Non-fiction texts types

A non-fiction text is based on facts. It is really any text which is not fiction (a made-up story or poetry). Non-
fiction texts come in a huge variety of types. You find them everywhere in life, from the back of the cereal
packet at breakfast, to a textbook at the library. They can range from a newspaper article to a review of a new
computer game. They are written for many different purposes and are aimed at many different people or
audiences.

Non-fiction texts include:

advertisements
reviews
letters
diaries
newspaper articles
information leaflets
magazine articles

Literary non-fiction
Literary non-fiction is a type of writing which uses similar techniques as fiction to create an interesting piece of
writing about real events. These techniques help to create non-fiction which is enjoyable and exciting to read.
Some travel writing, autobiographies, or essays that consider a particular viewpoint are key examples of literary
non-fiction. Their main purpose is to entertain whilst they inform about factual events or information.

Literary non-fiction texts include:

feature articles
essays
travel writing
accounts of famous events
sketches (normally a fact file profile that gives key information about a person, place or event)
 autobiographies (where you write about yourself) or biographies (where someone else writes about you)
- these texts may be written by sportspeople, politicians, celebrities or other people who aren’t well-
known
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Biography

Pelé's autobiography tells the story of his life and career as an international footballer
A biography is writing about someone’s life. If someone is writing about their own life it becomes an
autobiography. These forms can also widen out to focus on a specific part of someone’s life, or their family.

A biography is usually written both to inform and to entertain. This means it is a mix of factual information and
creative writing. The audience is usually made up of people who are interested in the person being written
about. However, sometimes biographies of people who aren’t well known can be interesting because of an
experience that they’ve had.

Example
This is the opening paragraph of Claire Tomalin’s biography of Charles Dickens, the novelist. The young man
she is describing is Dickens, aged 37.

14 January 1840, London. An inquest is being held at Marylebone Workhouse, a muddled complex of buildings
spread over a large area between the Marylebone Road and Paddington Street. The Beadle, a parish officer
responsible for persuading householders to do their duty as jurors at such inquests, has assembled twelve men.
Most of them are middle-aged local tradesmen, but one stands out among them as different. He is young and
slight, smartly dressed and good-looking, neither tall nor short at five foot nine inches, with dark hair falling in
curls over his forehead and collar. He is a new resident who has just moved into a fine airy house with a large
garden, close to Regent’s Park at York Gate: it is No. 1 Devonshire Terrace, from which the Beadle has made
haste to summon him to his duty.

Charles Dickens, Claire Tomalin

Analysis
Tomalin, the writer of this extract:
 uses many literary techniques to create an accurate image of the scene for the reader, ‘a muddled
complex of buildings’
starts in the middle of a story, rather than at the beginning of Dickens’s life, to grab the reader’s
attention and highlight a specific event of interest
focuses on the person that the biography is about
gives us detail about the person, so we can imagine him ‘He is young and slight, smartly dressed and
good-looking’
contrasts the person to the ‘middle-aged tradesmen’ to make him seem special by describing him in a
romantic way ‘dark hair falling in curls over his forehead’
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Information leaflet
Information leaflets inform people about a particular subject. In leaflets it’s not just the content and language
that’s important, but also the layout and presentation.

Example

Get baking
Analysis
The key features of the leaflet that are used here include:

the heading of the leaflet uses imperative language to give the reader a clear message - ‘Get Baking!’
the language is instructional - it assumes that the reader will agree with the opinion of the writer ‘Baking
is a great British tradition’
headings and sub-headings are used to direct the reader through each section, with a clear contents page
to signpost the reader to particular parts of the leaflet
 the language is also reassuring to the reader if they are not necessarily an expert ‘All the recipes in this
guide give step-by-step advice to help you bake beautifully’
=================================

Letter
Letters are written for many purposes and audiences:

they can be written to someone close to you, like a parent or friend, or to a stranger
they can be formal, such as a letter of complaint, or informal, to someone you know well
they are usually structured in a particular way to show that the text is directed at someone, using a
salutation ‘Dear…’ and an appropriate ending ‘Yours sincerely…’
Open letters

An ‘open letter’ is a letter which is either addressed to the public or is to a specific person, like a
politician, but published in a public forum such a popular newspaper with a big audience. An open
letter is often used to protest about something.

Example
This letter was written by the author Douglas Adams, who wrote The Hitch-Hikers Guide to the Galaxy, when
he was only 12. It was a letter to the editor of a comic called The Eagle.

‘January 23, 1965

Dear Editor,

The sweat was dripping down my face and into my lap, making my clothes very wet and sticky. I sat there,
walking, watching. I was trembling violently as I sat, looking at the small slot, waiting — ever waiting. My
nails dug into my flesh as I clenched my hands. I passed my arm over my hot, wet face, down which sweat was
pouring. The suspense was unbearable. I bit my lip in an attempt to stop trembling with the terrible burden of
anxiety. Suddenly, the slot opened and in dropped the mail. I grabbed at my Eagle and ripped off the wrapping
paper.

My ordeal was over for another week!

D. N. Adams (12)

Brentwood, Essex

The Salmon of Doubt: Hitchhiking the Galaxy One Last Time, Douglas Adams

Analysis
This letter:

Is clearly trying to get published - it’s very dramatic and over the top. This exaggeration is designed to
flatter the editor of the comic ‘I grabbed at my Eagle and ripped off the wrapping paper.’
 There is a lot of detailed description of the writer being tense ‘My nails dug into my flesh as I clenched
my hands.’
But it’s also funny for the same reasons. There is comedy is the way he seems so desperate to get the
weekly comic ‘My ordeal was over for another week!’
Douglas Adams signs it with his age – it is common to include the writer’s age when publishing letters
in newspapers.
====================================

Review
The most common types of review are film and book reviews, but people also review music, television
programmes, theatre performances and computer games.

