ion Anion
element (in Period 3) electrons to form ion
Lose 1
I 2.8.1 1 1+ Cation
electron
II
III
Does not
IV form ions
VI
VII
Does not
0 form ions

What is Bonding?
1. Bonding is the way in which atoms chemically join together and combine with one
another so that all atoms achieve noble gas electronic configuration.
2. Only the valence electrons are used to form bonds between atoms.
How do atoms bond?
By transfer of electrons By sharing of electrons

in ionic bonding in covalent bonding
Between metals Between non-metals

and non-metals and non-metals
Exist as IONS Exist as MOLECULES
Class Work 3
Your task: State what type of bonding will the following compounds formed?
Element 1 Element 2 Compound
Sodium ( ) Chlorine ( )
Oxygen ( ) Oxygen ( )
Nitrogen ( ) Bromine ( )
Calcium ( ) Sulfur ( )
Iron ( ) Phosphorus ( )
Aluminium ( ) Carbon ( )

Class Work 4
Your task: A magnesium atom and an oxygen atom are both very “unhappy” and they aim to
achieve a noble gas electronic configuration. Draw their electronic structures out and
propose a solution for both of them.
Magnesium atom Oxygen atom

To form ions,
Metals form positive ions. (Cations) Non-metals form negative ions. (Anions)
eg. Sodium eg. Chlorine
STEP 1: Find proton number. STEP 1: Find proton number.
23 35
11 Na has 11 electrons 17 Cl has 17 electrons
STEP 2: Find electronic configuration. STEP 2: Find electronic configuration.
Electronic configuration: 2.8.1 Electronic configuration: 2.8.7
STEP 3: Draw electronic structure. STEP 3: Draw electronic structure.
Na Cl
STEP 4: Metal loses 1 outer(valence) electron. STEP 4: Non-metal gains outer(valence) electron.
(empty valence shell is removed)
Na Cl
STEP 5: Bracket the ion. STEP 5: Bracket the ion.
Na Cl
STEP 6: Metal becomes positive ion, STEP 6: non-metal becomes negative ion,
put charge besides the bracket. put charge.
Cl
Na
Lose 1 (-1) electron = 1+ charge Gain 1 (+1) electron = 1- charge

6.3 Ionic Bond: Transferring Electrons
1. Ionic bonds are formed when metals react with non-metals.

2. Electron(s) are transferred from metal to non-metal atoms.
3. Electrons are transferred to achieve noble gas electronic configuration.
4. Metals form positively charged ions. (cations) while Non-metals form negatively
charged ions. (anions)
5. The ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between the resulting oppositely-
charged ions.
Steps to draw “dot-and-cross” diagram of ionic compound
E.g: Sodium and chlorine atoms
Steps Sodium Chlorine

1. Determine whether the atom Metal Non-Metal
involved is a metal or a non-
metal. (Refer to Periodic
Table, zig-zac line.)
2. Write down the electronic 11 electrons 17 electrons
configurations of the atoms (2, 8, 1) (2, 8, 7)
involved.
3. Determine how many ions Gives out (Lose) 1 electron Short of (Gain) 1 electron
are needed by the transfer of
valence electrons from
metallic atoms to non-
metallic atoms. As a result,
ions are formed.
4. Draw the final product of the
“dot-and-cross” diagram.
5. Chemical Formula: NaCl

6. Name of compound: Sodium chloride
Checklist of what to do when drawing dot and cross for ionic compounds:
1. Draw the electronic structure with correct number of valence electrons.
2. Use crosses and dots to represent electrons of different elements
3. Always transfer electrons from METAL atom to NON-METAL atom! Not the other way
round.
4. The final ions in the dot-and-cross diagrams should have noble gas electronic
configuration. (full valence shell of electrons)
5. After transferring, add in the CHARGES and BRACKETS
When atom lose electron: it become more positive (no. of P > no of. E) = +ve charge
When atom gain electron: it become more negative (no. of P < no of. E)= −ve charge

Class Work 5
Your task: Draw the bonding between potassium and fluorine, showing all electrons.
State the chemical name and formula of the compound formed.
Class Work 6
Your task: Draw the bonding between lithium and oxygen, showing its valence electrons
only. State the chemical name and formula of the compound formed.
Class Work 7
Your task: Draw the bonding between aluminium and oxygen, showing its valence electrons
only. State the chemical name and formula of the compound formed.

6.4 Chemical Formulae of Ionic Compounds
The formula of an ionic compound is derived by balancing the charges on the positive
ions with those on the negative ions. All the positive charges must equal all the negative
charges in an ionic compound.
Naming Ionic Compounds
Always name the positive ion, cation (usually metals) FIRST before the negative ion, anion
(usually non-metals).
NAME ME
FIRST!!!
Positively-charged ion, cations Negatively-chared ion, anions
Formed by metal atoms losing electrons. Formed by non-metal atoms gaining

electrons.
From atom to ion, they do not change their From atom to ion, they change their names.
names. Their last few letters will change to
“……ide”.
E.g:
sodium atom, Na sodium ion, Na+ E.g:
magnesium atom, Mg magnesium ion, chlorine atom, Cl chloride ion, Cl-

Mg2+ oxygen atom, O oxide ion, O2-

Transition metals that form ions with Transition metals with a fixed valency:
variable charges,
The charge is indicated by a Roman Numeral Element Symbol Ion

after the ion:
Zinc Zn Zn2+
Examples:
Silver Ag Ag+
FeO Iron(II) oxide
CuO Copper(II) oxide
Polyatomic ions (ions with more than 1 atom present)
Polyatomic Ions
Hydroxide ion OH-
Nitrate ion NO3-
Carbonate ion CO32-
Sulfate ion SO42-
Phosphate ion PO43-
Ammonium ion NH4+
Class Work 8
Your task: Fill up the table.
No. Chemical Name of Chemical Name of Name of

Symbol of cation Symbol of anion compound
Cation Anion
(a) Li+ F-
(b) Fe3+ N3-
(c) Ca2+ H-
(d) Zn2+ S2-
(e) Be2+ SO42-
(f) Ag+ CO32-
(g) Cu2+ OH-

Steps to take in writing the chemical formula of the ionic compounds:
(1) Write the ions formed from the elements, using the valencies from the Periodic Table.
(2) Write the positive ion (cation) first, with its charge and the negative ion (anion) beside it,
with its charge.
(3) “CROSS” the numbers ONLY (without the SIGNS).
(4) Present your answers neatly.
Class Work 9
Your task: Fill up the tables below.
E.g: Sodium and Chlorine Cross method
Ion formed
Positive ion (Cation) Na+
Negative ion (Anion) Cl -
Chemical name: Chemical formula:
1. Lithium and Fluorine Cross method
Ion formed
Positive ion (Cation)
Negative ion (Anion)
2. Calcium and Sulfur Cross method
Ion formed

3. Aluminium and Nitrogen Cross method
Ion formed
4. Magnesium and Bromine Cross method
Ion formed
5. Sodium and Oxygen Cross method
Ion formed
6. Aluminium and Oxygen Cross method
Ion formed

7. Magnesium and Nitrate ion Cross method
Ion formed
8. Silver and Chlorine Cross method
Ion formed
9. Copper (II) and Fluorine Cross method
Ion formed
10. Zinc and Sulfate Cross method
Ion formed

11. Magnesium and Hydroxide ion Cross method
Ion formed
12. Ammonium and Sulfate ion Cross method
Ion formed
13. Aluminium and Carbonate ion Cross method
Ion formed
14. Iron(III) and Nitrate ion Cross method
Ion formed

Class Work 10
Name of compound Chemical Symbol Chemical Symbol Chemical Formula

of Positive Ion of Negative Ion
Silver chloride
Zinc bromide
Sodium nitrate
Copper (II) sulfate
Iron(II) sulfate
Iron(II) sulfide
Ammonium chloride
Calcium sulfate
Potassium carbonate
Sodium sulfate
Ammonium hydroxide
Ammonium nitrate
Ammonium sulfate
Aluminium hydroxide
Calcium hydroxide
Calcium nitrate
Iron (III) nitrate
Lead(IV) oxide

Class Work 11
Your task: The chemical formulas of several ionic compounds are listed at the bottom.
Write their chemical names and find them in the word search.
A C E T A H D S O H P M U I S S A T O P D
S E T A H P S O H P R E V L I S E S F G A
I E D I X O R D Y H N O R I J L M O N P R
L A L E A D P H O S P H A T E T A D V X E
V M Z A C E G I K M O I Q H Z S G I U W T
E M Y C O P P E R B R O M I D E N U E B A
R O D F H T L N P O R T N U V X E M D Z H
H N A C F G I K N M O C Q M W U S H I W P
Y I Y B D F H C J L P N P O R T I Y R V S
D U X Z A E H C G H I K M X O Q U D O S O
R M U W Y L B D O F H J L I N P M R L R H
O O T U O W Y S A E C G I D K M H O H O P
X X Q R S U P W Y B D F H E T L Y X C N M
I I I P R H T V X Z A E C G I K D I N M U
D D P R A L U M I N U M B R O M I D E T I
E E V T X E T A R T I N C N I Z D E G Z R
B D E F H J Z I N C N I T R I T E L O N A
P R T V Z B D F E T A R T I N M U I R A B
H J L N P C A L C I U M F L U O R I D E A
E T A N O B R A C M U I S S A T O P Y Z F
R T V X E D I M O R B N E G O R D Y H N U
Ag3PO4 Fe(OH)2 NaOH
AlBr3 (NH4)2O Ba(NO2)2
Pb3PO4 Ba(PO4)2 K2CO3
Zn(NO3)2 CaF2 AgOH
CuBr2 Li2O FeCl 3

6.5 Structure and Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds
Structure of Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds form giant

ionic structures. Such structures are also known as
giant lattice structure or crystal lattice.
Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds
Physical Properties Ionic compound
Exists as ions
High melting and boiling point because

large amount of energy is needed to
Melting & Boiling
break down the giant lattice structure
point
and overcome the strong electrostatic force of
attraction between the oppositely-charged ions.
Conducts electricity in molten or aqueous states because

the mobile ions act as charge carriers and conduct
Electrical electricity.
conductivity
Does not conduct electricity in the solid state as all
the ions are held in fixed positions and are not free
to move.
Solubility in
water/organic Soluble in water
solvents Insoluble in organic solvents
(eg. oil, alcohol)

Class Work 10
Your task: “Magnesium chloride can conduct electricity in the solid state.” How far do you
agree with this statement and explain your answers.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Class Work 11
Your task: Iron(III) fluoride has a higher melting point than fluorine gas. Explain, with reference
to its structure and bonding, why iron(III) fluoride’s melting point is so high.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

CHAPTER 6 (Part 2): COVALENT BONDING
Learning Outcomes:
Covalent bonding
a) describe the formation of a covalent bond by the sharing of a pair of electrons in order to gain
the electronic configuration of a noble gas
b) describe, using ‘dot and cross’ diagrams, the formation of covalent bonds between non-metallic
elements, e.g. H2; O2; H2 O; CH4 and CO2
c) deduce the arrangement of electrons in other covalent molecules
d) relate the physical properties (including electrical property) of covalent substances to their
structure and bonding
Covalent Bond: Sharing Electrons
Thinking process to draw covalent bonding
(1) Are atoms metal or non-metal?

(2) What type of bonding? Ionic / covalent?
(3) What are their electronic configurations?
(4) Using LCM method, how many electrons do they need to obtain noble gas
configuration?
(5) How many atoms to draw for each element?
(6) Draw ‘dot and cross’ diagram.
Rules for covalent bonding!

No brackets, ions, charges required
The atoms are overlapped and the sharing of electrons is in the overlapped region.
Most drawings have a line of symmetry.
E.g:
1. Fluorine gas, F2
Element Electronic Short of how Need to share How many

configuration many how many atoms to
electrons? electrons? draw?
Fluorine 2.7 1 1 1
Fluorine 2.7 1 1 1
Displayed / Structural formula
Dot-and-cross diagram

2. Carbon dioxide, CO2
Element Electronic Short of how Need to share How many

configuration many how many atoms to
electrons? electrons? draw?
Carbon 2.4 4 4 1
Oxygen 2.6 2 2 X2 2
LCM of 2 & 4 = 4
4
Structural formula
Dot-and-cross diagram
Class Work 1
a) Your task: Draw the bonding present in a hydrogen molecule (H2), showing all electrons.
Draw its structural formula.
b) Your task: Draw the bonding present in an oxygen molecule (O2), showing all electrons.
c) Your task: Draw the bonding present in a nitrogen molecule (N2), showing all electrons.

d) Your task: Draw the bonding between oxygen and hydrogen, showing its valence
electrons only. State its chemical name and formula.
e) Your task: Draw the bonding between nitrogen and hydrogen, showing its valence
electrons only. State its chemical name and formula.
f) Your task: Draw the bonding between carbon and hydrogen, showing its valence electrons
only. State its chemical name and formula.

Naming of covalent compounds
Section 1: Memorising time Special chemical names for certain covalent compounds
Chemical name Formula Chemical name Formula
Water Ammonia
Hydrochloric acid Methane
Sulfuric acid Carbonic acid
Nitric acid
Section 2: Steps in naming covalent compounds
Step 1: Know your prefixes
Covalent compound names include prefixes which states the number of atoms in the
covalent compound.
No. of atoms Prefix

Class Work 2
Formula Chemical name
NO
NO2
SO2
SO3
NCl3
Si2Br6
N2O
CCl4
hexaboron silicide
phosphorus triiodide
tetraphosphorus pentasulfide
7.2 Structure and Properties of Covalent Substances
Covalent substances have one of the following structures.

1) Simple molecular structure
2) Giant molecular structure
1) Simple molecular structure
Most covalent substances have a simple molecular structure, with discrete,

neutral molecules. Strong covalent bonds exist between atoms but weak
intermolecular forces (also known as van der Waals forces) exist
between molecules.

Class Work 3
Your task: “Carbon dioxide cannot conduct electricity in the solid state.” State whether you
agree with this statement and explain your answer.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Class Work 4
Your task: Iron(III) fluoride has a higher melting point than fluorine gas. Explain, with reference
to its structure and bonding, why fluorine’s melting point is so low.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Physical Properties of Simple Molecular Structures
Physical Properties Covalent compound
Exists as Discrete, neutral molecules
Low melting and boiling point because small

amount of energy is needed to overcome
Melting & Boiling point the weak intermolecular forces between
the molecules and break down the simple
molecular structure.
Do not conduct electricity in any states

as all the electrons are used for bonding. There are only
neutral molecules present, but no free-moving
ions or electrons present to act as
Electrical conductivity charge carriers.
**Exceptions: Carbon, in the form of graphite, conducts
electricity. Hydrogen chloride, sulfur dioxide and
ammonia dissociate in water to form solutions that
conduct electricity.
Insoluble in water
Solubility in Soluble in organic solvent
water/organic solvents
(eg. oil, alcohol) **Exceptions: Chlorine, hydrogen chloride, alcohol and
sugar are covalent substances that are soluble in water.
Volatile. Many simple covalent substances are liquids or

Volatility
gases at room temperature. This occurs because the
(easily vaporized)
weak van der Waals’ forces between the molecules.

CHAPTER 17: THE ATMOSPHERE AND ENVIRONMENT
Learning Outcomes:
a) describe the volume composition of gases present in dry air as being approximately 78%
nitrogen, 21% oxygen and the remainder being noble gases (with argon as the main constituent
and carbon dioxide
b) name some common atmospheric pollutants, e.g. carbon monoxide; methane; nitrogen
oxides (NO and NO2); ozone; sulfur dioxide; unburned hydrocarbons
c) state the sources of these pollutants as:
carbon monoxide from incomplete combustion of carbon-containing substances
nitrogen oxides from lightning activity and internal combustion engines
sulfur dioxide from volcanoes and combustion of fossil fuels
d) discuss some of the effects of these pollutants on health and on the environment
the poisonous nature of carbon monoxide
the role of nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide in the formation of ‘acid rain’ and its effects
on respiration and buildings
17.1 Composition of Air
What does air consists of?
How can we separate air into its constituent gases?
Using fractional distillation of

liquefied air, the component of
air with the lowest boiling point
distils first.

