DATA COMMUNICATIONS

ASSIGNMENT

Anapalli Mahi Pritam Reddy

Reg No - 189301104

Arrangement 1.

a) Data=10011011100;

M(x)=1+x3 +x4 +x6 +x7 +x8; P(x)=x4 + x3 + 1;

X4 .M(x)=x12+ x11 + x10 + x8 + x7 + x4

[X4 .M(x)]/P(x) = x12+ x11 + x10 + x8 + x7 + x2/P(x) R(x)=x2

T(x)=x4M(x) + R(x) = x12+ x11 + x10 + x8 + x7 + x2 Code = 001010011011100

b) Code is 001010001011101 (gotten)

T(x)/P(x) yields a non-zero remainder. It implies that there is no mistake in the got codeword.

Ques-2. Assume 12 parcels should be sent and each sixth bundle being communicated is lost, Find
the

absolute number of transmissions in:

a. Stop and stand by ARQ

b. GBN

c. SR Protocol

Note: Show the best possible advances

Solution 2.

a) Stop and wait ARQ

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 (Initially)
^
1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12(Packet no. 6 retransmitted)
^
 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 11 12(Packet no. 11 retransmitted)

1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 11 12 (Result=14)

b) GBN (4)

1 2 3 4 5 6 (lost) 7 8 9

6 7 8 (lost) 9 10 11

8 9 10(lost) 11 12 (Result=20)
c) SR protocol -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
^
1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
^
1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 11 12 (Result=14)

Solution 3.

a) Bit Stuffing - Bit stuffing is the insertion of one or more bits into a
transmission unit as a way to provide signaling information to a receiver. The
receiver knows how to detect and remove or disregard the stuffed bits.

Example- the timing or bit rate of T-carrier system signals is constantly

synchronized between any terminal device and an adjacent repeater or
between any two repeaters. The synchronization is achieved by detecting
the transition in polarity for 1 bits in the data stream. (T-1 signaling uses
bipolar signaling, where each successive bit with a value of 1 is represented
by voltage with a reverse polarity from the previous bit. Bits with a value of 0
are represented by a no-voltage time slot.) If more than 15 bits in a row are
sent with a 0 value, this "lull" in 1 bits that the system depends on for
synchronization may be long enough for two end points to become out of
synchronization. To handle this situation (the sequence of more than 15 0
bits), the signal is "stuffed" with a short, unique bit pattern (which includes
some 1 bits) that is recognized as a synchronization pattern. The receiving
end removes the stuffed bits and restores the bit stream to its original
sequence.

b) Byte Stuffing - Byte stuffing is a mechanism to convert a message formed of

a sequence of bytes that may contain reserved values such as frame
delimiter, into another byte sequence that does not contain the reserved
values. In byte stuffing, a special byte called the escape character (ESC) is
 stuffed before every byte in the message with the same pattern as the flag
byte. If the ESC sequence is found in the message byte, then another ESC
byte is stuffed before it.

Example-

c) Pulse Code Modulation- PCM can be seen as an implementation of

analog-to-digital conversion of analog signals providing a serial bit stream.
This means that sampling applied to a continuous-time message gives a
pulse amplitude–modulated (PAM) signal that is then quantized and
assigned a binary code to differentiate the different quantization levels. If
each of the digital words has b binary digits, there are 2b levels, and to each a
different codeword is assigned. An example of a code commonly used is the
Gray code where only one bit changes from one quantization level to
another. The most significant bit can be thought to correspond to the sign of
the signal (1 for positive values, and 0 for negative values) and the others
differentiate each level.

Example-
d) Delta modulation- A delta modulation (DM or Δ-modulation) is an
analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog signal conversion technique used for
transmission of voice information where quality is not of primary importance.
DM is the simplest form of differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM) where
the difference between successive samples are encoded into n-bit data
streams. In delta modulation, the transmitted data are reduced to a 1-bit data
stream. Its main features are:
● The analog signal is approximated with a series of segments.
● Each segment of the approximated signal is compared to the
preceding bits and the successive bits are determined by this
comparison.
● Only the change of information is sent, that is, only an increase or
decrease of the signal amplitude from the previous sample is sent
whereas a no-change condition causes the modulated signal to
remain at the same 0 or 1 state of the previous sample.

Example-
e) Modulation Rate- The rate at which a carrier is varied to
represent the information in a digital signal. Modulation rate and
information transfer rate are not necessarily the same. For
modulated digital signals, the reciprocal of the unit interval of the
modulated signal, measured in seconds.

Example-