All reviews share a number of different purposes. For example, a film review needs:

to inform - the review needs to tell people who is in the film, who it is by and where or when readers
can see it
to describe - the review should describe the story, characters and some of the action - without spoiling
the plot or giving too much away
to entertain - to use humour to provide the reader with their opinion of the item that they are reviewing
to analyse - a good review gives an opinion on whether the film is good or not and why
to advise - the review should tell the reader whether or not to go and see the film
Audience
Reviews will vary in their audiences: it could be people who are specifically interested in that film or book, who
are actually considering going to see the film or buy the book. But it could also be people who are just generally
interested in films or books, who like to read about them. A review of a kids’ film is probably aimed at parents,
who will want to know whether or not to take their children to see it. A review in a specialist games magazine
will use very different terminology than a review of a computer game in a national newspaper. The readers in
the games magazine will have more specialist knowledge, and might judge the game against specific things that
a games expert may want from a game.

Example
This is a review of the film The Golden Compass.

The Golden Compass

Reviewed by Stella Papamichael

Free will is the object of the game in The Golden Compass, a big budget exercise in orienteering where witches
and polar bears point the way to enlightenment. You'll have to look between the CG seams to find the original
intent of Philip Pullman's atheistic novel, but this isn't the overriding problem. It's that writer/director Chris
Weitz doesn't convey a strong enough sense of purpose.

Thank goodness for the star presence of Dakota Blue Richards. She is thoroughly engaging as Lyra, a young
girl singled out in prophecy as 'the one' to save all others from some awful yet indeterminate fate. It all sounds a
bit messianic really, except that organised religion, represented by The Magisterium, is a force for evil. Nicole
Kidman does the ominous eyebrow lifting as a guardian of the establishment who kidnaps children to wrest
them from their 'daemons' (the animal sidekicks who embody their better judgment). Among the abductees is
Lyra's best friend, and so begins the voyage north to find him.

Many questions raised

Daniel Craig has little to do as Lyra's scientifically minded uncle except hint at potential sequels. The draw is in
a simple story of friendship and Lyra's journey of self-discovery. The line-up of curious characters she meets
along the way helps to lighten Pullman's otherwise dark material. Sam Elliot is wryly amusing as a cowboy
aeronaut and the spectacle of Lyra being carried across the arctic wastelands on the back of a polar bear (voiced
by Ian McKellen) will appeal to the child in everyone. Towards the end, some impressively realised battle
scenes up the excitement. Disappointingly though, all this magic and mystery fails to lead to any grand
unveiling. There are just too many questions raised and not enough answered. Approach this not as a lesson in
the facts of life, just a bit of childish escapism.

The Golden Compass is out in the UK on 5 December.

Analysis
We can divide this review into four parts:

1. Introduction - this gives an overview of who is in the film and what it's about. It also sums up the
reviewer's conclusion about the film (so readers can form an opinion without reading the whole of
the review).
2. Paragraph 2 - the reviewer then describes the plot and the action, while informing the reader
which actor plays which role.
3. Paragraph 3 - the reviewer then analyses the film, talking about the director and then the actors,
looking at good things as well as bad things.
4. Finally - the review informs the reader when the film is out (and sometimes, in a local review,
where it can be seen).
The writer uses a number of language choices to show their feelings towards the film:

the writer’s appreciation of the actress ‘She is thoroughly engaging’

this is further extended to the other members of the cast ‘Sam Elliot is wryly amusing’
an acknowledgement of the storyline’s ability to entertain ‘some impressively realised battle scenes up
the excitement’
final closing sentences that contradict with this appreciation to reveal the writer’s final view of the film
‘Disappointingly though’
a sentence that attempts to sum up the film for the reader ‘Approach this not as a lesson in the facts of
life, just a bit of childish escapism’
=====================================================================================
Newspaper article

There are several different types of newspaper articles:

News articles - these are found at the front of a newspaper. They

inform readers about things that are happening in the world or
in the local area. They will be full of facts, like names, dates
and places.
Feature articles - these explore news stories in more depth. The purpose of a feature is not just to tell
you what has happened, but to explore or analyse the reasons why. These kinds of pieces normally
name the writer who wrote them - a byline.
Editorials, columns, and opinion pieces - these are pieces by 'personality' writers. They might be there
to inform (because the writer's expert opinion is valued), or they might be there to entertain (because
the writer has a comic or interesting way of describing everyday life). They are likely to have a more
personal style that the writer regularly uses when writing - this could be shown through particular
vocabulary or the opinion of the writer.
The type of newspaper that the article is published in makes a difference to the way it is written:

if it is in a tabloid it will have shorter sentences and paragraphs and use more basic vocabulary
if it is in a broadsheet the sentences will be longer and more complicated, and the vocabulary will be
more advanced
Some newspapers also have particular political points of view, which might affect how they report events in the
news.

Example
This feature article is from The Daily Telegraph which is a broadsheet paper. Only the first part of the article is
given here. It is from the morning of the semi-final of Wimbledon, in the year that Andy Murray won.

Andy Murray's appliance of science

If the Caledonian superman wins Wimbledon this year, it will be thanks to 50 pieces of sushi
a day, a magic potion and a battalion of experts.
If you want to know what it is about Andy Murray that makes him stand out from the rest of us – apart from that
fizzing backhand return and the huge-mouthed celebratory yodel – it is summed up in two words: osmolarity
check.

Today, before he even steps out on to the Centre Court for his Wimbledon semi-final against the huge-hitting
Pole Jerzy Janowicz, Murray will have been subject to several of these. He does one every time he pops to the
lavatory. The osmolarity check is conducted by one of his staff, its purpose to gauge the percentages of water
and minerals in his urine, to show whether his body is correctly hydrated. The fact is, if Murray wins today, it
will partly be thanks to the bloke who inspects his wee.