Class Work 1
200 cm3 of air in syringe A was made to pass over heated copper until
the reaction was complete.
The gas in syringe B was then allowed to cool to its original

temperature. What is the volume of gas collected in syringe B? (Hint: Oxygen is used up)
A 42 cm3 B 84 cm3
C 158 cm3 D 180 cm3
17.2 Air Pollution
Air pollution is caused by a high concentration of air pollutants (chemicals that are harmful to
living things & the environment).
Unburnt
Air Oxides of
Carbon monoxide Sulfur dioxide hydrocarbons,
Pollutant nitrogen
methane and ozone
Chemical CO SO2 NO --
Formula NO2
Nature Neutral oxide Acidic oxide NO (Neutral --
oxide)
NO2 (Acidic oxide)
Source / incomplete Natural source: Natural source: Unburnt
Cause
combustion of volcanic lightning hydrocarbon:
car exhaust fumes,
fossil fuels in car eruptions activity chemical plants
engines, when
Manmade Manmade
insufficient Methane:
source: source:
plant, animal
oxygen is present burning of internal matter decay
fossil fuels combustion sheep and cow
containing in car produce
methane when
sulfur in engines at digest food
industries, power high decay of rubbish
plants
temperatures in landfills
Ozone:
formed when
nitrogen dioxide in
air reacts with
unburnt
hydrocarbons in
presence of sunlight.

Air Unburnt
Oxides of
Pollutant Carbon monoxide Sulfur dioxide hydrocarbons,
nitrogen
methane and ozone
Effect Reacts with irritate eyes, lungs and cause Unburnt
breathing difficulties hydrocarbons:
haemoglobin in
dissolve in rainwater to cause cancer
the blood, to form
carboxyhaemoglobin, form acid rain, which kills Methane:
which reduces the plant aquatic life and leads to global
ability of blood to destroys limestone warming
transport oxygen buildings
Ozone:
around the body. produce smog
that irritate eyes,
This causes headaches, lungs
fatigue, breathing breathing
difficulties, and even problems
death. damages crops
(1) Acid Rain
(i) What is acid rain?

Acid rain is formed when acidic air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide
dissolve in rainwater.
Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water to form sulfurous acid (H2SO3).
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
In the presence of oxygen in the air, this acid is slowly oxidised to sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
Oxides of nitrogen also contribute to acid rain. In the presence of oxygen and water,
nitrogen dioxide is converted to nitric acid.
4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) 4HNO3(aq)
The pH value of unpolluted rainwater is usually slightly below 7. This is because carbon
dioxide in the air dissolves in rainwater to form carbonic acid, which is a weak acid.
(ii) Effects of acid rain

Acid rain reacts with metals and with carbonates in marble and limestone.
When this happens, metal bridges and stone buildings are damaged.
Acid rain can reduce the pH value of natural water bodies to below 4, which will kill
fish and other aquatic life.
Acid rain also filters important nutrients from the soil and destroys plants.
The calcium sulfite is further oxidised to calcium sulfate by atmospheric oxygen.
CaSO3(s) + O2(g) 2CaSO4(s)

(2) The Greenhouse Effect
Greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide (N2O)) trap radiation and warm
the Earth’s surface.
Causes of Global Warming

burning of fossil fuels
large scale cutting down of forests
This means that carbon dioxide is being added to the atmosphere at a higher rate than
photosynthesis can remove the excess gas.
The effect of carbon dioxide build-up is an increase in the Earth’s average temperature.
(Global warming)
Effects of Global Warming

decrease in crop yields world-wide
melting of large quantities of ice leading to floods
the rapid evaporation of water

Class Work 2:
Your task: Create a mind-map on Chapter 17.

CHAPTER 7: WRITING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Learning Outcomes:
b) interpret chemical equations with state symbols

c) construct chemical equations, with state symbols, including ionic equations
7.1 Chemical Equations
All chemical reactions can be represented by a balanced chemical equation.
A chemical equation shows the following:

1. Which reactants and products are involved in the reaction?
2. The relative amounts of reactants and products involved.
3. The physical states of the reactants and products of the reaction.
E.g:
LHS: Reactants RHS: Products
2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2 H2O (l)
(a) Reactants are on the LHS of the equation.

Products are on the RHS of the equation.
(b) The four physical states are:

(s) solid state (l) liquid state = water
(g) gaseous state (aq) aqueous state = dissolved in water
(c) All chemical equations must be balanced by writing numbers in front of the symbol /
formula so that there is equal number of atoms of each element on the LHS
(reactants) and RHS (products).
H2 + O2 → H2O
Reactant Product
H: 2 H: 2
O: 2 O: 1
To balance:
2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O
+ →
Reactant Product
H: 2 X 2 H: 2 X 2
O: 2 O: 1 X 2

7.2 Ionic Equations
It is a simplified chemical equation that shows the reactions involving ions in aqueous
solutions.
It shows the ions that take part in a reaction and leaves out the spectator ions that do not
react.
E.g: sodium chloride + silver nitrate → silver chloride + sodium nitrate
NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) → AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
STEP 1 Change all ionic compounds (those with aqueous state) into ions.
Na+ (aq) + Cl– (aq) + Ag+ (aq) + NO3– (aq) → AgCl (s) + Na+ (aq) + NO3– (aq)
STEP 2 Cancel away the spectator (repeated) ions.

These are ions that have not taken part in the chemical reaction.
Meaning, ions that appear both on RHS and LHS.
Na+ (aq) + Cl– (aq) + Ag+ (aq) + NO3– (aq) → AgCl (s) + Na+ (aq) + NO3– (aq)
STEP 3 Rewrite the ionic equation.
Cl– (aq) + Ag+ (aq) → AgCl (s)
Spectator ions: Na+ , NO3–
The equation shows that only silver ions and chloride ions have reacted to form
silver chloride.
Na+ ions and NO3– ions have not taken part in any reaction. They are still ions in
solution at the end of the reaction.

CHAPTER 10: ACIDS AND BASES
Learning Outcomes:
a) describe the meanings of the terms acid and alkali in terms of the ions they produce in aqueous
solution and their effects on Universal Indicator
b) describe how to test hydrogen ion concentration and hence relative acidity using
Universal Indicator and the pH scale
c) describe the characteristic properties of acids as in reactions with metals, bases and carbonates
d) describe the reaction between hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions to produce water,
H + (aq) + OH– (aq) → H2 O (I) as neutralisation
e) describe the importance of controlling the pH in soils and how excess acidity can be
treated using calcium hydroxide
f) describe the characteristic properties of bases as in reactions with acids and with
ammonium salts
g) classify oxides as acidic, basic, amphoteric or neutral based on metallic/non-metallic character
10.1 Acids
Examples of acids in the household
Name of product Chemical Name of acid Chemical formula of acid
Vinegar Ethanoic acid CH3COOH
Oranges/lemons Citric acid
Fizzy drinks Carbonic acid
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid
Examples of acids in the laboratory
Chemical Name Chemical formula Ions produced in aqueous

solutions
Hydrochloric acid HCl H+ Cl-
(hydrogen chloride)
Nitric acid HNO3 H+ NO3-
(hydrogen nitrate)
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 H+ SO42-
(hydrogen sulfate)

Definition of an acid
Produced by Swedish chemist, Svante Arrhenius (1859 – 1927)
Acids dissociate to produce hydrogen ions, H+ ions, when they

are dissolved in water.
Examples:
HCl (aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

H2SO4 (aq) → 2 H+(aq) + SO42- (aq)
Class Work 1
(a) HNO3 (aq) → (aq) + ……………. (aq)
(b) CH3COOH(aq) → (aq) + ……………. (aq)
Note: Liquid state VS Aqueous state
Aqueous state (aq) refers to compounds dissolved in water.

Liquid state (l) refers to a state of matter.
Physical Properties of acids
1. have a sour taste (remember lemons?!)

2. turn moist blue litmus paper red, red litmus paper remains red.
(Identification Test for acids)
3. Corrosive
4. Dissolve in water to form aqueous solutions that conduct
electricity.

Chemical Properties of acids
There are 4 general chemical reactions for acids.
(1) Reaction with reactive metals
Acid + Reactive Metal Salt + Hydrogen Gas (H2)
1. Test for hydrogen gas: Insert

a lighted splint in a test tube
containing the gas. The lighted splint extinguishes with a
“pop” sound.
2. Formation of salt: A salt is a compound when the positive ion (cation) of an acid is
replaced by another positive ion (cation).
3. Not all metals react with acids: Unreactive metals such as Copper (Cu),
Silver (Ag) and Gold (Au) do not react with acid.
4. Highly reactive metals such as Sodium

(Na), Potassium (K) and
Calcium (Ca) are NOT added directly to acids as the reaction is
explosive and dangerous to carry out.
5. Lead does not react with hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid very well. It stops after a
while. Why?
Lead reacts with HCl to form PbCl2. Lead reacts with H2SO4 to form PbSO4. The
PbCl2 and PbSO4 salts are insoluble in water and forms a coating / barrier /
layer around the metal and prevents the metal from further reaction with the
acids.
Formation of salt
A salt is a compound obtained when the position ion, cation of an acid, H+ is replaced by
another positive ion or an ammonium ion, NH4+.

Class Work 2
Your task: Write a balanced chemical equation for the following reactions.
(a)
Magnesium + Hydrogen Chloride → Magnesium Chloride + Hydrogen
CE: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b)
Iron + Hydrogen Chloride → Iron(II) Chloride + Hydrogen
CE: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(c)
Aluminium + Hydrogen Sulfate → Aluminium Sulfate + Hydrogen
CE: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(d)
Zinc + Hydrogen Sulfate → Zinc Sulfate + Hydrogen
CE: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
When this acid is used ... the name of the salt ends with ...
hydrochloric acid chloride
nitric acid nitrate
sulfuric acid sulfate

Class Work 3
Your task: Write a word equation and a balanced chemical equation for the following
reactions.
(a) zinc + sulfuric acid,
Step 1:
General
Equation
Step 2:
Word
Equation
Step 3:
Chemical
Equation
(b) magnesium + nitric acid.

Step 1:
General
Equation
Step 2:
Word
Equation
Step 3:
Chemical
Equation
(2) Reaction with metal carbonates
Delivery tube
Note: the reaction

mixture is stoppered!!
Acid
White precipitate forms

in limewater
Metal carbonate (calcium hydroxide)

Acid + Metal Carbonate Salt + Carbon Dioxide Gas (H2O) + Water
1. Test for carbon dioxide gas: Bubble the gas through limewater
[Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2]. A white precipitate is formed in
limewater.
Example:
Magnesium + Hydrogen Chloride → Magnesium Chloride + Carbon dioxide + Water
Carbonate
MgCO3 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + CO2 + H2O
Class Work 4
reactions.
(a) sodium carbonate + sulfuric acid,
Step 1:
GE
Step 2:
WE
Step 3:
CE
(b) calcium carbonate + nitric acid,
Step 1:
GE
Step 2:
WE
Step 3:
CE
(c) Aluminium carbonate + hydrochloric acid.
Step 1:
GE
Step 2:
WE
Step 3:
CE

(3) Reaction with Bases
NEUTRALISATION: Acid + Base Salt + Water
1. Bases are known as metal OXIDES (O2-) and metal HYDROXIDES (OH-).
2. No gas is produced.
3. A salt (pH = 7) is formed as a product.
Examples:
Magnesium
Oxide Magnesium
+ Hydrogen Chloride → Chloride + Water
MgO + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2O
Magnesium + Hydrogen Chloride → Magnesium Chloride + Water

Hydroxide
Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + 2H2O
NEUTRALISATION:
a reaction is considered as neutralisation reaction when SALT and WATER are

the ONLY PRODUCTS!!!!!
Ionic equation for neutralisation: H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l)
Class Work 5
Your task: Write the chemical formulae of the following bases.
(a) Qn Name of base Chemical formula of base
(b) (a) Iron(III) hydroxide
(b) Copper(II) oxide
(c) Potassium oxide
(d) Magnesium hydroxide
(e) Aluminium hydroxide

Class Work 6
reactions.
(a) lithium oxide + sulfuric acid,

Step 1:
GE
Step 2:
WE
Step 3:
CE
(b) calcium hydroxide + nitric acid,

Step 1:
GE
Step 2:
WE
Step 3:
CE
(c) iron(III) oxide + hydrochloric acid.
Step 1:
GE
Step 2:
WE
Step 3:
CE

10.2 Bases and Alkalis
Definition of a base
Bases can be both soluble and insoluble. They are metal OXIDES AND metal
HYDROXIDES that react with an acid to produce salt and water.
Definition of an alkali
Alkalis are SOLUBLE bases that dissociate to produce

hydroxide ions, OH-, when dissolved in water.
Examples of alkalis in the laboratory
Chemical Name Chemical formula Ions produced in aqueous

solutions
Sodium hydroxide NaOH OH- Na+
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 OH- Ca2+

(Limewater)
Aqueous ammonia NH4OH OH- NH4+
NOTE: Bases VS Alkalis
Alkalis
(Soluble Base)
Base
Physical Properties of Alkalis
1. have a bitter taste and soapy feel

2. turn moist red litmus paper blue, blue litmus paper remains blue.
(Identification Test for alkalis)
3. corrosive
4. dissolve in water to form aqueous solutions that
conduct electricity.

Chemical Properties of Alkalis
There are 3 general chemical reactions for alkalis.
(1) Reaction with Acids NEUTRALISATION [REPEATED]
NEUTRALISATION: Acid + Alkali Salt + Water
1. Alkalis are soluble bases and usually exists as metal HYDROXIDES (OH-).
2. No gas is produced.
3. A salt (pH = 7) is formed as a product.
(2) Reaction with ammonium salts (*Important)
Metal Hydroxide + Ammonium Salt Salt + Ammonia Gas (NH3) + Water
1. Test for ammonia gas: Pungent gas turns moist red litmus paper
blue.
Example:
Sodium + Ammonium Chloride → Sodium Chloride + Ammonia Gas + Water

Hydroxide
NaOH + NH4Cl → NaCl + NH3 + H2O
Class Work 7
reactions.
(a) potassium hydroxide + ammonium nitrate,

Step 1:
GE
Step 2:
WE
Step 3:
CE

(b) sodium hydroxide + ammonium sulfate.
Step 1:
GE
Step 2:
WE
Step 3:
CE
(3) Reaction with a solution of metal cation
Alkali + Salt Salt + Metal Hydroxide

(containing (of (of (of
metal A) metal B) metal A) metal B)
1. Formation of salt: The resulting metal hydroxide appears as a precipitate if it

is insoluble in water.
Example:
Calcium + Iron(II) Sulfate → Calcium Sulfate + Iron(II) Hydroxide

Hydroxide
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + FeSO4 (aq) → CaSO4 (s) + Fe(OH)2 (s)
Class Work 8
reactions.
(a) potassium hydroxide + magnesium sulfate,
Step 2:
WE
Step 3:
CE
(b) sodium hydroxide + copper(II) nitrate.
Step 2:
WE
Step 3:
CE
Uses of Bases and Alkalis

**Names of NH4 OH:
Magnesium oxide, MgO
Used in antacid to relieve gastric pain and make bricks
1. ammonia solution
Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 2. aqueous ammonia
Used to reduce acidity in soil 3. ammonium hydroxide
Ammonia solution
Used to make fertilisers

10.3 The pH Scale
Scale between 0 to 14
pH < 7 Acids (The lower the pH (smaller number), the more acidic the solution is
due to higher concentration of hydrogen ions)
pH > 7 Alkalis (The higher the pH (bigger number), the more alkaline the solution
is due to higher concentration of hydroxide ions.)
What is concentration? Can concentration be changed?
Test for pH
1. pH meter & datalogger
2. Universal Indicator
( Red O range Yellow ) ( G reen ) ( Blue Indigo Violet )

follow RAINBOW colours

3. Indicators
How to reduce acidity in soil? (*Important)
Soil is slightly acidic (pH 4 – 6) which is very suitable for plant growth.
However, with acid rain, the soil will become more acidic and unsuitable for plant
growth.
To reduce the acidity of soil and make sure the soil is suitable for plant growth,
quicklime (Calcium oxide, CaO) or slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide, Ca(OH)2) is added.
This process is called “liming the soil”.
10.4 Types of oxides (Element + oxygen)

Non-Metal + oxygen
ACIDIC OXIDE
Noble gases
do NOT form
oxides.
Metal + oxygen
BASIC OXIDE
AMPHOTERIC OXIDES
(ZAP)
Zinc oxide (ZnO)
Aluminium oxide (AI2O3)
Lead(II) oxide (PbO)
Metal oxides Non-metal oxides

BASIC OXIDE ACIDIC OXIDE
Basic oxides react with acids to form salt Acidic oxides react with alkalis to form salt
& water only & water only
eg. calcium oxide CaO Eg. carbon dioxide CO2
magnesium oxide MgO sulfur dioxide SO2
** Basic oxides dissolve in water to form ** Acidic oxides dissolve in water to

alkalis form acids
AMPHOTERIC OXIDE NEUTRAL OXIDE
Amphoteric oxides react with acids AND Neutral oxides do NOT react with acids or
with alkalis to form salts alkalis
eg. zinc oxide ZnO, eg. carbon monoxide CO
aluminium oxide Al2O3 water H2O
lead(II) oxide PbO

Class Work 10
Your task: Write down the chemical formulae and the nature of these oxides.
Qn Name of oxide Chemical formula Nature of oxide
(a) Zinc oxide
(b) Nitrogen dioxide
(c) Argon oxide
(d) Carbon monoxide
(e) Magnesium oxide
(f) Dihydrogen monoxide
(g) Triphosphorus pentaoxide
(h) Potassium oxide
(i) Silver oxide
Class Work 11
Your task: Write down the tests of these gases.
Test for hydrogen gas
Test:
Observation:
Test for carbon dioxide gas
Test:
Observation:
Test for ammonia gas
Test:
Observation:

CHAPTER 8: THE MOLE
Learning Outcomes:
a) state the symbols of the elements and formulae of the compounds mentioned in the syllabus
b) deduce the formulae of simple compounds from the relative numbers of atoms present and vice
versa
c) deduce the formulae of ionic compounds from the charges on the ions present and vice versa
d) define relative atomic mass, Ar
e) define relative molecular mass, Mr, and calculate relative molecular mass (and relative formula
mass) as the sum of relative atomic masses
f) calculate stoichiometric reacting masses and volumes of gases (one mole of gas occupies 24 dm3
at room temperature and pressure)
g) apply the concept of solution concentration (in mol/dm3 or g/dm3 )
8.1 Relative Atomic Mass (Ar )
1 We can obtain the relative atomic mass (Ar) of any element by referring to the Periodic
Table.
2 There are no units for relative atomic mass. They are represented by numbers.
3 If there is existence of isotopes, it is a calculation of the AVERAGE masses of all the
isotopes. Therefore, some Ar values are not whole numbers.
a a = relative atomic mass Use the bigger

X X = atomic symbol number
b = proton (atomic) number
b
4 Definition of relative atomic mass, Ar:
Analogy: Imagine one watermelon to represent 1 carbon atom

Class Work 1:
Your task: Write down the relative atomic mass (Ar) of the following elements. Present your
answers according to the example given.
Element Relative atomic mass (Ar )

E.g: Potassium Ar of K = 39
Copper
Bromine
Carbon
Manganese
8.2 Relative Molecular Mass (Mr) and Relative Formula Mass (Fr)
Relative molecular mass (Mr) is the average mass of one molecule of

that element or compound compared to _1_ of the mass of one
atom of carbon-12. 12
Note: Relative formula mass is similar to relative molecular mass.
This is for ionic compounds This is for covalent substances

E.g:
a) The relative atomic mass of sodium is 23 and chlorine is 35.5.
So the relative molecular mass, Mr of sodium chloride, NaCl is
Na 23
Cl 35.5 +
58.5
b) The relative atomic mass of iron is 56, nitrogen is 14, oxygen is 16.
So the relative molecular mass, Mr of iron(III) nitrate, Fe(NO3)3 is
Fe 56
3N 3 x 14 ( = 42) No. of atoms in Fe(NO3)3
9O 9 x 16 ( = 144) + Fe NOOO
242 NOOO
NOOO
Class Work 2:
Your task: Write down the relative molecular mass (Mr) of the following compounds. Present
your answers according to the example given.
Ionic or Relative molecular mass (Mr )

Chemical
Compounds covalent or
formula
compound? Relative formula mass (Fr)
(a) E.g: Potassium oxide K2O Ionic Fr of K2O = 39 x 2 + 16 = 94
(b) Copper(II) sulfate
(c) Chlorine gas
(d) Sulfur dioxide
(e) Calcium nitride
(f) Ammonium hydroxide
(g) Aluminium carbonate
(h) Nitrogen gas
(i) Neon gas
8.3 The Mole and Molar Mass (for ALL SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, GASES!)
A mole of substance contains the same number of particles as the number of atoms in 12 g
of carbon-12. 12 g of carbon-12 contain approximately 6 × 1023 carbon atoms.
There are approximately 6 × 1023 particles (Avogadro’s constant or Avogadro’s number)

mole of particles = 6 × 1023 particles.
in one mole of substance. One
The particles could be atoms, molecules, ions.

Class Work 3:
Your task: Complete the following questions, showing your workings clearly.
(a) How many atoms are there in 6 mol of calcium

nitrate, Ca(NO3)2?
Step 1: Highlight the information “Given” information: No. of moles = 6 mol
given. “Question”: find the number of atoms
Step 2: What formula should you
use to answer the question?
Step 3: Present your answers

neatly. Always start from the
question and end off your
answers in 3 significant figures.

(b) How many hydrogen atoms are there in 7 mol of
water?
Step 1: Highlight the information “Given” information:
given. “Question”:

question and end off your

Unit: grams (g)
Unit: mol Unit: no unit
E.g:
(a)(i) What is the mass of 1 mole of sodium chloride?
This is the Mr of sodium chloride in grams.
ANS: 58.5 g
(ii) What is the mass of 3 moles of sodium chloride?

ANS: 3 x 58.5 = 175.5 g
(iii) What is the mass of 0.5 moles of sodium chloride?

ANS: 0.5 x 58.5 = 29.25 g
(b) What is the mass of 5 moles of iron(III) nitrate, Fe(NO3)3?

ANS: 5 x 242 = 1210 g
(c) What is the mass of 0.3 mole of ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4?

ANS: 0.3 x 132 = 39.6 g
E.g:
a) How many moles are there in 117g of sodium chloride?
Mr of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5
ANS: 117 ÷ 58.5 g = 2 mole
b) How many moles are there in 40g of iron(III) oxide?

Mr of Fe2O3 = (56 x 2) + (16 x 3) = 112 + 48 = 160
ANS: 40 ÷ 160 g = 0.25 mole

Class Work 4:
E.g: How many moles are there in 4.0 g of calcium nitrate,

Ca(NO3)2?
Step 1: Highlight the information “Given” information: Mass = 4.0 g
given. “Question”: find the number of moles
Step 3: Present your answers No. of moles of Ca(NO3)2 = 4.0 / (Fr of calcium nitrate)
neatly. Always start from the = 4.0 / 164
question and end off your = 0.0244 mol (to 3 sig fig)
(a) How many moles are there in 60 g of magnesium

hydroxide?
Step 1: Highlight the information
given. “Given” information: ……………………………………
“Question”: ………………………………………………

Step 3: Present your answers ………………………………………=

neatly. Always start from the =
question and end off your answers = (to 3 sig fig)
in 3 significant figures.

(b) What is the mass of 0.12 moles of iron(III) nitrate?

“Question”: ………………………………………………

question and end off your answers
(c) What is the mass of 5.68 moles of ammonium

carbonate?

“Question”: ………………………………………………


8.4 Molar Volume of gases (ONLY for GASES!)
One mole of any gas occupies 24 dm3 (24000 cm3) at room

temperature and pressure (r.t.p.)
Volume of gas (dm3) = number of moles x 24

dm3
Number of moles of gas =

volume of gas (dm 3 )
24dm 3
E.g:
(a)(i) What is the volume of 3 moles of oxygen gas?
ANS: 3 x 24 dm3 = 72 dm3
(ii) What is the volume of 3 moles of carbon dioxide gas?

ANS: 3 x 24 dm3 = 72 dm3
(iii) What is the volume of 14 g of nitrogen gas (N2)?

14
ANS: no. of moles of nitrogen gas = = 0.5 mol
28
Volume of gas = 0.5 x 24 dm3 = 12 dm3
(b) What is the volume of 2 moles of iron(III) nitrate, Fe(NO3)3?

ANS: cannot be calculated using molar gas formula
Iron(III) nitrate is NOT a gas.
E.g:
a) How many moles are there in 48 dm3 of fluorine gas?
48
ANS: No. of moles = = 2 mole
24
b) How many moles are there in 36000 cm3 of chlorine gas?

36000 cm3 = 36 dm3
36
ANS: no. of moles = = 1.5 mole
24
c) What is the mass of 60 dm3 of water vapour?
60
ANS: no. of moles of = = 2.5 moles
24
Mr of water vapour (H2O) = 18
Mass of water vapour = 2.5 x 18 = 45 g.

Class Work 7:
(a) What is the volume of 0.7 moles of nitrogen gas?

“Question”: ……………………………………………..

(b) What is the volume of 1.35 moles of sulfur dioxide

gas?
“Question”: ………………………………………………

(c) What are the moles of 64.5 dm3 of oxygen gas?

“Question”: ………………………………………………


(d) What is the mass of 73.8 dm3 of fluorine gas?
“Question”: ………………………………………………

8.5 The Concentration of a Solution (ONLY for SOLUTIONS!)
The concentration of a solution tells us how much solute is dissolved in 1 dm3 of solution.
The amount of solute is represented by grams or moles.
Unit for concentration: g / dm3 or mol / dm3 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
concentration no. of moles of solute

in mol/dm3 = ------------------------------------
volume of solution in dm3
concentration mass of solute in grams

in g/dm3 = -------------------------------------
volume of solution in dm3

The triangle that links both Conc (mol / dm3) and Conc (g / dm3)…..
Exercise
1a) A solution contains 1.32 g of sodium 1b) What is the concentration of this solution
chloride in 75 cm3 of solution. What is the in mol / dm3?
concentration of the solution in g/dm3?
no. of mole = mass / Mr
75 cm = 0.075 dm
3 3 = 17.6 g / 23 + 35.5 = 0.3
concentration = 1.32 g / 0.075 dm3 concentration = 0.3 mol / dm3
= 17.6 g / dm3
2a) A concentration of a bottle of hydrochloric acid is 73 g/dm3. How many moles of HCl are
there in 250 cm3 of this acid?
Mass of HCl = 73 x 0.250 dm3 = 18.25 g ÷ Mr
No. of moles of HCl = 18.25 / (1 + 35.5) g / dm3 mol / dm3
= 0.5 mol x Mr
Class Work 8:
(a) Calculate the concentration, in g/dm3, for 1.78 g of

sodium hydroxide, dissolved in 150 cm3 of water.
“Question”: ………………………………………………


(b) Calculate the concentration, in mol/dm3, for 2 moles
of copper(II) nitrate dissolved in 0.79 dm3 of water.
“Question”: ………………………………………………

(c) Calculate the volume of solution that will contain

0.00234 moles of aluminium oxide, given that the
concentration is 5.61 mol/dm3.
given. “Given” information: …………………………………
“Question”: ……………………………………………

(d) Calculate the number of moles of compound used to

form 5.7 dm3 of aqueous magnesium chloride, with
concentration of 8.99 mol/dm3.
“Question”: ……………………………………………


(e) Find the concentration, in g/dm3, of iron(III) nitrate
solution with concentration of 8.42 mol/dm3.
“Question”: ……………………………………………

(f) Find the concentration, in mol/dm3, of silver nitrate

solution with concentration of 36.9 g/dm3.
“Question”: ……………………………………………


Volume of gas
**1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
x (24 000 cm3) ÷ (24 000 cm3)

or or
x (24 dm3) ÷ (24 dm3)
MOLES
x (6 x 1023) x (Ar)
or
÷ (Ar) x (Mr)
or
÷ (6 x 1023) ÷ (Mr)
Number of Mass
particles (g)
Particles refer to
atoms / molecules / ions

CHAPTER 9: CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
Learning Outcomes:
a) calculate stoichiometric reacting masses and volumes of gases (one mole of gas occupies 24 dm3
at room temperature and pressure); calculations involving the idea of limiting reactants may be
set. (Knowledge of the gas laws and the calculations of gaseous volumes at different
temperatures and pressures are not required.)
b) apply the concept of solution concentration (in mol/dm3 or g/dm3) to process the results of
volumetric experiments and to solve simple problems. (Appropriate guidance will be provided
where unfamiliar reactions are involved.)
9.1 Calculations from Chemical Reactions
In chemical calculations a chemical equation is always given. When equation is balanced,
2 Ca (s) + O2 (g) → 2 CaO (s)
In terms of numbers
it means: 2 Ca atoms + 1 molecule of O2 → 2 molecules of CaO
Or: 2 moles of 1 mole of 2 moles of

Ca atoms + O2 molecules → CaO molecules
The numbers in front of the element/compound gives the mole ratio to help us in
calculations.
E.g: How much calcium oxide is produced when 4g of calcium is burnt in oxygen?
METHOD (3-STEP METHOD)

Step 1: Find number of moles of “given”. In this case, the mass of
Ca is given.
Find number of moles of Ca.
mass
No. of moles of Ca = 4 g / 40 = 0.1 mol of Ca
Step 2: Mole ratio. Find number of moles of the “question” (CaO).

Use the numbers in front of the compounds in the equation. Ar
moles or
Ca : CaO Mr
2 : 2 (The numbers in front!)
Since 0.1 mol : 0.1 mol (SAME, since 2:2)
No. of moles of CaO = 0.1 mol
Step 3: Answer the question.
Mass of 0.1 mol of CaO = 0.1 mol x 56 = 5.6 g
Class Work 1:
Calcium nitrate decomposes when heated strongly according to the equation,
“given” “question”
2Ca(NO3)2 2CaO + 4NO2 + O2
(a) Starting with 0.4 mol of calcium nitrate, calculate the

mass of calcium oxide produced.
Balanced chemical equation: 2Ca(NO3)2 2CaO + 4NO2 + O2
Information: “Given” information: 0.4 mol of calcium nitrate
“Question”: mass of calcium oxide
3 Step 1: Find number of moles of
“given”.
S [What formula should I use?]
T
E
P Step 2: Mole ratio. Find number of
moles of the “question”.
M
E Use the numbers in front of the
T compounds in the equation.
H
O Step 3: Answer the question.
D
(to 3 sig fig)
(b) Starting with 0.4 mol of calcium nitrate, calculate the
number of moles of oxygen gas produced.
Information: “Given” information: ……………………………………
“Question”: ……………………………………………

“given”.
S [What formula should I use?]
T
E
M
H
D
(to 3 sig fig)
9.2 The Volumes of Reacting Gases
One mole of any gas occupies 24 dm3 (24 000 cm3) at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.).
24 dm3 is called the molar volume of a gas.
From the balanced chemical equation:
…2... NO (g) + …1... O2 (g) …2… NO2 (g)
We can read this equation as follows:
…2…. mole of reacts …1.. moles of …2.. moles of

to give
nitrogen monoxide with chlorine sodium chloride
…48…. dm3 of reacts …24.. dm3 of …48.. dm3 of

to give
nitrogen monoxide with chlorine sodium chloride
Exercise
1) Ammonia gas is manufactured by reacting nitrogen and hydrogen. Calculate the volume of
nitrogen that reacts with 60 cm3 of hydrogen. The equation for the reaction is:
N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3
(a) Find the volume of ammonia gas produced.
H2 : NH3
Since 60 cm3 : 40 cm3
Volume of NH3 produced = 40 cm3
(b) Find the mass of ammonia gas produced.
No. of moles of NH3 = 40/ 24000 = 0.0016667 mol (5 s.f.)