There has never been a sportsman who has been as meticulously assembled as Andy Murray. Allied to his
extraordinary natural skill and ferocious desire to win, what has carried him to his fifth successive Wimbledon
semi-final is the relentless appliance of science. There is nothing in his life that is left to chance, nothing that is
not measured, calibrated and balanced. This is a man whose route to the summit of his profession has been
mapped with a meticulousness bordering on the obsessive.

Take his diet. He will have started eating at 7.30 this morning. While many of those arriving at Wimbledon’s
press restaurant will have begun their day assaulting a tottering Himalaya of fried starch, Murray will have
eaten yogurt, fruit and a bagel smeared in peanut butter.

By Jim White, Daily Telegraph

Analysis
This article:

has a headline to grab attention, and a subtitle to tell the reader more about what the feature is really
about – the scientific support for professional sports players
uses literary devices to entertain, like the metaphor describing the journalists’ breakfasts as a ‘tottering
Himalaya of fried starch’
uses humour to engage the audience – such as talking about his scientific support as ‘the bloke who
inspects his wee’
understands that the reader would not be an expert in this topic and explains the meaning of technical
terms like ‘osmolarity check’
==================================

Blog

The origin of the word ‘blog’ is as an abbreviation for

‘web-log’ – that is, an online diary. Blogs are written by
many people all over the world, for lots of different
purposes. They can be diaries, or records of what you cook,
a travel log for people visiting different destinations or
book review blogs, or many other sorts of blogs. The
purpose of the writing depends on what kind of blog it is.

Blogs:

often have lots of pictures to make them look attractive

vary the size, font, and appearance of text for effect
use links to connect to other webpages
can include video clips
 are usually quite personal – written in the first person and written partly for the author’s own benefit
the language is often informal and chatty
may not have a clear audience other than ‘anyone who’s interested’
Blogs can also be used by organisations to communicate informally with their audience. Because they are
online, they can be regular, and respond to events quickly.

Example
This is a post from a blog for people studying English by Victoria Elliot. It talks about a visit to the garden of
CS Lewis, who wrote the Narnia books.

An Inkling of another world

This morning I went to Narnia. Sort of.
CS Lewis bought a house in 1930, jointly with his brother and the mother of one his friends who was killed in
the First World War, with whom he had lived ever since. The house in question was 'The Kilns', in Risinghurst,
a suburb of Oxford. The house then stood at one end of an 8-acre garden, which included a large pond or lake,
which was a water filled clay-pit, with a number of brick kilns scattered around it, and a wooded headland. Five
acres of this garden are now the CS Lewis Nature Reserve, administered by the Berkshire, Buckinghamshire,
and Oxfordshire Wildlife Trust, and open to the public to wander around at will.

Local lore has it that this woodland is the inspiration for the Narnia
books, written after Lewis moved to the Kilns. This morning it was
quiet and empty, despite the sun. A couple of coots were making
circles on the lake, although a few ducks emerged later on. The trees
were ankle-deep in dead leaves, and there were more than a few
muddy holes, some of which were bridged, some not.

But this woodland isn't Narnia; it's the Wood Between the Worlds.
It's the place from which you can get to other worlds - the place that
Lewis leapt off from. And here and there I began to see where Narnia
had crept in. In the clearing at the top I saw the place where Caspian encounters the inhabitants of the forest
dancing and vows to restore their country to them. Around the place lie round sandstone boulders, covered with
lichen, known as 'doggers': a board tells of the legend that they were used as marbles by the giants who used to
live in the mediaeval forests of England. The Silver Chair sprang to mind.

And the best thing about it being the Wood Between the Worlds? It's not just Narnia you can get to from there.
There is a forest full of other worlds just waiting to be discovered. I'll be going back to find them.

Analysis
This blog:

Contains factual information.
Shows the writer’s personal opinion: it is written in the first person.
Makes reference to the Narnia books, which the audience would be expected to know and be interested
in to read the blog.
 Has a photograph of the place that it is describing.
Uses devices like rhetorical questions to help engage the reader.
Makes a pun in the title – CS Lewis was a member of a group known as the Inklings. The word Inkling
now means a hint or suggestion.
=============================================

Essay
Essays are not only written by students. People who are considered experts in a particular topic often write
essays to show a new viewpoint on something. For example, lecturers at universities often write essays to
explain a different idea about a topic. The essay is a form of literary non-fiction in which a writer expresses an
opinion on something, or makes an argument, in a creative form. Essays:

use literary devices
are usually written using formal language and specialist vocabulary that those people interested in the
subject would understand
develop a line of argument
have a clear structure that introduces their idea, develops their viewpoint using different points to
support them, and concludes with a summary of the essay

Example
This extract is the beginning of an essay by George Orwell, the novelist,
who was also a famous essay writer. This essay is called Politics and the
English Language. It was published in 1946, in a literary magazine. It
criticises the ugliness of written English in the ‘modern’ age.

Most people who bother with the matter at all would admit that the
English language is in a bad way, but it is generally assumed that we
cannot by conscious action do anything about it. Our civilization is
decadent and our language – so the argument runs – must inevitably share in
the general collapse. It follows that any struggle against the abuse of
language is a sentimental archaism, like preferring candles to electric
light or hansom cabs to aeroplanes. Underneath this lies the half-
conscious belief that language is a natural growth and not an instrument
which we shape for our own purposes. George Orwell

Now, it is clear that the decline of a language must ultimately have

political and economic causes: it is not due simply to the bad influence of this or that individual writer. But an
effect can become a cause, reinforcing the original cause and producing the same effect in an intensified form,
and so on indefinitely. A man may take to drink because he feels himself to be a failure, and then fail all the
more completely because he drinks. It is rather the same thing that is happening to the English language. It
becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, but the slovenliness of our language makes it
easier for us to have foolish thoughts. The point is that the process is reversible.