Mass of NH3 = mol x Mr
= 0.0016667 x (14 +3(1)) = 0.283 g (3 s.f.)
Class Work 2:
Calcium nitrate decomposes when heated strongly according to the equation,
“given” “question”
2Ca(NO3)2 2CaO + 4NO2 + O2
(a) Starting with 0.4 mol of calcium nitrate, calculate the

volume of nitrogen dioxide gas produced.
Information: “Given” information: ……………………………………
“Question”: ………………………………………………
“given”.
S
T [What formula should I use?]
E
M
E
T Use the numbers in front of the
H compounds in the equation.
D
(to 3 sig fig)
(b) Starting with 0.4 mol of calcium nitrate, calculate the
volume of oxygen gas produced.
Information: “Given” information: ………………………………………
“Question”: …………………………………………………
“given”.
S
[What formula should I use?]
T
E
P Step 2: Mole ratio. Find number
of moles of the “question”.
M
H
D
(to 3 sig fig)
9.3 Limiting Reactants
Ideally, reactions should be carried out using exact quantities of reactants to reduce
wastage. However, many reactions are carried out using an excess amount of one reactant.
Why?
This ensures that the more expensive reactant is completely used up.
To do so, we make use of the idea of limiting reactants.
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl (g)

1 mole of hydrogen
reacts with 1 mole of chlorine to produce 2 moles of hydrogen chloride
All reactants are used up as they

reacted in stoichiometric proportion.
The reactant that is completely used up in a

reaction is known as the limiting reactant.
In this case, it is chlorine.
The reactants that are not used up are
called the excess reactants.
Here, hydrogen is the limiting

reactant.
Chlorine is the excess reactant.
The limiting reactant determines or limits the amount of products formed.

The amount of products formed in a reaction is always determined by the amount of the
limiting reactant.
Exercise
1) When 13.0 g of powdered zinc was heated with (a) Find the mass of ZnS produced.
8.0 g of powdered sulfur, zinc sulfate was
formed. No. of moles of Zn = 0.2 mole
Zn (s) + S (s) ZnS (s) Zn : ZnS

1 : 1
(b) Identify the limiting reagent. So 0.2 mol : 0.2 mol
No. of moles of Zn = 13/65 = 0.2 mol Mass of ZnS produced
No. of moles of S = 8/32 = 0.25 mol = 0.2 x (65 + 32)
= 0.2 x 97 = 19.4 g
Zn : S
So 0.2 mol : 0.2 mol
Since 0.25 moles of S was available for
reaction, sulfur must be in excess.
The limiting reagent is zinc.
Class Work 3:
Your task: Determine the limiting reagent in the following question, showing your workings
clearly.
Na2CO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
0.15 mol of Na2CO3 reacts with 0.2 mol of HCl.
Step 1: Find number of moles of Both are given in this question.

both substances.
No. of moles of Na2CO3 = ………………..
No. of moles of HCI = ………………….
Step 2: “Cover-up” method Using either Case 1 or Case 2,
Case 1: Using the no. of moles of
Na2CO3, pretend that you do not
have the no. of moles of HCI,
conduct mole ratio to find the no.
of moles of HCI.
OR
Case 2: Using the no. of moles of
HCI, pretend that you do not have
the no. of moles of Na2CO3,
conduct mole ratio to find the no.
of moles of Na2CO3.
Step 3: Write a concluding
statement. Limiting reagent is ……………………
Your task: Determine the limiting reagent in the following question, showing your workings
clearly.
2NH3 + 3CuO N2 + 3Cu + 3H2O
300 cm3 of NH3 reacts with 12 g of CuO.
Step 1: Find number of moles of

both substances.
[What formulae should you use?]
Step 2: “Cover-up” method Using either Case 1 or Case 2,

Case 1: Cover CuO.
OR
Case 2: Cover NH3.
Step 3: Write a concluding

statement. Limiting reagent is ……………………
9.4 Volumetric Analysis
Volumetric analysis is a technique used to determine the

volumes of solutions that react together. In volumetric analysis,
we perform titration.
bur e t t e
In titration, we determine the volume of a solution required to
conical completely react with a known volume of another solution.
f lask
By calculation, we can then determine the concentration of a
solution.
solu t ion o f unknown
concent r a t ion
Exercise
Sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to form salt and water.
Calculate the volume of 0.5 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide that exactly
reacts with 20 cm3 of 0.3 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid.
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
convert to from balanced equation:

1 mole of HCl : 1 mole of NaOH
MOLE !!!
no. of mole = volume x concentration no. of mole = volume x concentration
= 20 cm3 x 0.3 mol / 1000 cm3 0.006 mol = ?? cm3 x 0.5 mol / 1000 cm3
= 0.006 mol volume = 12 cm3
SHORT CUT METHOD

n1 c1v1
, where
n 2 c2 v 2
n: mole ratio of reactant
c: concentration of reactant
v: volume of reactant
1: first reactant
2: second reactant
Class Work 4:
20.0 cm3 of 0.15 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid solution required 14.0 cm3 of aqueous sodium
hydroxide for complete neutralisation. Calculate the concentration, in mol/dm3, of the
aqueous sodium hydroxide.
Balanced chemical equation:
Information: “Given” information:
“Question”:

“given”.
3 [What formula should I use?]
S
T
E
M
Use the numbers in front of the
E compounds in the equation.
T
H
D
(to 3 sig fig)
25.0 cm3 of 0.132 mol/dm3 aqueous sodium hydroxide reacted completely with 17.8 cm3 of
sulfuric acid solution. Calculate the concentration, in mol/dm3, of the acid.
Balanced chemical equation:
Information: “Given” information:
“Question”:

“given”.
3 [What formula should I use?]
S
T
E
M
Use the numbers in front of the
E compounds in the equation.
T
H
D
(to 3 sig fig)
CHAPTER 11: SALTS
Learning Outcomes:
a) describe the techniques used in the preparation, separation and purification of salts as examples of
some of the techniques specified in Section 1.2(a) (methods for preparation should include
precipitation and titration together with reactions of acids with metals, insoluble bases and
insoluble carbonates)
b) describe the general rules of solubility for common salts to include nitrates, chlorides
(including silver and lead), sulfates (including barium, calcium and lead), carbonates,
hydroxides, Group I cations and ammonium salts
c) suggest a method of preparing a given salt from suitable starting materials, given
appropriate information
d) (describe the use of aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia to identify the following
aqueous cations: ammonium, calcium, copper(II), iron(II), iron(III), lead(II) and zinc (formulae of
complex ions are not required)
e) describe tests to identify the following anions: carbonate (by the addition of dilute acid and
subsequent use of limewater), chloride (by reaction of an aqueous solution with nitric acid and
aqueous silver nitrate), nitrate (by reduction with aluminium and aqueous sodium hydroxide to
ammonia and subsequent use of litmus paper) and sulfate (by reaction of an aqueous solution with
nitric acid and aqueous barium nitrate)
f) describe tests to identify the following gases: ammonia (using damp red litmus paper), carbon
dioxide (using limewater), chlorine (using damp litmus paper), hydrogen (using a burning splint),
oxygen (using a glowing splint) and sulfur dioxide (using acidified potassium manganate(VII))
11.1 Salts
Definition of a salt
A salt is an ionic compound when the positive ion (cation) of an acid is replaced
by another positive ion (cation).
A salt is an ionic compound formed from the neutralisation of acids with bases.
Recall: What is an ionic compound?
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
List some reactions that salts can be made from
1. ................ + ..................... salt + hydrogen gas
2. ................ + ..................... salt + carbon dioxide gas + water
3. ................ + ..................... salt + water
Assumption English School_EXP Chemistry 5076 / 5078 Revision Notes Page 109
Solubility of salts (with reference to dissolving in water)
Some salts are soluble in water but others are not. The solubility of a salt has to be considered before
deciding on its method of preparation.
Soluble Salts (aq) Insoluble Salts (s)

Can be dissolved in water Cannot be dissolved in water
Any salts with Sodium, Potassium,
Ammonium salts
All Nitrates
(SPAN)
All chlorides are soluble except for lead (II) chloride PbCl2
and silver chloride AgCl
All sulfates are soluble except for lead (II) sulfate PbSO4
barium sulfate BaSO4
calcium sulfate CaSO4
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 All other carbonates are insoluble
Potassium carbonate K2CO3
Ammonium carbonates (NH4)2CO3
To decide on salt preparation method, we also need to know the solubility of the starting reagents e.g.
oxides and hydroxides
Soluble (aq) Insoluble (s)

Can be dissolved in water Cannot be dissolved in water
All metal oxides are insoluble
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Potassium hydroxide KOH All other metal hydroxides are insoluble
Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Class Work 11.1 Part 1:

Your task: Write down the formulae of these ionic compounds and state their state symbols.
[Recall: (s) insoluble, (aq) soluble]
No. Name of ionic compound Cation Anion Formula State symbol

E.g. Lead(II) sulfate Pb2+ SO42- PbSO4 (s)
1. Sodium chloride
2. Zinc oxide
3. Ammonium chloride
4. Calcium sulfate
5. Ammonium nitrate
6. Potassium sulfate
7. Iron(III) carbonate
8. Lead(II) nitrate
Describe in steps, on how to separate a mixture of calcium sulfate and sodium sulfate salt. You are to
obtain a pure sample of calcium sulfate and sodium sulfate. [3]
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
11.2 Preparation of Salts
To prepare salts: always ask these two questions.

1. Is the salt soluble in water?
2. Are the starting reactants soluble in water?
We can use the solubility table to find the solubility of the salts and reactants and decide on the
method to use. There are three methods for salt preparation
Method 1: Crystallisation
Method 2: Titration
Method 3: Precipitation
Crystallisation
For each salt, we need to ask a set of questions to decide on the method to be used.
E.g 1: Using Method 1 – Crystallisation,
1. Salt required Copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4

Cation: Cu2+
Anion: SO42-
2. Is the salt soluble? Yes, CuSO4 dissolves in water. (Method 3: Precipitation is OUT.)
3. What are the starting Using acid reactions,
reagents and their state I choose
symbols? Acid + Base (Metal Oxide) Salt + Water
Acid used: Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 (aq) (to give SO42- ions)
Metal oxide used: Copper(II) oxide, CuO (s) (to give Cu2+ ions)
4. Criteria for selection of It is a soluble salt, so I can only use acid reactions.
chemicals The acid must react with an insoluble substance
I cannot choose Copper metal as it does not react with acid.
Hence, only Copper Carbonate, Copper Hydroxide or
Copper Oxide can be used.
5. Method of preparation Aqueous reagent (acid) + Solid reagent (metal oxide)
METHOD 1: CRYSTALLISATION
6. Chemical equation (with (3) Metal Oxide + Acid Salt + Water
state symbols)
CuO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (I)
E.g 2: Using Method 2 – Titration,
1. Salt required Sodium chloride, NaCI

Cation: Na+
Anion: CI-
2. Is the salt soluble? Yes, Sodium Chloride is soluble, thus we cannot use precipitation.
3. What are the Using acid reactions,
starting reagents I choose
and their state Acid + Metal Carbonate Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water
symbols?
Acid used: Hydrochloric acid, HCI (aq) (to give CI- ions)
Metal carbonate used: Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 (aq) (to give Na+ ions)
4. Criteria for It is a soluble salt, so I can only use acid reactions.
selection of I cannot choose sodium metal as it is too reactive with acid and not
chemicals safe.
Either sodium carbonate, sodium oxide or sodium hydroxide can be
used.
5. Method of Aqueous reagent (acid) + Aqueous reagent (metal carbonate)

preparation
METHOD 2: TITRATION
6. Chemical equation Metal Carbonate + Acid Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water
(with state
Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HCI (aq) 2NaCI (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (I)
symbols)
E.g 3: Using Method 3 – Precipitation (INSOLUBLE SALT),
1. Salt required Lead(II) Sulfate, PbSO4

Cation: Pb2+
Anion: SO42-
2. Is the salt No, thus we MUST use Precipitation to prepare the salt.
soluble?
3. What are the For precipitation, both starting reagents must be soluble.
starting
reagents and Aqueous reagent used: Lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2 (aq) (to give Pb2+ ions)
their state
Aqueous reagent used: Sodium sulfate, Na2SO4 (aq) (to give SO42- ions)
symbols?
4. Criteria for It is an insoluble salt, so I cannot use all acid reactions.
selection of Both starting reagents must be soluble.
chemicals I chose “(Cation) Nitrate” & “Sodium (Anion)” since they are always
soluble.
5. Method of Aqueous reagent + Aqueous reagent
preparation
METHOD 3: PRECIPITATION
6. Chemical Aqueous reagent + Aqueous reagent Insoluble salt + aqueous solution
equation (with
[They “EXCHANGE” partners!]
state symbols)
Na2SO4 (aq) + Pb(NO3)2 (aq) PbSO4 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)
Class Work 11.2:
Your task: Complete the table to prepare 2 salts.
(a)
1. Salt required Magnesium sulfate, MgSO4 (…)

2. Is the salt
soluble?
3. What are the
starting
reagents and
their state
symbols?
4. Criteria for
selection of
chemicals
5. Method of
preparation
6. Chemical
equation (with
state symbols)
(b)
1. Salt required Silver chloride, AgCI (…)

2. Is the salt
soluble?
3. What are the
starting
reagents and
their state
symbols?
4. Criteria for
selection of
chemicals
5. Method of
preparation
6. Chemical
equation (with
state symbols)
Method 1: Crystallisation
To prepare a soluble salt (e.g. Zinc Sulfate) by
Reacting an Acid with an insoluble substance (Metal / Metal oxide / Metal
Carbonate)
Procedure
Step 1: Add EXCESS metal/insoluble oxide/insoluble carbonate to an acid until no more

reaction is observed. (To ensure all the acid is used up)
Step 2: FILTER to remove the excess metal/oxide/carbonate.
Step 3: Heat the filtrate (solution) until it is SATURATED.
Step 4: Allow the saturated solution to COOL so that the salt can crystallise.
Step 5: Filter to collect the crystals. Then WASH the crystals with a little cold water to remove
impurities. DRY the crystals between a few sheets of filter paper.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4 Step 5
Method 2: Titration
To prepare a soluble salt (e.g. Sodium Nitrate) by
Reacting an Acid with a soluble substance (metal hydroxide or metal carbonate)
Usually for Sodium, Potassium, Ammonium salts (SPA)
Step 1: Pipette 25.0 cm3 of sodium hydroxide into a conical flask.

Add 2 drops of indicator (methyl orange) to the solution. The
solution turns yellow.
Step 2: Fill a burette with dilute nitric acid. While swirling the flask,
add the acid from the burette slowly until the solution just
turns orange permanently. Note the volume of acid needed
to cause the colour change.
Step 3: Repeat the titration and add the same volume of dilute
nitric acid, but without using the indicator the second time.
Step 4: Heat the filtrate (solution) until it is SATURATED.
Step 5: Allow the saturated solution to COOL so that the salt can crystallise.
Step 6: Filter to collect the crystals. Then WASH the crystals with a little cold water to remove
impurities. DRY the crystals between a few sheets of filter paper.
Method 3: Precipitation
To prepare an insoluble salt (e.g. Barium Sulfate) by
Using two aqueous reagents
((Cation) Nitrate) + (Sodium (Anion))
Step 1: Mix the two aqueous reagents (barium nitrate and sodium sulfate) together and stir
until no more precipitate forms.
Step 2: Filter to collect the precipitate.
Step 3: Wash the precipitate with a little distilled water to remove impurities.
Step 4: Allow the precipitate to dry on a piece of filter paper.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
11.3 Quantitative Analysis
(1) Cation Test
Some metal hydroxide are coloured and may be soluble in excess alkali:
Ca(OH)2 white ppt Fe(OH)2 green ppt
Pb(OH)2 white ppt soluble in excess NaOH Fe(OH)3 red-brown ppt
Zn(OH)2 white ppt soluble in excess NaOH Cu(OH)2 light blue ppt soluble in excess NH3
Table of Cation reaction with Alkali (NaOH and aq NH3)
Both NaOH and aq NH3 produces OH- ions, hence reacting with the cations to form a precipitate.
In NaOH, NH3 + H2O NH4OH NH4+ + OH-

In aq NH3, NaOH Na+ + OH-
Example: When aq NaOH and aq NH3 are added to the Fe2+ solution,
In NaOH, IE: Fe2+ (aq) + 2 OH- (aq) Fe(OH)2 (s) (green ppt)
In aq NH3, IE: Fe2+ (aq) + 2 OH- (aq) Fe(OH)2 (s) (green ppt)
Test for anions
It would be important to note that certain chemicals will be used to test for certain ions.
Example: What anion is present when a white ppt is seen when
(a) acidified silver nitrate was added, chloride (silver chloride was produced)
(b) acidified barium nitrate was added, sulfate (barium sulfate was produced)
(c) gas produced is bubbled in limewater? Carbonate (calcium carbonate was produced)
Test for Gases
Gas Test and test results
hydrogen H2
‘pop’ with a lighted splint, flame
(Colourless and
extinguished
odourless)
Place a lighted splint in the
path of the gas
carbon dioxide CO2

forms a white precipitate when bubbled
(Colourless and
through limewater
odourless)
Bubble the gas through
limewater.
ammonia NH3
Place a moist red litmus
(Colourless and turns moist red litmus paper blue
paper in the path of the gas.
pungent)
oxygen O2
(Colourless and relights a glowing splint
odourless)
Place a glowing splint in the

path of the gas.
sulfur dioxide SO2

turns aqueous potassium manganate(VII)
(Colourless and
Place a filter paper with from purple to colourless
pungent)
potassium manganate(VII) in
the path of the gas.
chlorine Cl2
Place a moist blue litmus Turns moist blue litmus paper red and
(Pale green and
paper in the path of the gas. further bleaches it
pungent)
Classwork 3
Name the salts formed in each of the following reactions and the method of preparation used.
Reagents Salt (in words and Method of Preparation

symbols)
(a) Zinc and nitric acid
(b) Magnesium oxide and

hydrochloric acid
(c) Lead (II) Nitrate and sodium
sulfate
(d) Sodium hydroxide and sulfuric
acid
Q2. A gas is produced in Q1 (a). State the test for the gas and the observation.
Test: ..............................................................................................................................................
Observation: .................................................................................................................................
Q3. Describe how pure crystals of the salt in Q1 (b) can be obtained.
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
CHAPTER 12: OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
Learning Outcomes:
a) define oxidation and reduction (redox) in terms of oxygen/hydrogen gain/loss

b) define redox in terms of electron transfer and changes in oxidation state
c) describe the use of aqueous potassium iodide and acidified potassium manganate(VII) in testing for
oxidising and reducing agents from the resulting colour changes
Overview
Oxidation has taken place if Reduction has taken place if

Oxygen atom no. of O atom no. of O atom
Hydrogen atom no. of H atom no. of H atom
No. of electrons no. of e- no. of e-
*Oxidation state O.S. state O.S. state
*Oxidation state is the charge an atom of an element would have if it existed as an ion in a
compound (this is true even for covalent compound)
E.g. O.S. of O atom in MgO (ionic) = -2 O.S. of O atom in H2O (covalent) = -2
12.1 Oxidation and Reduction as Gain or Loss of Oxygen
When sulfur is burnt in oxygen, sulfur dioxide is produced.
S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)
Sulfur gains oxygen to form sulfur dioxide, therefore sulfur is oxidised.
When carbon reacts with hot carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide is produced.
C (s) + CO2 (g) 2CO (g)
Carbon gains oxygen to form carbon monoxide, therefore carbon is oxidised.

Carbon dioxide loses oxygen to form carbon monoxide, therefore carbon dioxide is reduced.
Oxidation and reduction always takes place together.

Hence we often call the combined process a “redox” reaction.
A redox reaction is a chemical reaction which involves the oxidation of a substance and the
reduction of another substance.
Class Work 12.1:
Your task: State, with reasons, whether each underlined substance has been oxidised or reduced using
the transfer of oxygen.
(a) Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) 2Fe (I) + 3CO2 (g)
FACT: [Under what conditions does oxidation / reduction take place?]

………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
LINK: [Which substance undergoes oxidation / reduction? What substance is formed?]

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
CONCLUSION: […………. Loses / gains oxygen to form……………….. Thus, reduction / oxidation has
taken place.]
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
(b) 2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s)

………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
CONCLUSION: […………. Loses / gains oxygen to form……………….. Thus, reduction / oxidation has
taken place.]
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
12.2 Oxidation and Reduction as Loss or Gain of Hydrogen
When hydrogen sulfide is mixed with chlorine gas, sulfur and hydrogen chloride are produced.
H2S (g) + Cl2 (g) S (s) + 2 HCl (g)
Hydrogen sulfide loses hydrogen to form sulfur, therefore hydrogen sulfide is oxidised.
Chlorine gas gains hydrogen to form hydrogen chloride, therefore chlorine gas is reduced.
Class Work 12.2:

the transfer of hydrogen.
(a) H2 (g) + CI2 (g) 2HCI (g)

………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
CONCLUSION: […………. Loses / gains hydrogen to form……………….. Thus, reduction / oxidation has
taken place.]
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
(b) CH4 (g) + 2CI2 (g) C (s) + 4HCI (g)

………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
CONCLUSION: […………. Loses / gains hydrogen to form……………….. Thus, reduction / oxidation has
taken place.]
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
12.3 Oxidation and Reduction as Loss or Gain of electrons
When sodium metal and chlorine gas react, sodium chloride is formed.
2 Na (s) + Cl2 (g) 2 NaCl (s)
In the process, a redox reaction has occurred.

(1) Sodium loses electron to form sodium ion.
Na Na+ + e-
(2) chlorine gains electron to form chloride ion.
Cl2 + 2e- 2 Cl-
Sodium metal loses electron to form sodium ion, therefore sodium is oxidised. (OIL)
Chlorine gas gains electron to form chloride ions, therefore chlorine gas is reduced. (RIG)
Class Work 12.3:

Your task: State, with reasons, whether each underlined substance has been oxidised or reduced, using
the transfer of electrons.
(a) Br2 (I) + 2KI (aq) I2 (s) + 2KBr (aq)

………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
CONCLUSION: […………. Loses / gains electrons to form……………….. Thus, reduction / oxidation has
taken place.]
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
(b) Ca (s) + 2HCl (g) CaCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
CONCLUSION: […………. Loses / gains electrons to form……………….. Thus, reduction / oxidation has
taken place.]
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
12.4 Oxidation and Reduction in Terms of Changes in Oxidation State
(A) How to determine oxidation state?

Rules of Calculation of Oxidation States
Rule 1: The oxidation state of an element is 0. Rule 2: The oxidation state of a simple ion is the same as
the charge of ion.
E.g. O.S. of Na atom in Na = 0
O.S. of O atom in O2 = 0 E.g. O.S. of Na atom in Na+ ion = +1
O.S. of S atom in S8 = 0 O.S. of Cl atom in Cl- ion = -1
Rule 3: Some elements have fixed oxidation state.

(I) Group I elements = +1
(II) Group II elements = +2
(III) Hydrogen (most of the time) = +1
(IV) Oxygen (most of the time) = -2
Rule 4: The oxidation states of atoms or ions in Rule 5: The sum of oxidation states of atoms in
compound add up to 0. polyatomic ion is same as charge of ion.
E.g. This means that the total O.S. of all the atoms E.g. This means that the total O.S. of all the atoms
in H2SO4 = 0, then what is the O.S. of S atom? in S2O32- = -2, then what is the O.S. of S atom?
Let the O.S. of S atom in H2SO4 be x. Let the O.S. of S atom in S2O32- be x.
We know that O.S. of H in H2SO4 is +1 (rule 3) We know that O.S. of O in S2O32- is -2 (rule 3)
O.S. of O in H2SO4 is 2- (rule 3)
So, So,
2(+1) + x + 4(-2) = 0 2x + 3(-2) = -2
x = +6 2x = +4
O.S. of S atom in H2SO4 = +6 X = +2
O.S. of S atom in S2O32- = +2
Your task: Calculate the oxidation states of all the elements.
(Note: The value of Oxidation state is always used for one atom only)
Particle Oxidation state of Particle Oxidation state of

elements elements
1 HNO3 H= 4 H2SO4 H=
N= S=
O= O=
2 NH3 N= 5 FeCl3 Fe =
H= Cl =
3 NO2 N= 6 MnO2 Mn =
O= O=
(B) Using Oxidation State to determine is a reaction is a redox reaction
Question
Consider the reaction between chlorine and sodium bromide.
Cl2 (g) + 2 NaBr (aq) 2 NaCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)

(0) (+1)(-1) (+1)(-1) (0)
Standard statement structure for answering
Br atom gains oxidation state from -1 in NaBr to 0 in Br2, therefore NaBr is oxidised.
Cl atom loses oxidation state from -1 in Cl2 to 0 in NaCl, therefore Cl2 is reduced.
Since, NaBr is oxidised and Cl2 is reduced, a redox reaction has occurred.
their oxidation states.
(a) Br2 (I) + 2KI (aq) I2 (s) + 2KBr (aq)

………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
CONCLUSION: […………. Increases / decreases in oxidation states to form……………….. Thus, reduction
/ oxidation has taken place.]
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
(b) Ca (s) + 2HCl (g) CaCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
CONCLUSION: [………….Increases / decreases in oxidation states to form……………….. Thus, reduction /
oxidation has taken place.]
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......
12.5 Oxidising and Reducing Agents
An oxidising agent oxidises another substance and undergoes reduction itself.

An reducing agent reduces another substance and undergoes oxidation itself.
Looking at the same reaction above,
Cl2 (g) + 2 NaBr (aq) 2 NaCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)
NaBr is oxidised, hence it is a reducing agent, and oxidises Cl2.

Cl2 is reduced, hence it is a oxidising agent, and oxidises NaBr.
Note that an oxidising agent will always react with a reducing agent,
therefore an oxidising agent can be used to test of a reducing agent, vice versa.

Your task: Answer the following question.
(a) Chromium metal can be obtained from its oxide by the following reaction.
Cr2O3 + 2Al Al2O3 + 2Cr
Which substance is being oxidised? Give one reason.

………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
CONCLUSION: […………. (method) to form……………….. Thus, reduction / oxidation has taken
place.]
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) What is the oxidising and reducing agent of this reaction?
Oxidising agent: ………………………... Reducing agent: ………………………..
List of common oxidising agents (O.A.) and reducing agents (R.A.)
Testing for an oxidising agent

Aqueous potassium iodide, a reducing agent, can be used to test for the oxidising agent.
Testing for an reducing agent

Aqueous potassium manganate, an oxidising agent, can be used to test for reducing agent.
Your task: Answer the following question.
Aqueous iron(II) ions react with acidified potassium manganate(VII) according to the equation below.
5Fe2+ (aq) + 8H+ (aq) + MnO4- (aq) 5Fe3+ (aq) + 4H2O (l) + Mn2+ (aq)
(a) What is the reducing agent in this reaction?

Explain your answer.
…………………………………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………
(b) Briefly describe how aqueous potassium iodide, KI, can be used to test for an oxidising agent.
…………………………………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………
CHAPTER 13: METALS
Learning Outcomes:
(a) describe the general physical properties of metals as solids having high melting and boiling points,
being malleable and good conductors of heat and electricity
(b) describe alloys as a mixture of a metal with another element, e.g. brass; stainless steel
(c) identify representations of metals and alloys from diagrams of structures
(d) place in order of reactivity calcium, copper, (hydrogen), iron, lead, magnesium, potassium, silver,
sodium and zinc, by reference to the reactions, if any, of the metals with water, steam and dilute
hydrochloric acid
(e) deduce the order of reactivity from a given set of experimental results
(f) describe the ease of obtaining metals from their ores by relating the elements to their positions in
the reactivity series
(g) describe metal ores as a finite resource and hence the need to recycle metals, e.g. the recycling of
iron
(h) discuss the social, economic and environmental issues of recycling metals
(i) describe and explain the essential reactions in the extraction of iron using haematite, limestone and
coke in the blast furnace
(j) describe the essential conditions for the corrosion (rusting) of iron as the presence of oxygen and
water; prevention of rusting can be achieved by placing a barrier around the metal, e.g. painting;
greasing; plastic coating
13.1 Metals and Alloys
All metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
Generally, metals have high densities, melting points and boiling points (except for Group
1 metals)
An alloy is a mixture of a metal with other elements, usually metals.

A metal is used as an alloy
to make the metal stronger and harder
to improve the appearance of metals
to make metals more resistant to corrosion
Pure Metals Alloys
Structure:
Metals are malleable (easy to bend) Alloys are strong and hard.
and ductile (easy to stretch).
Why?
Why? The atoms are from different
The atoms of pure metals are of metals and of different sizes.
Property:
the same sizes and are arranged in Thus, it disrupts the orderly
neat layers. arrangement.
When a force is applied, the layers When a force is applied, the
of atoms can slide over each other layers of atoms cannot slide over
easily. each other easily.
Pure gold Types of alloys Uses of alloys
Pure silver Brass Musical
(Copper & Zinc) instruments
Examples: Bronze Coins &
(Copper & Tin) Sculptures
Steel Railways & cars
(Iron & Carbon
Class Work 13.1:

Alloys are usually preferred over pure metals in the making of things in our daily lives. Suggest a reason
for it. [4]
FACT: [Discuss the arrangement of atoms in alloys and pure metals.]