Politics and the English Language, George Orwell

Analysis
In this extract you can see:

Orwell uses first person plural pronouns – ‘our’ – to engage the reader.
He uses literary devices such as similes, and metaphors, like the idea that language ‘is a natural growth.’
The vocabulary is complex and polysyllabic.
Sentences are long, and complex. This creates a challenge for the reader.
He uses lots of impersonal constructions (‘it is clear’; ‘it follows’), to give a sense of logic to the
argument. Note that he avoids using ‘I’ and that the tone is formal to add a sophisticated style to the
piece of writing.
=====================================================================================

Travel writing

Travel writing is writing about visiting different places. It

can appear as a newspaper article, informing readers
about a specific destination. It can also be a form of
literary non-fiction, written as a book, telling a longer
narrative about a journey or place. This differs from a
travel blog because the writing is more detailed and less
informal.

Travel writing:

is usually written in the first person – using ‘I’

is often descriptive – telling you about the place
as literary non-fiction, is aiming to entertain as well as inform

Example
Bill Bryson is a famous travel writer. This extract is the opening paragraph from his book The Lost
Continent (1989).

I come from Des Moines. Somebody had to.

When you come from Des Moines you either accept the fact without question and settle down with a local girl
named Bobbi and get a job at the Firestone factory and live there forever and ever, or you spend your
adolescence moaning at length about what a dump it is and how you can't wait to get out, and then you settle
down with a local girl named Bobbi and get a job at the Firestone factory and live there forever and ever.

The Lost Continent, Bill Bryson

Analysis
In this extract:
 Bryson uses the first person to talk about where he came from. He also tells us the name of the place
clearly at the start.
He uses humour to create interest for the reader.
He plays around with sentence length, sometimes making short ‘punchlines.’
He creates a long sentence where no matter what path you take, ‘you settle down with a local girl named
Bobbi.... and live there forever and ever’. This also creates a humorous tone for the reader.
=============================================================================

Context
The context of a text is the place and time in which it was written, who it was written by, and where it was published. All of these affect the purpose and effect of the text.

=============================================================================

Context of a non-fiction text

The context of a text is not the things that appear on the page but the circumstances in which it was written. The
context helps to build up a background of how and why the piece of writing may have been written - events
happening in the world at the time, how men or women were regarded in society, or even people’s opinions of
religion or social rules can be reflected in a piece of writing.

It can be useful to think about:

The type of text - if it is a newspaper article about a topic that was important in that particular time in
history.
When it was written – texts from the Victorian era are very different to something written in the last ten
years.
Where it was written – is it from the UK, or from somewhere else? Or on a smaller scale, was it written
in a school, a home, a prison?
Who wrote it – individual people will have different intentions. A child will write something different
from an adult. A fan will write differently from a critic about a band.
Where it was published – a newspaper – tabloid or broadsheet? A magazine – is it for football fans, or
for a general audience?
What it was written for - the purpose may have been more important in a different era; for example, a
woman’s traditional role was in the home, and the text may show that.
=============================
Examples of context
Different contexts will affect the text in
different ways. An introductory
statement to a text will give you some
context, for example:

Following the death of Nelson

Mandela in December 2013, US
President, Barack Obama, made this
speech as a tribute. Nelson Mandela
had risen from being a political
prisoner in South Africa to being the
country’s first black President.

This tells you who wrote the text

(Barack Obama), and some
information about him (US President). It tells you when (2013) – and some extra information about why that
was important (Nelson Mandela had just died). It also tells you something about the content – it’s a tribute, so it
will be a positive opinion of Mandela.

Here are some suggestions for things that you might look out for. They are only suggestions. Context can only
suggest things to look out for, not explain everything in the text.

Time it was written

Victorian or 19th century:

old-fashioned, formal, elaborate vocabulary

longer words and/or sentences
expects an educated audience
During a World War:

might contain fairly serious content

might have a political point to make about the war
vocabulary might be quite advanced or specific to the war, using terminology or words only known to
people living in that era, eg describing ordinary soldiers in World War One as ‘Tommies’
21st century:
 modern and up-to-date vocabulary, using modern terminology that an older writer may not be familiar
with, eg tweet, status update
a modern topic like technology
uses a more advanced layout specific to a modern text - for example, including web links or advanced
photography

Where it was written

Abroad:

may use some words in another language

will provide an explanation of some of the topic so that people living in another area understand it
the writer may have a different opinion of local cultural traditions because of where they are living when
writing
In a school:

words connected to learning, schooling, teachers and pupils - this could be adapted to more simplistic
language if it is a text for children
mostly concerned with the close at hand: a limited viewpoint that is specific to the school
formal or informal depending on purpose and audience
Where it was published
On the web:

expect links and pictures

layout will have a clear aim to draw the reader’s immediate attention to a particular place on the screen -
large headlines and different fonts will help to achieve this
paragraphs will be shorter and more widely spaced
In a literary magazine, like the London Review of Books:

aimed at an educated audience

more advanced vocabulary and more literary devices
longer sentences
As a book:

it may turn its subject into a story (this is called an anecdote)
the overall text is longer, and so the writer can provide more detail than in a news story
=====================================================================================
 Purpose and audience
The purpose and audience of a non-fiction text can explain why writers have chosen particular language or laid out text in a specific way.