Alloys: ........................................................................................................................................................
Pure Metals:................................................................................................................................................
LINK: [What does the arrangement of atoms have to do with the making of things?]
....................................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................
CONCLUSION: [Make the link back to the question asked. Repeat part of the question as a
concluding statement.]
....................................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................
13.2 The Reactivity Series
Metals have different reactivities. They are arranged from the most reactive to the least
reactive.
To help you Metal Reaction with Reaction with Reaction with Method of
remember acid cold water steam extraction
(under Acids &
Bases)
Please Potassium, K Metal + Cold Too dangerous
Stop Sodium, Na Water to react with
Calling Calcium, Ca Metal steam.
Electrolysis
Me Magnesium, Hydroxide +
Mg Metal + Acid Hydrogen gas
A Aluminium, AI Salt +
Crappy (Carbon), C Hydrogen Used for
gas extraction
Metal + steam
Zebra, Zinc, Zn
Metal
I Iron, Fe No reaction
Oxide + Extraction of
Like Lead, Pb with cold
Hydrogen Gas metals using
Horse, (Hydrogen), H water
carbon (coke)
Cow, Copper, Cu
Sheep & Silver, Ag No reaction
Goat Gold, Au with acid Found
uncombined
Examples of reactions involving cold water + metals
Metal + Cold Water

Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
For Potassium, K,
WE: Potassium + Cold Water Potassium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
CE: 2K + 2H2O 2KOH + H2
Observations: Reacts very violently. Hydrogen gas produced catches fire to produce a lilac flame.
For Sodium, Na,
WE: Sodium + Cold Water Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
CE: 2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2
Observations: Reacts violently. Hydrogen gas produced catches fire to produce a yellow flame.
Your task: Write down the word and chemical equations of the following reactions.
(a)
Points to note Answer
Question Magnesium + nitric acid
STEP 1 Write down the general
equation of the reaction
that has taken place.
STEP 2 Write down the word
equation.
STEP 3 Convert the word
equation to chemical
equation.
Check that it is balanced.

Write down the
observations that will be
expected from this
reaction.
(b)
Question Potassium + cold water
equation.
equation.

Write down the
expected from this
reaction.
(c)
Question Zinc + steam
equation.
equation.
(d)
Question Copper + Hydrochloric acid
equation.
equation.
(a) Lithium is below sodium but above calcium in the reactivity series. Predict the reaction between
lithium and cold water.
Order of reactivity: ....…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
(b) Four metals are reacted separately with salt solutions of four metals. The results are shown in the
table below. “Y” indicates that the metal has reacted with the salt solution. “N” indicates that no reaction
has occurred.
Metal Aqueous salt solution of metal

solution of X solution of W solution of Y solution of Z
W Y Y Y
X N N N
Y Y N N
Z Y N Y
Place the metals in order of the most reactive to the least reactive. Explain your answer with reasons.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
(c) Nickel has no reaction with steam. However, when nickel is placed into dilute hydrochloric
acid, bubbles of hydrogen gas is formed. Deduce the position of nickel in the reactivity
series. Explain your answer.
Fact: ..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
Link: ..............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Conclusion: ...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
13.3 Extracting Metals
To help you Metal Method of extraction

remember
Please Potassium, K
Stop Sodium, Na
Calling Calcium, Ca Electrolysis
Me Magnesium, (using electricity)
Mg
A Aluminium, AI
Crappy (Carbon), C Used for extraction
Zebra, Zinc, Zn
I Iron, Fe
Like Lead, Pb Extraction of metals using carbon
Horse, (Hydrogen), H (coke) in a blast furnace
Cow, Copper, Cu
Sheep & Silver, Ag
Goat Gold, Au Found uncombined
Your task: State the method of extraction for the various metal ores to obtain pure metals.
No. To extract from Metal ore…. To obtain…. Method of extraction

1. Haematite, Iron(III) oxide Iron
2. Bauxite, Aluminium oxide Aluminium
3. Sodium chloride Sodium
4. Magnesium Carbonate Magnesium
5. Silver oxide Silver
6. Gold mixture Gold
Extracting pure metals from their metal ores using blast furnace
Iron is extracted from its ore, haematite (also known as iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3) by heating with
carbon. Haematite, coke (mainly carbon) and limestone (calcium carbonate, CaCO3) are loaded at the
top of the blast furnace while hot air is introduced at the bottom of the furnace.
Reactants (LICA) Products (MSG)

Limestone / Calcium Carbonate / CaCO3 Molten Iron / Fe
Iron (III) oxide / Haematite / Iron ore / Fe2O3 Slag (Molten)
Carbon / Coke / C Gases (Waste) [N2 / CO2]
Air (Hot) / Oxygen / O2
Stage Rationale Chemical equation
1 To produce carbon dioxide gas C (Coke) + O2 (Hot air) CO2
2 To produce carbon monoxide CO2 (from Stage 1) + C (more Coke) 2CO
gas, which is the reducing agent
3 To reduce haematite to produce Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2
pure iron, Fe
4 To remove acidic impurities, CaCO3 (Limestone) CaO + CO2
silicon dioxide, SiO2 and produce CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3
molten slag, CaSiO3
Common questions:
Question Answer
What is the function of limestone? To remove acidic impurities, silicon dioxide.
What are the waste gases formed? Nitrogen and carbon dioxide gas.
Nitrogen is 78% of air and it is not involved in
the reduction.
Carbon dioxide gas is the by-product of the
equations.
Why is molten iron formed lower than molten Molten iron is denser than molten slag, thus, it is
slag in the blast furnace? produced at the bottom of the blast furnace.
(a) Name the following that are present in the blast furnace during the extraction of iron from the
haematite.
(i) four ionic compounds: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………...
(ii) two reducing agents: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
(b) The positions of barium and tin in the reactivity series are shown below.
barium
calcium
increasing reactivity
iron
tin
copper
Suggest a method that would be most suitable for extracting the following from their respective ores.
(i) barium: ..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
(ii) tin: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
13.4 Rusting
All metals CORRODE, only iron RUSTS.

Conditions for rusting: both OXYGEN and WATER must be present for CORROSION /
RUSTING to take place.
Iron will rust to form iron (III) oxide.
Methods of rust prevention
Painting / Plastic or Oil Coating (Greasing) – The coating provides a protective layer to prevent the
iron from coming into contact with water or oxygen.
Method Advantage or disadvantage

Painting / Plastic Coating DISADVANTAGE: If the paint / plastic cover is
(Barrier method) scratched, rusting will still take place under the
painted surface.
Sacrificial protection, Galvanising with zinc ADVANTAGE: When two metals are together, the
more reactive metal will CORRODE and
SACRIFICE in place of the less reactive metal.
E.g: Magnesium + Iron, magnesium will corrode

and reacts with oxygen and water instead of
iron.

Your task: State if any rusting appeared after some time. Explain your answer.
Nail Observation Explanation
The diagrams below show a simple experiment on rusting.
What information can be obtained from the experiment?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
13.5 Recycling Metals
Why need to recycle?

1. Metals are finite (limited) resources. With the increasing demand for metails, our natural
resources will not last much longer. Recycling helps to conserve natural resources.
Advantages of recycling
1. Recycling helps to conserve natural resources.
2. Recycling helps to reduce environmental problems related to extracting metals from
their ores. (About 90% of a metal ore ends up as waste after extraction and enters landfills)
3. Recycling can help to save cost of building landfill sites.
Disadvantages of recycling
1. Recycling can be more costly than extracting metals directly from their ores. The cost to
collect, transport, sort, separate and clean the metals can be very high and make recycling
not worthwhile.
CHAPTER 14: THE PERIODIC TABLE
Learning Outcomes:
(a) describe the Periodic Table as an arrangement of the elements in the order of increasing proton
(atomic) number
(b) describe how the position of an element in the Periodic Table is related to proton number and
electronic structure
(c) explain the similarities between the elements in the same group of the Periodic Table in terms of
their electronic structure
(d) describe the change from metallic to non-metallic character from left to right across a period of the
Periodic Table
(e) describe the relationship between group number, number of valency electrons and metallic /non-
metallic character
(f) predict the properties of elements in Group I and Group VII using the Periodic Table
(g) describe lithium, sodium and potassium in Group I (the alkali metals) as a collection of relatively soft,
low-density metals showing a trend in melting point and in their reaction with water
(h) describe chlorine, bromine and iodine in Group VII (the halogens) as a collection of diatomic non-
metals showing a trend in colour, state and their displacement reactions with solutions of other halide
ions
(i) describe the lack of reactivity of the elements in Group 0 (the noble gases) in terms of their electronic
structures
14.1 Features of the Periodic Table

The periodic table is a list of elements arranged in order of increasing proton (atomic)
numbers.
A period is a row that runs horizontally from left to right, and numbered from 1 to 7.
E.g.: Hydrogen and Helium are in Period 1. Chlorine is in period 3.
A group is a column that runs vertically from top to bottom, and numbered from I to VII, and
0. E.g. Group I consists of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium and francium.
Class Work 14.1:
Your task: State the names and chemical symbols of the elements in the following table, referring to the
Periodic Table.
Period Group Name of element Chemical symbol of element

6 IV
5 III
3 I
4 VII
2 V
1 II
14.2 Periodic Trends
As we move from the left to right in the periodic table, there is a decrease in metallic
properties and increase in non-metallic properties.
* (not in syllabus) Metalloids are elements that have the properties of both a metal and a non-metal.*
Outermost / Valence electrons
The shell which is the farthest from the nucleus is called the outer shell or the valence shell.
The electrons in this shell are known as the outer electrons or the valence electrons.
Important trends to note!
Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons.
The group number determines the number of valence electrons.
Elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells.
The period number determines the number of electron shells.

Your task: Complete the information for the following elements.
Name of element Electronic Number of valence Number of

configuration electrons electron shells
Fluorine
Argon
Magnesium
Aluminium
Sodium
Carbon
Helium
Nitrogen

Using only the elements shown in the simplified Periodic Table below, answer the following questions.
Give the symbol(s) of

(i) two elements in the same group: ……………………………………….
(ii) two elements in the same period: ……………………………………….
(iii) two elements that combine together to form an acid: ……………………………………….
(iv) the element whose atoms contain the greatest number of electrons: ……………………………
14.3 Group I elements – Alkali Metals
Physical Properties:
As we go down the group:
Melting point / boiling point

decrease
Densities increase
Chemical Properties:
Reactivity increases
Physical Properties Chemical Properties

Alkali Metals are: All Alkali Metals have 1 valence electron and they form (1+)
Soft and can be cut easily ions.
Low melting and Alkali Metals react with….
boiling points 1. Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen Gas
Low densities 2. Metal + Cold Water Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen
Gas
3. Metal reacts with non-metals to form ionic
compounds.
4. Alkali metals are powerful reducing agents. They give
away their valence electron readily to form ion.

[Recall: Chapter 12 – Metals]
(a)
Question Potassium + cold water
equation.
equation.

Write down the
expected from this
reaction.
(b)
The table gives the physical properties of some group I elements. Predict the physical properties for
potassium and caesium.
Element Melting point/°C Boiling point/°C Density/(g/dm3)

Lithium 180 1330 0.53
Sodium 98 890 0.97
Potassium
Rubidium 38 688 1.53
Caesium
Madonium (symbol Ma) is a newly discovered element, It is a solid at room temperature but is easily cut
by a knife. It reacts very vigorously with cold water and oxygen. The scheme below shows some
reactions of madonium.
(a) Is madonium a metal or non-metal? Give your reason.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……...
(b) How would you store madonium? Give your reason.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……...
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……...
(c) (i) Name the white solid. ………………………………………………………………………
(ii) Name the alkaline solution. ……………………………………………………………
(iii) Why does madonium exhibit only one valency in its compounds?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……...
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……...
14.4 Group VII elements – Halogens
Group VII elements are known as halogens. They are non-metals and have 7 valence
electrons.
Group VII elements are diatomic – each molecule of halogen is made of 2 atoms
e.g. F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
Physical Properties:
Melting point / boiling

point increase
Densities increase
Colours get darker
Chemical Properties:
Reactivity decreases
Element Colour State Melting Point/°C Boiling Point/°C

Fluorine, F2 Pale yellow Gas −219 −188
Chlorine, CI2 Yellowish – green Gas −101 −34
Bromine, Br2 Reddish – brown Liquid −7 59
Iodine, I2 Purplish-Black Solid 114 184
Astatine, At2

(a) Complete the table above, the physical properties of astatine.
(b) Suggest the chemical formula of the compound formed between magnesium and
astatine: ............
Chemical properties
All halogens have 7 valence electrons and they form (1-) ions.
Halogens undergo displacement reactions. The more reactive halogen will displace the less
reactive halide ion from its solution. (“Snatching the partner away”)
For example, when chlorine gas is added to aqueous sodium bromide, a reddish-brown solution is
obtained. Chlorine, being more reactive than bromine, displaces bromine from the bromide
solution.

(a) Write down the word and chemical equations of the following reactions.
Question Potassium iodide + chlorine gas
STEP 1 Write down the general NIL
equation of the reaction Type of reaction: Displacement has taken place – The more
that has taken place. reactive halogen will displace the less reactive halide ion
from its solution. (“Snatching the partner away”)
equation.
equation.

Write down the
expected from this
reaction.
(b) The table summarises the displacement reactions for halogens. Complete the table for bromine.
Chlorine is bubbled through aqueous potassium bromide, KBr, as shown in the diagram
(a) Describe the colour change that you would expect to see during the experiment
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……
(b) Explain what has happened during the reaction in (a)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……
(c) Write a balanced chemical equation and ionic equation for the reaction in (a)
CE: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
IE: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
(d) Is the reaction in (a) redox reaction? Use oxidation states to show your answer.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……
14.5 Group 0 elements – Noble Gases
Properties of noble gases:
Non-metals
Monatomic: they don’t share or transfer electrons. They exist as 1 atom.
Colourless gases at room temperatures
Low melting and boiling points
Unreactive
Why are noble gases unreactive?
Classwork 6: Fill up the electronic configuration of the noble gases.
Element Electronic Configuration

Helium
Neon
Argon
They have full valence shells of electrons and they do not need to share, lose or gain electrons. Thus,
they are unreactive.
Group 0 elements are known as noble or inert gases.
They are chemically unreactive. They do not form compounds and do not gain, lose or share electrons.
Why are noble gases unreactive?
Class Work 7:
Your task: Argon and Neon do not form ionic compounds with magnesium metal, although they are
non-metals. Explain why. [2]
Fact: ..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
Link: ..............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Conclusion: ...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
CHAPTER 15: ENERGY CHANGES
Learning Outcomes:
a) describe the term exothermic as a process or chemical reaction which transfers energy, often in the
form of heat, to the surroundings and may be detected by an increase in temperature, e.g. the
reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
b) describe the term endothermic as a process or chemical reaction which takes in energy, often in the
form of heat, from the surroundings and may be detected by a decrease in temperature, e.g. the
dissolving of ammonium nitrate in water
15.1 Energy Changes
The enthalpy change of a reaction is the amount of energy involved in the reaction and is
represented by the symbol ∆H.
∆H = total energy of products - total energy of reactants
Exothermic Reactions are reactions that give out heat energy to the surroundings.
When an exothermic reaction occurs,

a) heat is liberated and is transferred from the chemicals to the surroundings
b) the temperature of the reaction mixture rises (the container feels warm)
∆H = < 0 (negative)
Activation energy: Amount

of energy required to start
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
a reaction
Physical processes Chemical reaction

condensation • reaction between acid and alkali
freezing (neutralisation),
dissolving of anhydrous salts • combustion of fuels
dissolving of acids • corrosion of metals (rusting of iron)
• respiration
Endothermic Reactions are reactions that absorb heat from the surroundings.
When an endothermic reaction occurs,

a) heat is absorbed and is transferred from the surroundings to the reactants
b) the temperature of the reaction mixture falls (it feels cold)
∆H = > 0 (positive)
Activation energy: Amount
of energy required to start
a reaction
Physical processes Chemical reaction

evaporation • thermal decomposition
melting • action of light on silver bromide in
dissolving of some ionic photographic film
compounds (ammonium chloride, • photosynthesis
ammonium nitrate)

Your task: On all 6 arrows, use “exothermic” and “endothermic” to describe the physical processes.

Your task: The diagram shows the temperature of a beaker of solution before and after an experiment.
Suggest and explain if this experiment is endothermic or exothermic.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
CHAPTER 16: SPEED OF REACTION
Learning Outcomes:
a) describe the effect of concentration, pressure, particle size and temperature on the speeds of
reactions and explain these effects in terms of collisions between reacting particles
b) interpret data obtained from experiments concerned with speed of reaction
16.1 Different Speeds of Reactions
Different chemical reactions take place at different speed.
Very fast
• Explosion of petrol−air mixture
• Precipitation of silver chloride from aqueous sodium chloride and silver nitrate
Moderately fast
• Reaction of calcium with water
Slow
• Rusting of iron in air
• Fermentation
16.2 Measuring the Speed of Reaction in the Laboratory
The speed of reaction can be obtained by measuring quantities of reactants or products at regular
time intervals.
There are 3 methods to determine speed of a chemical reaction:
No. Method Advantages Disadvantages

1. Determine the time taken for the It is very simple. The It is difficult to
reaction to complete. set-up only requires determine the
stopwatch. exact end-point of
Time taken = Final – initial the reaction
completing.
There is human
reaction time in the
usage of the stop-
watch.
It only collects 1 set
of data (time) and it
is not very
accurate.
2. Measuring the volume of gas It is more accurate as There is human
produced over a fixed period of there are 2 sets of data reaction time in the
time. (mass / volume & time) usage of the stop-
collected. From the watch.
Speed of reaction data collected, it can This method can
= Volume of gas produced / Time determine the trends only be used if the
of the reaction that has reaction has a gas
taken place. product.
3. Measuring the mass of reactant There is human
over a fixed period of time. reaction time in the
usage of the stop-
Speed of reaction watch.
= Mass of reactant lost / Time
Method 2: Volume of Gas (product) produced In a Period of Time
For a reaction that has gaseous products, speed of reaction can be obtained by measuring the
speed at which gas is produced. (volume at regular intervals)
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) →CaCl (aq) + CO (g) + H O(l)
2 2 2
Hydrochloric acid
stirrer
Calcium carbonate
boiling chips
conical flask gas syringe
volume of
3
gas (cm ) gradient of graph shows the
rate / speed of reaction
no gradient
smaller gradient
larger gradient
time (min)
the larger the gradient at any particular time, the faster the reaction at that time
amount of product increases with time
speed at which product is produced decreases with time
Class Work 16.1 / 2:
Your task: Describe and explain the speed of reaction for the reaction from 0th min to 2th min.
0 – ½ min: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
½ - 1 min: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1 min – 2 min: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Method 3: Mass of a Reactant Remaining In a Period of Time
For a reaction, speed of reaction can also be obtained by measuring the speed at which the
reactants are used up. (mass of reaction mixture at regular intervals)
excess
sulfuric acid
cotton wool
granules of flask
zinc metal
electronic balance
gradient is largest at the start;

rate of reaction is greatest
reaction
stops
gradient is largest at the start; rate of reaction is greatest

rate decreases with time
gradient is 0 after some time; reaction stops
16.3 Factors affecting Speed of Reaction
Four Factors affecting rate of reaction
(1) Temperature
particles need a minimum energy (activation energy) to react when they collide
when temperature is raised, more particles have the minimum activation energy to
react when collide; more reactions; reaction speed increases
reaction speed of chemical reactions increases at higher temperatures
In general, the speed of reaction doubles for every 10oC rise in temperature.
particles bounce apart at low

temperature without a reaction
higher speed collisions at higher

temperature more often produce
a reaction
How can we investigate the effect of temperature on the speed of reaction?
1. Dilute hydrochloric acid is quickly poured into the sodium thiosulfate solution.
2. The stopwatch is started immediately.
3. The mixture is swirled once.
4. The stopwatch is stopped when the cross disappears.
5. The time taken is recorded.
6. The experiment is repeated with sodium thiosulfate heated to increasingly higher
temperatures.
1. In an experiment (I), a volume of 0.5 mol/dm3 of dilute nitric acid was added to an excess of
marble chips in a flask. The experiment is conducted at room temperature. The graph of
volume of gas produced against time is shown below.
(a) The experiment was repeated but with only one variable changed for each repeated
set.
Experiment Variable changed

II Temperature at 15°C
Sketch on the same axes, the graph you would expect for each of these three
experiments. Label each graph clearly.
(b) Explain, using the collision of particles, why the reaction for experiment II is faster
than experiment I.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
(2) Concentration
reactions take place when particles collide; at higher concentration there are more
particles per unit volume, therefore more frequent collisions; reaction speed increases
rate of reaction proceeds faster for larger concentration
An increase in There are more Leads to an increase The faster the

concentration of reacting particles in frequency of reaction
reactants, per unit volume effective collisions

2. In an experiment (I), a volume of 0.5 mol/dm3 of dilute nitric acid was added to an
excess of marble chips in a flask. The experiment is conducted at room temperature. The
graph of volume of gas produced against time is shown below.
(a) The experiment was repeated but with only one variable changed for each
repeated set.

II Acid of concentration 1.0 mol/dm3 used
than experiment I.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
(3) Particle size
most chemical reactions of solids with liquids or gases speed up when solids are broken
into smaller pieces
rate of reaction can be increased by increasing the surface area of particles (smaller
pieces of solid)
this is because there is more surface for the liquid to react
solid
solids
particles of particles of
liquid liquid
An increase in There are more

particle size, the surface area for the Leads to an increase The faster the
reactants used are particles to react in frequency of reaction
in powder form, with effective collisions
3. In an experiment (I), a volume of 0.5 mol/dm3 of dilute nitric acid was added to an
excess of marble chips in a flask. The experiment is conducted at room temperature. The
graph of volume of gas produced against time is shown below.
(a) The experiment was repeated but with only one variable changed for each
repeated set.

II Powdered marble chips
than experiment I.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(4) Pressure (for reactants which contain
a gas)
reactions take place when molecules

collide; at higher pressure, molecules
are closer together, therefore more
frequent collisions; reaction speed
increases
gas reactions speed up at higher
pressures
CHAPTER 18: AN INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Learning Outcomes:
a) name natural gas, mainly methane, and petroleum as sources of energy

b) describe petroleum as a mixture of hydrocarbons and its separation into useful fractions
by fractional distillation (see also 1.2(a))
c) name the following fractions and state their uses:
• petrol (gasoline) as a fuel in cars
• naphtha as the feedstock for the petrochemical industry
• paraffin (kerosene) as a fuel for heating and cooking and for aircraft engines
• diesel as a fuel for diesel engines
• lubricating oils as lubricants and as a source of polishes and waxes
• bitumen for making road surfaces
18.1 Organic Compounds
• Organic compounds are compounds that contain the element “Carbon”.

• Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain only the elements “Carbon” and
“Hydrogen”.
• There are many different types of organic compounds. Organic compounds are organised in
homologous series
Homologous series Analogy - “Family”

A family of organic compounds with the same
Definition functional group and similar chemical
properties.
1) Members have the same functional group. Functional group ->
“surname”
2) Members have similar chemical properties.
General
(undergo similar chemical reactions)
characteristics
3) There is a gradual change in their physical Family members with
properties as we go down the series from similar trends, e.g: ear
one member to another. lobes, tall….
Class Work 18.1:
Identify which of the following molecules are hydrocarbons.
Molecule Hydrocarbon? (✓ or )
Methane, CH4
Glucose, C6H12O6
Pentene, C5H10
Ethanoic acid, C2H4O2
18.2 Petroleum (Mainly alkanes) and Natural Gas (Mainly Methane, CH 4)
Petroleum can be separated into useful fractions by fractional distillation.
In the furnace at the bottom of the fractionating column, petroleum is heated into a vapour.
The vapour is pumped into a huge fractionating column.
Hot vapour rises up the column and begins to cool down.
The smaller hydrocarbons have lower boiling points and are collected at the top of the fractionating
column as gases.
The bigger hydrocarbons have higher boiling point and are collected at the lower sections of the
fractionating column.
Lowest boiling point

➔ distilled first
Highest boiling point

➔ distilled last
Fraction Boiling Point Number of carbon Uses Trend

range / °C atoms per
molecule
Petroleum gas Below 40 1–4 Fuel for cooking and As we go down
heating the group,
Petrol 40 – 75 5 – 10 Fuel for motorcars
Naphtha 90 – 150 7 – 14 Feedstock (raw 1) Boiling
material) for the points
petrolchemical increase
industries (plastics, 2) More
detergents) viscous (do
Kerosene 150 – 240 9 – 16 Fuel for aircraft not flow
(Paraffin) engines, cooking easily)
using oil stoves 3) Less
Diesel Oil 220 – 250 15 – 25 Fuel for buses, lorries flammable
and trains (less likely
Lubricating Oil 300 – 350 20 – 35 Lubricating machines, to burn)
for making waxes and
polishes
Bitumen Above 350 More than 70 For paving road
surfaces
Hydrocarbons in petroleum can be separated using the tower shown below.
Name the fractions.
A ……………………………………………
B ……………………………………………
C ……………………………………………
D ……………………………………………
E ……………………………………………
F ……………………………………………
G ……………………………………………
Which fraction:
(i) is suitable to be used as diesel; ………………………………………….
(ii) burns with the most smoky flame; ………………………………………….
(iii) is most suitable for cracking; ………………………………………….
(iv) contains the most volatile hydrocarbons; ………………………………………….
(v) is suitable as to be used as jet fuel? ………………………………………….

Your task: Explain how the components of crude oil are separated into useful fractions.
FACT: [Is crude oil an element, mixture or a compound? How does it affect the separation?]
..................................................................................................................................................................
LINK: [What is the physical property that separates the mixture?]

..................................................................................................................................................................
CONCLUSION: [Describe the separation in detail, using the physical property stated under
the link.]
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
CHAPTER 19: ALKANES AND ALKENES
Learning Outcomes:
For Alkanes,
a) describe an homologous series as a group of compounds with a general formula, similar
chemical properties and showing a gradation in physical properties as a result of increase in the
size and mass of the molecules, e.g. melting and boiling points; viscosity; flammability
b) describe the alkanes as an homologous series of saturated hydrocarbons with the general
formula CnH2n+2
c) draw the structures of unbranched alkanes, C1 to C3 and name the unbranched alkanes,
methane to propane
d) describe the properties of alkanes (exemplified by methane) as being generally unreactive
except in terms of combustion and substitution by chlorine
For Alkenes,
a) describe the alkenes as an homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbons with the
general formula CnH2n
b) draw the structures of unbranched alkenes, C2 to C3 and name the unbranched alkenes, ethene
to propene
c) describe the manufacture of alkenes and hydrogen by cracking hydrocarbons and recognise that
cracking is essential to match the demand for fractions containing smaller molecules from
the refinery process
d) describe the difference between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons from their
molecular structures and by using aqueous bromine
e) describe the properties of alkenes (exemplified by ethene) in terms of combustion and
the addition reactions with bromine and hydrogen
f) state the meaning of polyunsaturated when applied to food products
g) describe the manufacture of margarine by the addition of hydrogen to unsaturated vegetable
oils to form a solid product
h) describe the formation of poly(ethene) as an example of addition polymerisation of ethene as
the monomer
i) state some uses of poly(ethene) as a typical plastic, e.g. plastic bags; clingfilm
j) deduce the structure of the addition polymer product from a given monomer and vice versa
k) describe the pollution problems caused by the disposal of non-biodegradable plastics
Naming of organic compounds:
Number of carbon Prefix Alkane Alkene

atoms per molecule
1 Meth--- Methane Does not exist
2 Eth--- Ethane Ethene
3 Prop--- Propane Propene
4 But---- Butane Butene
5 Pent--- Pentane Pentene
6 Hex--- Hexane Hexene
19.1 Structure of Alkanes
19.2 Properties of Alkanes
Alkanes are a homologous series of hydrocarbons that contain only carbon-carbon

single bonds. They are also known as saturated hydrocarbons.
Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2, where n = number of carbon atoms.
1. 1. General formula: CnH2n+2, where n = number of carbon atoms

2. Type of compound: Saturated hydrocarbon
Saturated => only contains carbon-carbon single bonds

Hydrocarbon => compound that only contains hydrogen and carbon
3. Members of the alkane homologous series:
Structure
n= Remember:
State at room
number ➔ Each Carbon atom needs 4 Melting Boiling
Name Formula temperature Physical trends
of carbon bonds to be stable. point / °C point / °C
(25°C)
atoms ➔ Each Hydrogen atom needs 1
bond to be stable.
1 Methane CH4 -182 -162 Gas As we go down the group,
1. Melting points & boiling

points increase
2. More viscous (do not flow
2 Ethane C2H6 -183 -89 Gas
easily)
3. Less flammable (does not
burn easily)
3 Propane C3H8 -188 -42 Gas
4 Butane C4H10 -138 -0.5 Gas
5 Pentane C5H12 -130 36 Liquid
6 Hexane C6H14 -96 68 Liquid
4. Chemical properties (chemical reactions) of the alkane homologous series:
▪ Combustion (Burning with oxygen)
For COMPLETE combustion (Enough oxygen supply),

General equation: Alkane + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water
For INCOMPLETE combustion (Limited oxygen supply),

(You will not be asked to come out with the equations.)
General equation: Alkane + Oxygen → a mixture of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, soot
E.g:
Word equation: methane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
Chemical equation: CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
Class Work 19.1:

(a)
Question Propane undergoes combustion.
equation.
equation.
(b)
Question Ethene undergoes combustion.
equation.
equation.
Substitution with halogens (Group VII elements: F2, CI2, Br2, I2, At2)
Alkanes can react with halogens, such as chlorine and bromine, in the presence of
ultraviolet (UV) light.
Idea: Alkanes have all single bonds which are strong and not easy to break. Thus, alkanes are
unreactive and the only way for them to react is to undergo substitution reactions.
Analogy: Imagine a soccer team with 11 players out in the field already. A player wants to play
and the only way for him to join is to substitute. He cannot just add himself into the field as
there can only be 11 players.
➔ Only for halogens (Group VII elements: F2, CI2, Br2, I2, At2)
➔ Condition: in the presence of ultraviolet light (UV light)
➔ Substitution can only take place ONE-by-ONE, changing each hydrogen atom with the
halogen atom.
Example
Methane + Chlorine → Chloromethane + hydrogen chloride
Your task:
(a) Draw the first 2 stages when ethane undergoes substitution with chlorine.
Stage 1:
Stage 2:
(b) Substance X undergoes substituition with chlorine to form CH3CH2CH2Cl. Draw the formula for
structure X.