==================================================================================================

Purpose
Think about TAP when looking at a non-fiction
text:

Text type
Audience
Purpose

A text can have many purposes. Some examples are to:

entertain – to make the reader enjoy reading

persuade – to change a reader’s opinion
advise – to help people decide what to do
analyse – to break down something to help people to understand it better
argue – to make the case for something
describe – to give details about a person, place, event or thing
explain – to make clear why or how something works
inform – to tell a reader about something
instruct – to tell a reader how to do something
Some types of non-fiction text are linked to specific purposes. For example, advertising is intended to persuade
you to buy something.

To work out what the purpose of the text is, it’s useful to think about what the writer’s attitude was at the time
of writing. Looking at any contextual information – like where it’s from – will also help.

Question
What purpose do each of the following texts have?
  a news article
 a self-help book
 a letter asking for a charity donation
 an autobiography
 a book review

Answers

 a news article: to inform but also to persuade, if the article is showing a particular opinion
towards a topic, e.g. animal testing
 a self-help book: to advise
 a letter asking for a charity donation: to persuade
 an autobiography: to entertain and to inform
 a book review: to analyse, inform, and advise
The purpose of a text will also affect what the content is, how it’s structured, what techniques are used, and
what words are used. But purpose is not the only thing that affects this; the particular target audience is also
important.

=============================

Audience
To find out who the audience is for a certain text try
answering the following questions:

Who is the text aimed at?

Can you work out what age group they are from
the language or layout?
Are they people who are interested in a specific
topic?
The audience for a local newspaper is quite different from a national music magazine, for example. Writers
tailor their texts to their audience carefully. They consider them in how they write sentences, what vocabulary
they use and the style of their writing.

Any contextual information you have about a text may give you some clues to its audience. You can also work
out who it is aimed at by looking at:

The topic – is it about something of particular interest to a group?

The tone – is it chatty or formal?
The words – does it use specialist vocabulary, or easy words, or polysyllabic vocabulary?
 Does it use formal, informal, or semiformal register?
Does it use ‘you’ and if so, what kind of characteristics does that ‘you’ seem to have?
Is the layout changed for the audience and purpose? For example, does it use more grown-up colours
and a layout that you would expect from a text for adults?

Example
Here is an example text from the CBBC website. How can you tell the purpose of the text and the intended
audience?

Analysis
The purpose of the text is to inform, and the intended audience is children. This is clear because:

The layout of the page has a fun, colourful theme with plenty of visual images to go with the content of
the article.
The language is imperative, and the order of the texts is numbered into a step-by-step guide to show that
the article is to instruct the reader to do something.
 The language is informal, using exclamation marks to show that it is trying to create a fun tone for the
reader as they create the task ‘Shiny silver works really well for a disco ball!’

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Language and structure

By changing language and structure, writers can convey meaning, create interest, and show a particular viewpoint. Language and structure also change according to text type.

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Language

A simile from Martin Luther King's I Have a Dream speech

Commenting on the language of a text is where the really detailed analysis comes from. When talking about
language, you might comment on:

The literary devices an author uses, like similes and metaphors and for what effect - how does it help
them to present their idea or viewpoint in a specific way?
The type of words used in the text. Are words long and elaborate or short and easy? Are dialect words
used - does the author use jargon (terms which are only understood by certain audiences)?
 The connotations of specific word choices – are words being used that remind you of something else to
create an effect, eg using words with connotations of death to create an ominous effect?
The appropriateness of word choice: are words being used to match the context, or to extend a
metaphor? For example, if a sports report uses the metaphor of the match being a battle, does the rest
of the report talk about ‘fighting’ for points, or players as ‘foot soldiers’?
Is the text written in the first person? Is the author directly addressing the reader using ‘you’?
Is the text written in the past tense or the present tense? What effect does it have?
When you identify literary devices in a text, think about how you can link them to purpose or audience; how is
it clear that the writer has chosen particular words or used techniques to cause you as the reader to react in a
certain way?

====================================

Literary devices
Non-fiction texts can use the same literary devices as fiction texts. These include:

metaphors
similes
rhetorical questions
repetition
parallelism (repeated sentence structures)
listing
groups of three (or ‘triadic structure’)
irony
adopting a persona
synecdoche
pathetic fallacy
variation in sentence length and structure
Non-fiction texts are more likely to use direct address, talking directly to the reader, and second person
pronouns like ‘you’ and ‘yours’.

Example
This extract is from My Family and Other Animals, a memoir by
Gerald Durrell, of the five years he and his family lived on Corfu.
See how many literary devices you can recognise.

For some time, the Rose-beetle Man would turn up at the villa fairly
regularly with some new addition to my menagerie: a frog, perhaps,
or a sparrow with a broken leg. One afternoon Mother and I, in a fit
of extravagant sentimentalism, bought up his entire stock of rose-
beetles and, when he had left, let them all go in the garden. For days
Durrell's family and friends from the BBC
adaptation of My Family and Other Animals
the villa was full of rose-beetles, crawling on the beds, lurking in the bathroom, banging against the lights at
night, and falling like emeralds into our laps.

The last time I saw the Rose-beetle Man was one evening when I was sitting on a hill-top overlooking the road.
He had obviously been to some fiesta and had been plied with much wine, for he swayed to and fro across the
road, piping a melancholy tune on his flute. I shouted a greeting, and he waved extravagantly without looking
back. As he rounded the corner he was silhouetted for a moment against the pale lavender evening sky. I could
see his battered hat with the fluttering feathers, the bulging pockets of his coat, the bamboo cages full of sleepy
pigeons on his back, and above his head, circling drowsily round and round, I could see the dim specks that
were the rose-beetles. Then he rounded the curve of the road and there was only the pale sky with a new moon
floating in it like a silver feather, and the soft twittering of his flute dying away in the dusk.

My Family and Other Animals, Gerald Durrell (1956)

Analysis
Gerald Durrell:

Gives a metaphorical name to a character – ‘the Rose-beetle Man’ – named after what he sold.
Uses precise adjectives to describe the colours, like the ‘pale lavender’ sky.
Uses similes to create an artistic effect: ‘a new moon floating in it like a silver feather’. The word
‘feather’ also fits with the pigeons which have just been described.
Lists all the places the beetles were found, building to a dramatic climax. They are precious – like
‘emeralds.’
Creates striking visual images like the man ‘silhouetted’ against the sky.

===============================

Structure
The structure of a text can refers to:

the ordering of the events and particular techniques being used such as flash back or flash forward to
draw the reader’s attention to a particular point in time first
the ordering of ideas
the use of different elements, such as bullet points or dialogue, headings or subheadings
withholding information until a later point to shock or interest the reader

Structure of a non-fiction text

The structure of a non-fiction piece could be:

chronological – in date or time order

prioritised – the most important facts first (like a news article)
separated into blocks by subheadings – e.g. in a feature article
question and answer – e.g. in information leaflets
 problem and solution – e.g. in agony aunt columns, or self-help guides
letter structure – a salutation (Dear…) and an appropriate ending (Yours sincerely…)
starting in the middle of an event, then providing further information to give several possible viewpoints

Using paragraphs to structure a text

Look at the way the key ideas in a piece are ordered. This will help you work out the structure. There is usually
one important idea per paragraph, but some texts have more.

Within each paragraph, ideas can be structured in different ways. A common approach is to start with a topic
sentence – the big idea – and then develop it with details or examples. Paragraphs often end with a hook to
make you consider the ideas included in the paragraph that you have just read, or a link to the next paragraph.

The number and order of paragraphs, the order of the ideas, and how each paragraph is constructed are all
features you can comment on when talking about structure.

Additionally, a shortened paragraph that stands out to the reader can sometimes indicate a change in viewpoint
or significant point in the text that the writer may offer a counter argument.

==========================

Annotating for language and structure

An example of how you could annotate a text using an extract from An Essay by George Orwell

Annotating structure
Look at the overall text to begin your annotation. Can you spot patterns in the structure? Look out for:
 paragraph lengths
repeated words introducing paragraphs
signpost sentences introducing paragraphs (like 'Firstly...', 'Secondly...', 'In addition...')
headings and subheadings
time and place
Once you have spotted structural features of the text, make a note of the feature used. Then, to develop your
idea, add a note to briefly consider the effect of that feature - why has it been used? What is the writer
emphasising or highlighting by using it?

Annotating language
Don’t highlight all the language features you spot – you’ll end up highlighting the whole text. Pick out the first
example of each literary device you see, and after that, only the more interesting ones. They might be
interesting because they’re unusual, or because they’re doing a particularly good job of creating an effect linked
to purpose or audience.

Do pick out individual words which you can explore closely – ones with particular connotations, for example,
or ones which seem especially significant. These are usually adjectives, or phrases that have used particular
techniques to conjure up a specific image.

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Responding to a non-fiction text

In an extended response essay on a non-fiction text you should show your understanding of text type, audience, and purpose, and how the author has used language and structure.

=====================================================================================

How to analyse an extract

An essay should be an argument, using evidence drawn from the text to make your points. You should explore
different aspects of the question or title.

Tasks can focus on effectiveness, themes and ideas, language, form and structure, or a combination of these.
You will usually need to think about:

What kind of text is this?

What is the purpose?
Who is the audience?
Is it an effective text - to what extent does it achieve its purpose?
A good essay creates a line of thought which directs the reader through from the beginning to the end, using a
convincing essay structure.

A good essay is a structured argument with a clear conclusion

Annotating
The key to planning an essay is to think about what the task is asking you to do. For example, it may ask you to
look at a particular theme or viewpoint. Read the text carefully, with the question in mind. Thinking about the
question, annotate the extract. Use highlighting or underlining to pick out key parts of the text that you can use
in your answer.

You might read the extract a couple of times, focussing on different things as you do. For example, focus on the
language used, then the way that the argument is structured (the content of the first and last paragraph and how
this is significant), and then finally how both of these things cause the reader to react in a certain way.

Planning an essay response

When you’ve read the text carefully and annotated it, then make a plan. Make a bullet point list or a mind
map of all the ideas you can think of that are relevant to the question. Link the ideas to specific quotations from
the extract.

Then pick the best points to use. Aim for at least four to five main points and arrange them in a logical order.
Your choice of order should help you to develop your ideas and reach a convincing conclusion.

================================

Understanding the question

The key to a successful essay answer is focusing on the question. Your essay will begin with an introduction.
The first sentence of your essay needs to sum up your answer to the question. Make a positive statement in
relation to the question. Use key words from the question to demonstrate your understanding.

Example questions
Example question 1
Analyse how the writer uses language and structure to interest and engage readers.

Support your views with detailed reference to the text.

This is a very general question, which asks you to look at the technical aspects of the text – language and
structure – to see how the writer has used them to appeal to their audience. Here you need to identify features
and then explain how these features will interest and engage readers. You need to think about who the audience
is, and what the purpose of the text is. As always, you will need to use quotations and examples from the text to
support every point you make.

Example question 2
Read the letter from Henry to his father.

How does Henry use language to try to influence his father?

This question also looks at language use in relation to its effect on the reader, except that here the relationship
between the writer and the reader is a specific one. Knowing that relationship means that you can infer more
things from what the text says: can you tell what kind of a father he is? The word ‘influence’ suggests that the
purpose of the text is also key: Henry is trying to achieve something.

Example question 3
How does the writer use language and structure to make his description of the lesson entertaining?