Ethane reacts with chlorine gas under suitable conditions.
What is the molecular formula of ethane? …………………………………………..
Draw the structural formula of ethane.
i. Name the reaction that ethane undergoes with chlorine gas.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
ii. State the condition(s) which ethane will react with chlorine gas.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
Draw the full structural formula of two possible organic compounds obtained when ethane
reacts with chlorine gas under suitable conditions.
19.3 Structure of Alkenes
19.4 Properties of Alkenes
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain one or more carbon-carbon double bonds.
They are also known as unsaturated hydrocarbons.
The functional group of alkenes is the carbon-carbon double bond.
Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n, where n = number of carbon atoms.
2. 1. General formula: CnH2n, where n = number of carbon atoms

2. Type of compound: Unsaturated hydrocarbon
Unsaturated => only contains 1 carbon-carbon double bond, the rest

are single bonds
Hydrocarbon => compound that only contains hydrogen and carbon
Carbon-carbon double bond
3. Members of the alkene homologous series:
Structure
n= Remember:
State at room
number ➔ Each Carbon atom needs 4 bonds to Melting Boiling
of carbon be stable. point / °C point / °C
(25°C)
atoms ➔ Each Hydrogen atom needs 1 bond
to be stable.
1 Methene does not exist. As we go down the group,
2 Ethene C2H4 -169 -104 Gas 1. Melting points & boiling

points increase
2. More viscous (do not flow
easily)
3 Propene C3H6 -185 -48 Gas 3. Less flammable (does not
burn easily)
4 Butene -186 -6 Gas
5 Pentene Liquid
6 Hexene Liquid
4. Chemical properties (chemical reactions) of the alkene homologous series:
▪ Combustion (Burning with oxygen) → This is similar to that of ALKANES!
For COMPLETE combustion,

General equation: Alkene + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water
For INCOMPLETE combustion, (You will not be asked to come out with the equations.)
General equation: Alkene + Oxygen → a mixture of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, soot
E.g:
Word equation: ethene + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
Chemical equation: C2H4 + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 2 H2O
Class Work 19.3: Your task: Write down the word and chemical equations of the following
reactions.
(a)
Question Butene undergoes combustion.
equation.
equation.
(b)
Question Pentene undergoes combustion.
equation.
equation.
▪ Addition reactions
An addition reaction is a reaction in which an unsaturated organic compound combines with another
substance to form a single new compound.
It can be represented by the general equation
Characteristics: Step 1: “BREAK” the C=C double bond
• Only 1 product is formed. Step 2: “ADD” two new bonds to the carbon atoms
• General idea:
Type of Addition reaction with halogens, e.g: with Addition reaction with hydrogen gas (H2)
addition aqueous bromine (Br2)
reaction
Name of Bromination Hydrogenation
process
General Alkene + aqueous bromine → bromoalkane Alkene + hydrogen gas → Alkane
word
equation Condition: NIL Conditions: 200°C, Nickel catalyst
E.g:
(Ethene)
C2H4 + Br2 → C2H4Br2 C2H4 + H2 → C2H6

Remarks This is an identification test to Hydrogenation converts alkenes to
differentiate between alkanes and alkanes.
alkenes. When vegetable oil (unsaturated
Alkenes decolourises bromine but not hydrocarbon) is hydrogenated, it is
alkanes. converted into solid margarine (saturated
hydrocarbon)
Your task: Write down the chemical equations of the following reactions.
(a) Points to note Answer

Question Propene reacts with hydrogen gas to form propane.
equation.
equation.

Question Hexene reacts with aqueous bromine to form bromohexane.
equation.
equation.
Identification test to differentiate between alkanes and alkenes (Colourless Solutions)
Question: How to tell alkanes (saturated) and alkenes (unsaturated) apart?

Test: Add a few drops of reddish-brown aqueous bromine to both colourless solutions.
Ethene + bromine dibromoethene

(colourless) + (reddish-brown) (colourless)
Observation for alkanes:

Reddish-brown solution remains reddish-brown. No reaction has taken place.
Observation for alkenes:
Reddish-brown solution turns colourless. An addition reaction has taken place.
Your task: 2 unknown colourless solutions, X and Y, are mixed up. You are told that one of them is
ethane and the other is propene. Describe a test to differentiate them and highlight the
observations.
FACT: [What chemical reactions that alkenes undergo, but alkanes don’t? Or vice versa.]
..................................................................................................................................................................
TEST: [What experiment can I carry out to differentiate between the two solutions?]
..................................................................................................................................................................
OBSERVATIONS: [Highlight the observations in BOTH solutions.]
For ethane: .............................................................................................................................................

For propene: ..........................................................................................................................................
19.5 Producing Alkenes by cracking

Alkenes can be produced by the process of cracking petroleum (crude oil).
Cracking is the breaking down of long-chain hydrocarbons into smaller molecules.
For example,
hexane → butane + ethene
C6H14 → C4H10 + C2H4
A few conditions are needed for cracking to occur:

1. high temperature (about 600°C),
2. aluminium oxide (AI2O3) and silicon dioxide (SiO2) catalyst. (a catalyst is a substance that
helps to speed up chemical reactions)
Class Work 19.5:

Your task: A chemist has conducted several cracking processes to produce smaller organic
compounds and hydrogen gas for industrial use. Complete the following chemical equations.
[Hint: Make sure all the numbers of atoms are balanced on both sides of the equation.]
(a) C10H22→ C2H4 + ........
(b) C30H62 → C5H12 + C9H18 + ........
(c) C20H44 has undergone cracking to form propene, hexane and an unknown organic compound
Z. What is Z?
19.6 Comparing Alkanes and Alkenes
Similarities:
1. Both alkanes and alkenes are hydrocarbons (containing hydrogen and carbon).
2. Both alkanes and alkenes are flammable. On complete combustion, they produce carbon
dioxide gas and water.
Differences:
Property Alkane Alkene

Molecular structure Contains only single bonds Contain 1 carbon=carbon
between carbon atoms double bond
Reactivity Generally unreactive Very reactive
Type of reaction Undergoes substitution Undergoes addition reactions
reactions
Reaction with aqueous Does not react with aqueous Rapidly decolourises aqueous
bromine bromine (reacts very slowly in bromine
the presence of UV light)
Reddish-brown aqueous
Reddish-brown aqueous bromine turns colourless.
bromine remains reddish-
brown.
Flammability Produces a less smoky flame Produces a smokier flame than
than an alkene with a similar an alkane with a similar
number of carbon atoms number of carbon atoms
19.7 Fats and Oils
Polyunsaturated fats: “poly” -> many, “unsaturated” -> carbon=carbon double bonds
Definition: It means that the compound consists of many carbon=carbon double bonds.
Vegetable Oil (Alkene) + Hydrogen

→ Margarine (Alkane)
Process: Hydrogenation
Conditions: 200°C, Nickel catalyst
E.g. Vegetable Oil
E.g. Margarine
Polyunsaturated fats: “poly” -> many, “unsaturated” -> carbon=carbon double bonds
Polyunsaturated fats contain more than one C=C double bond.
Margarine is manufactured using hydrogenation reaction
Class Work 19.7:

Your task: Describe a test to differentiate margarine and vegetable oil. Highlight the observations.
FACT: [Which homologous series does margarine and vegetable oil belong to? What chemical
reactions that alkenes undergo, but alkanes don’t? Or vice versa.]
..................................................................................................................................................................
TEST: [What experiment can I carry out to differentiate between the two solutions?]
..................................................................................................................................................................
OBSERVATIONS: [Highlight the observations in BOTH solutions.]
For margarine: .......................................................................................................................................

For vegetable oil: ...................................................................................................................................
19.8 Addition Polymerisation
At high temperature, pressure and presence of catalyst, thousands of alkenes molecules

(monomer) can join together to form large molecules (polymer) by addition polymerisation.
Addition Polymerisation: Process of joining together a large number of alkene monomers to

form a polymer.
Polymer: A long chain molecule that is linked together by many small repeat units known as
monomers.
How is poly(ethene) produced?
Uses of Poly(ethene)
• Poly(ethene) can be easily moulded into different shapes.
• Poly(ethene) is used to make:
– Plastic toys
– Clingfilm
– Plastic bags
– Buckets
How do we deduce the structural formula of a monomer from its polymer?
Uses of other Polymers
• Polystyrene is hard, light and brittle. It is used to make disposable containers.

• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is used to make pipes, raincoats, flooring mats and thin
gloves.
• Teflon (polytetrafluoroethene) is used in ‘non-stick’ frying pans.
19.9 Plastics and Pollution
Plastics are cheap, light, tough, waterproof and durable (resistant to decay). However they
are also non-biodegradable (cannot be broken down by bacteria in the soil), which poses
great problems.
Land Pollution: Plastics do not decompose and burying them will increase waste on land.
Air Pollution: Plastics when burnt, produce poisonous gases.
Water Pollution: Plastics are mistaken as food by marine animals, plastics may clog rivers.
CHAPTER 20: ALCOHOLS AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
Learning Outcomes:
For Alcohols,
a) describe the alcohols as an homologous series containing the –OH group
b) draw the structures of unbranched alcohols, C1 to C3 and name the unbranched alcohols,
methanol to propanol
c) describe the properties of alcohols in terms of combustion and oxidation to carboxylic acids
d) describe the formation of ethanol by fermentation of glucose
For Carboxylic Acids,

a) describe the carboxylic acids as organic acids containing the –CO2H group
b) describe the formation of ethanoic acid by the oxidation of ethanol by atmospheric oxygen or
acidified potassium manganate(VII)
20.1 Structure of Alkanes

20.2 Properties of Alkanes
3. 1. General formula: CnH2n+1OH, where n = number of carbon atoms

2. Type of compound: Neutral organic compound with hydroxyl (-OH) functional group
Neutral => pH 7
Hydroxyl functional group => -OH bond
(not to be confused with COOH)
3. Members of the alcohol homologous series:
Structure
Remember:
n= ➔ Each Carbon atom needs 4 bonds Solubility
State at room
number to be stable. Boiling in water
of carbon ➔ Each Oxygen atom needs 2 bonds point / °C
(25°C)
atoms to be stable.
➔ Each Hydrogen atom needs 1
bond to be stable.
1 Methanol CH3OH 65 Very soluble Liquid As we go down the group,
1. Melting points & boiling

points increase
( molecular size forces of
2 Ethanol C2H5OH 78 Very soluble Liquid attraction between the
molecules)
2. Less flammable (does not
burn easily)
3. Less soluble
3 Propanol C3H7OH 97 Soluble Liquid
4 Butanol C4H9OH 118 Slightly Liquid

soluble
4. Chemical properties (chemical reactions) of the alkane homologous series:
▪ Combustion (Burning with oxygen)
For COMPLETE combustion (Enough oxygen supply),

General equation: Alcohol + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water
For INCOMPLETE combustion (Limited oxygen supply),

(You will not be asked to come out with the equations.)
General equation: Alcohol + Oxygen → a mixture of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, soot
E.g:
Word equation: ethanol + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
Chemical equation: C2H5OH + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O
▪ Oxidation (to form carboxylic acid and water)

(1) Oxidation by atmospheric Oxygen gas
Word equation: ethanol + oxygen gas → ethanoic acid + water
Chemical equation: C2H5OH + O2 → CH3COOH + H2O
(*Note that the alcohol and carboxylic acid should have the same number of carbons)
(2) Oxidation by oxidising agent (such as potassium dichromate or potassium manganate)
Word equation: ethanol + oxidising agent → ethanoic acid + water
Chemical equation: C2H5OH + 2 [O] → CH3COOH + H 2O
+ 2 [O] + H2O
The colour of potassium dichromate(VI) changes from orange to green. OR

The colour of potassium manganate(VII) changes from purple to colourless.
C2H5OH
+ acidified K2Cr2O7
CH3COOH
heat Cold water
20.3 Producing ethanol
There are two methods to produce ethanol, the laboratorial(1) or industrial(2) way.
Method 1 (For Your Information only)

Ethanol is manufactured by the catalytic addition of steam to ethane
CH2 = CH2(g) + H2O(g) → CH3CH2OH (g)
Method 2
Fermentation of Sugar
We can also ferment carbohydrates to obtain ethanol.
Fermentation is a chemical process in which microorganisms such as yeast act on carbohydrates to

produce ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Fermentation can only If the temperature is raised

take place in the
absence of oxygen. beyond 37 °C, the enzymes
Hence, the apparatus will die and fermentation
needs to be air-tight. stops.
glucose solution limewater

+ yeast
In fermentation, carbon dioxide is produced.

Hence, frothing (formation of foam) can be observed in the flask.
A white precipitate can be also observed in the limewater.
Note 1: 37 C
(1) A glucose solution is mixed with yeast and the mixture is kept at a temperature of about
37 °C. If the temperature is too high, enzymes will die. If temperature is too low, enzymes
will work slowly.
Note 2: Absence of oxygen gas
(2) Fermentation can only take place in the absence of oxygen (so that the ethanol will not be
oxidized to form ethanoic acid). Hence, the apparatus needs to be air-tight.
Ethanol and carbon dioxide are produced after a few days. Only dilute ethanol is produced (about
15%, once the alcoholic content gets higher, yeast dies)
Pure ethanol can then be obtained from the mixture via fractional distillation.
20.4 Structure of Carboxylic acids
4. 1. General formula: CnH2n+1COOH, where n = 0, 1, 2

2. Type of compound: Organic acids with carboxyl (-COOH) functional group
carboxyl => contains –COOH group where H+ can be liberated
example:
CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+
Since it is an organic acid, it still have the typical properties of an acid

(1) react with carbonates to give carbon dioxide, water and salt
(2) react with reactive metals to give salt and hydrogen gas
(3) react with base to give salt and water
3. Members of the alkene homologous series:
Structure
n= Remember:
number ➔ Each Carbon atom needs 4 bonds to be stable.
Name Formula
of carbon ➔ Each Oxygen atom needs 2 bonds to be stable
atoms ➔ Each Hydrogen atom needs 1 bond to be
stable.
0 Methanoic Acid HCOOH
1 Ethanoic Acid CH3COOH
2 Propoanoic Acid C2H5COOH
20.5 Producing Ethanoic acids

*Refer to 20.2 Chemical Properties of Alcohols. (Basically oxidation of ethanol gives ethanoic acid)

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Chemistry

CHAPTER 1: KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY

Candidates should be able to:

1.1 States of Matter & Kinetic Particle Theory (KPT)

Matter is a substance that has mass and occupies space.

Solid Liquid Gas

Shape Fixed Not fixed Not fixed

Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed

Particles are very Particles are quite Particles are

Assumption English School_EXP Chemistry 5076 Revision Notes_Updated 2020 Page 1

Processes that take place in the changes of states:

Differences between Boiling & Evaporation

Occurs only at boiling point Occurs at temperatures below boiling point

Occurs rapidly Occurs slowly

Liquids that evaporate quickly at room temperature are

Sublimation is a process by which a solid changes directly

E.g. dry ice, moth balls, ammonium salts, iodine

Assumption English School_EXP Chemistry 5076 Revision Notes_Updated 2020 Page 2

(s) to (I): Solid melts

Why is this temperature constant?

The solid is melting to form a liquid. Heat

The temperature at which melting occurs is known as the melting point.

Assumption English School_EXP Chemistry 5076 Revision Notes_Updated 2020 Page 3

It is the opposite of a heating curve.

(I) to (s): Liquid freezes

Why is this temperature constant?

Assumption English School_EXP Chemistry 5076 Revision Notes_Updated 2020 Page 4

Candidates should be able to:

2.1 Measuring Physical Quantities

Physical SI Unit Other Conversion Apparatus to measure

Kilogram Grams (g) 1. Beam balance

Assumption English School_EXP Chemistry 5076 Revision Notes_Updated 2020 Page 5

Apparatus Sectional Diagram Accuracy

b. Can measure volume of liquids to

c. Can measure variable (many)

b. Can measure fixed volumes of

(There is only 1 marking on the

b. Used to measure volumes in 1

c. Can be used to read volumes of

b. Estimate volumes, no accurate

How to measure volume?

Meniscus: Curved surface of a liquid

Assumption English School_EXP Chemistry 5076 Revision Notes_Updated 2020 Page 6

2.2 Selecting Suitable Apparatus for Experiments

Step 1: Collection of gases (4 methods)

Step 2: Drying of gases (3 methods)

Step 1: Methods for collection of gases

How to determine which method to use?

Solubility – how soluble the gas is in water

Assumption English School_EXP Chemistry 5076 Revision Notes_Updated 2020 Page 7

Suitable to collect gases

Step 2: Drying of gases using drying agents

How to determine which method to use?

Nature of gas – depends on whether the gas is acidic / basic / neutral

Assumption English School_EXP Chemistry 5076 Revision Notes_Updated 2020 Page 8

Concentrated sulfuric acid Quicklime / Calcium oxide Fused calcium chloride

E.g: E.g: E.g:

Assumption English School_EXP Chemistry 5076 Revision Notes_Updated 2020 Page 9

very slightly slightly Displacement Fused calcium

hydrogen Downward Concentrated

extremely Upward Quicklime /

Assumption English School_EXP Chemistry 5076 Revision Notes_Updated 2020 Page 10

Candidates should be able to:

3.1 Obtaining Pure Substances from Mixtures