This question is asking you to focus on a specific part of the text: a description. You need to consider the
technical aspects of what writers do – language and structure – to see how the writer achieves his purpose. The
question highlights that there are two purposes – to describe and to entertain.

Example question 4
‘In these texts school is presented as a challenging place for the pupils.’

How far do you agree with this statement?

This question is of a different type – it makes a statement about the extracts, which has an interpretation in it.
This statement is the focus of the question. You might agree or disagree with it, but must present examples from
the text to support either opinion. When planning your answer, you will keep to the idea of ‘challenging place
for pupils’. The word presented is important too: it signals that you need to think about all the ways the writers
are showing their ideas. You will need to look at language, structure, voice, and all the other things a writer can
use.

==================================================================================================

Structuring an essay

It can be useful to think of your essay as a layered sandwich or burger to make sure you include all the main
parts
An essay should include:

1. a brief introduction (which focuses on the question)

2. the main body (four or five paragraphs)
3. a short conclusion (which focuses on the question)

Writing an introduction
When you’ve planned your points, and ordered them, it’s time to start writing. Your opening sentence should
summarise your main argument. The rest of the essay then shows how you've come to that conclusion.

Example
In this article from the 'Comment is free' section of The Guardian newspaper, how does Charlie Brooker use
language to persuade us of his point of view on the television show MasterChef?

Have you seen MasterChef? Of course you have, even if you've been trying to avoid it, because it's always
there, like the sky or the ground or that skin you're in. MasterChef dominates the schedules like a slow-moving
weather system dictating the climate. Your TV's stuck on MasterChef mode. It's not even a TV these days, more
a MasterChef display unit. Cooking doesn't get more omnipresent than this.

Masterchef is the best television show in broadcasting history, if you ignore all the other ones, Charlie Brooker
(2014)

Suggested introduction
In this article, Charlie Brooker establishes a sarcastic tone through exaggeration and simile to persuade us
that he does not like the programme ‘Masterchef’.

This:

specifically answers the question rather than just rephrasing it

says what the text is effective in doing (by creating a sarcastic tone)
says in general how that effect is created (using exaggeration and similes)
===========================

Writing the main body

Use each paragraph to make one main point. A paragraph should contain:

a link to the previous idea

a statement of the main point in this paragraph
some evidence from the text to support what you think - this will probably include something on
language or structure
a discussion of the evidence, and links to any other possible evidence
a link back to the question, or to the next point
Start each paragraph with a link to the essay as a whole, and the part which came immediately before. This way
you are able to make a chain of your different paragraphs. Connectives help to show the relationship between
them:

Firstly...
Secondly...
On the one hand....
On the other hand...
 Similarly...
In contrast...
However...
Alternatively…
Finally…
============================

Using quotations and close analysis

Keep your quotations short and to the point. Using just a few words is more powerful than copying out chunks
of text: it shows you are being selective in what you say. You should also be careful to copy accurately. Put the
quotation inside your own sentence, rather than sticking it in the middle of a page and then commenting on it.
This is called embedding a quotation.

So rather than:

‘He flew like a butterfly.’ This is an example of a simile, which shows that he was light and graceful.

Or:

The author uses similes, e.g. ‘he flew like a butterfly’.

You would write:

The author uses the simile of the boy flying ‘like a butterfly’ to convey the impression that he is light and
graceful.

The words from the text are embedded as part of your sentence – the quotation fits into the sentence to form
part of it.

Making the most of quotations

You should make a close analysis of the language in the quotation and use that to support your point.

There are several ways you can do this:

 Pick out a word from the quotation and think about what the choice of that word means.
The connotations of a word are the things or ideas it reminds you of, rather than its meaning. Some
words might have connotations which are important to the point you are making, e.g. the word
‘scythe’ has connotations of death and it might be being used to create an ominous atmosphere.
The quotation may have a metaphor, simile, or other devices in it – what is the effect of that technique?
Make sure that if you use a quotation with a literary technique in it, you name the technique in
whatever comment you make about it.
Link the quotation to another example in the extract, if there is one. Or show how it is similar to another
point you’ve made. This shows an overview of the text, rather than being focused on individual
examples.

==========================

Writing the conclusion

To conclude, sum up the points you have made so far. Finally, write a single sentence which answers the
question again – it will be quite like your opening sentence, but do not repeat the same words.

Example
If the question is:

How does Charlie Brooker use language to persuade us of his point of view?

The conclusion could be:

Brooker uses a style of writing that encourages the reader to agree with his viewpoint towards the television
show ‘Masterchef.’ He effectively achieves this through his use of persuasive language and anecdotal, informal
tone to convey his views. The writer appears to have written the article not only to share his opinion of the
television programme, but to cause the reader to question the overbearing presence of shows such as
‘Masterchef’ directing the television schedule, ‘dictating the climate’ causes the reader to consider whether the
television programme is being forced upon the viewer rather than being provided in response to viewer
demand. Brooker is clearly writing to evoke a strong reaction in his reader by highlighting the possibility that
they themselves could be being manipulated.

==============================================================================
 Sample exam question
An example of the type of question you might be asked in an exam and how best to approach it.

==============================================================================

Question and extract

The extracts your exam questions are based on will be longer than the one here. You should still be able to find
at least five points to answer the question. First of all, have a read, and see what ideas you can come up with.
Remember to link each point to a quotation or example.

Question
How does the writer use language and structure to create an entertaining description for the reader?

Extract
In this extract from his autobiography Clive James describes a go-carting disaster.

I could not build go-carts very well. Other children made superb carts with wooden frames and wheels that
screamed on the pavements like a diving aeroplane. The best I could manage was a fruit box with silent rubber
wheels taken off an old pram.

After school and at weekends boys came from all over town to race along our street. There would be twenty or
thirty carts. The noise was incredible.

Go-carts racing down the pavement on one side had a straight run of about a quarter of a mile all the way to the
park. The carts would reach such high speeds that it was impossible for the rider to get off. All he could do was
crash when he got to the end.

On the other side of the road we could only go half as far, before a sharp right-angle turn into Irene Street. The
back wheels slid round the corner, leaving black, smoking trails of burnt rubber, or skidded in a shower of
sparks.
The Irene Street corner was made more dangerous by Mrs Braithwaite’s poppies. Mrs Braithwaite lived in the
house on the corner. We all thought that she was a witch. We believed that she poisoned cats. She was also a
keen gardener. Her flower beds held the area’s best collection of poppies. She had been known to phone the
police if even one of her poppies was picked by a passer-by.

It was vital to make the turn into Irene Street without hurting a single poppy, otherwise the old lady would
probably come out shooting. Usually, when the poppies were in bloom, nobody dared make the turn. I did
because I thought that I was skilful enough to make the turn safely.

Unreliable Memoirs, Clive James

=============================

Sample answer – Attempt 1

Clive creates a story to entertain the reader. He uses a character, Mrs Braithwaite, who is a witch. She is
dangerous. He also describes the go-carts which he built. They are not very good. He divides the story up into
paragraphs to make it easy to read. Each paragraph is quite short. He tells the story in order.

Feedback - Basic
This answer:

Does pick up the word entertain from the question, but doesn’t answer it.
Notices the character of Mrs Braithwaite, but doesn’t go into details about how she is used to entertain.
Is very short, and has very few details in it. Although the answer tells us that the go-carts James built are
not good, it doesn’t use a quotation to tell us exactly how.
Talks about paragraphs, but in a way that is generalised, and doesn’t link them to the question.
Jumbles all the points together rather than separating them out into different paragraphs.
Uses the writer’s first name to refer to him. Always use a writer’s surname, not their first name.

Sample answer - Attempt 2

Since this is an autobiography, James writes in the first person, and tells an engaging anecdote from his
childhood to entertain the reader. He creates a story from this anecdote, including characters, and sets himself
up for disaster at the end of the extract.

The tone of the passage is humorous. James puts himself down by pointing out how terrible his go-carts are
compared to other people’s. His are made out of bits of old rubbish, like a ‘fruit box’ and an ‘old pram’. It is
also worse because it is silent, unlike the ones that ‘screamed’, which shows what the children valued: noise!

After introducing the concept of go-carting, and the expectation of crashing, James introduces a character, Mrs
Braithwaite. He says that they all ‘thought that she was a witch’, which brings a vivid idea of what kind of
woman she was to the reader’s mind. While this is the viewpoint of a child, James mixes the viewpoint with that
of the adult he now is. What makes Mrs Braithwaite dangerous is that she has been known to ring the police if
anyone damages her poppies. This is a much more real threat than her being a witch.

This extract builds to a climax: the prospect of the disaster. James tells us that it was ‘vital’ to make the turn,
stressing its importance. This emphasis is ominous: the reader is left expecting that James will not make the
turn. Anticipating the disaster brings tension to the text, and makes it more enjoyable to read.

Therefore, James uses both language and structure to create an entertaining text for the reader.

Feedback - Improving
This answer:

Has many developed points.

Has an introduction which gives an overview of the answer, and a conclusion, even if it is very short.
Uses quotation and examples to back up points. Some of the points are developed with further
discussion – like how bad his go-cart is.
Acknowledges the information from the context and the question this is both an autobiography and
intended to entertain.
Doesn't use any links between paragraphs.

Sample answer – Attempt 3

Throughout this extract from his autobiography, Clive James uses exaggeration, humour, and careful
structuring of the ideas in order to create an entertaining text for his readers, which builds towards the
anticipated disaster of the ‘crash’.

James uses self-deprecating humour in describing his efforts at building a go-cart compared to the other
children’s. While theirs are ‘like a diving aeroplane’ – a simile which emphasises their speed and grace – his is
made from a fruit box and ‘old pram’ wheels. The contrast between the two descriptions emphasises how
terrible his go-cart is. In terms of the structure of the extract, this establishes our expectations of James, so
when we reach the end of the extract where he ‘thought’ he could ‘make the turn’, we realise that he is unlikely
to be able to do so, and it is all going to end in disaster.

The simile of the aeroplane also suggests a comic exaggeration for effect, which is another key technique which
James uses to entertain the reader. The character of Mrs Braithwaite is another example of this. Although the
description of her as a ‘witch’ is dismissed as simply what they thought of her as children, she will also ‘phone
the police’ – a real danger – if any of the children touch her poppies. Finally, she might ‘come out shooting’ –
a huge exaggeration designed to make the reader laugh, particularly in contrast to the fact that she is an ‘old
lady’, who we would expect to be rather less violent.

Mrs Braithwaite is key to the development of tension through the structuring of the ideas in the text. Having
shown us that we should not have high expectations of his skill, James then describes the difficulty of the route,
and the danger of going wrong and damaging Mrs Braithwaite’s poppies, before making the final dangerous
statement that he alone ‘dared make the turn’. The increasing stakes through the text help to create an
enjoyable expectation of James crashing.
The autobiography offers a very personal look into an incident from his childhood, and James uses the ordering
of ideas, humorous exaggeration, and self-deprecation in order to create an entertaining text which builds to a
climax.

Feedback - Even better

This answer:

has an introduction and a conclusion, both of which refer back to the question
has strong links between the paragraphs, which helps bind the whole answer together
uses details from the text, embedded into sentences, to support the points it makes
uses technical terminology, like ‘simile’ and ‘exaggeration’
picks out the effect of specific words, and mentions that in a relevant way to the question
considers both structure and language and how they are significant in certain areas of the text