Unit 3

Thermal and Water Vapor Resistivity

The use of textile materials as thermal insulators is very common, particularly in the case of
buildings and transport (Marsh, 1930). The thermal properties (insulation) of textile materials
should be carefully studied at different atmospheric conditions. Thermal resistance can be
defined as the resistance of fabric with thickness (d) to thermal conduction (λ), from the region
with a higher temperature to the region with a lower temperature (Saville, 1999). It is denoted by
R and expressed in m2 K/W or Clo (where, 1 Clo = 0.155 m2 K/W). Heat can be transferred in
three ways (conduction, convection, and radiation) that must be controlled to promote effective
thermal insulation. To minimize convective heat transfer, material must be relatively
impermeable to air (Epps, 1988). Heat transfer through fabrics is a complex phenomenon,
depending on a number of parameters like fabric geometry, fabric thickness, fabric density, yarn
structure, weaves design, and the number of fabric layers

The sweating guarded hotplate (SGHP) instrument is used to measure the thermal resistance
(Rct) and water vapor resistance (Ret) of fabrics. The hotplate is a porous bronze plate, providing
the best simulation of human skin as compared to plates having a distinct pattern of drilled holes.
Hence SGHP is also referred to as the “skin model” as it simulates the heat and mass transfer
processes that occur next to human skin. The SGHP instrument consists of a temperature
controller, water supply unit, and measuring unit,

It consists of a metal chamber with heating element and a square porous metal plate (3 mm
thick). The test area lies in the center of the plate and is surrounded by the guard heaters (to
prevent lateral heat leakage) and beneath by a bottom heater (to prevent downward heat loss).
This arrangement drives heat or moisture to transfer only along the specimen’s thickness. The
plate temperature is measured by the sensor (thermocouple) directly below the plate surface. The
whole apparatus is housed in a chamber for controlled environmental conditions

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The SGHP is based on the standard test method ISO 11092:2014. According to this test, the
samples are placed on the hot plate (250 × 250 mm) and enclosed in a controlled environment
(air temperature 20 ± 0.1 °C, relative humidity 65 ± 3%, thermal plate temperature 35 ± 0.1 °C,
air speed 1.00 ± 0.05 m/s, and measuring unit temperature 35 ± 0.1 °C). The accuracy of
measurement is determined by a number of factors like air velocity, leading edge effect, bubbles
and wrinkles, and membrane effect. Water-vapor resistance (Ret) is defined as the water-vapor
pressure difference between two faces of a material divided by the resultant evaporative heat flux
per unit area. Distilled water is fed to the surface of the porous plate from the water tank. The
supply is activated when the water level in the plate is about 1 mm below the plate’s surface.
This water is preheated by passing it through the guard heater section, and a constant rate of
evaporation is supplied to the measuring unit using a level switch. A water vapor permeable and
liquid water impermeable membrane is fitted over the plate to allow only water vapor to pass.
The test fabric is placed above the membrane and a controlled environment is maintained (air
temperature 35°C and relative humidity 40%).

The thermal resistance (Rct) and water vapor resistance (Ret) of the fabric is subsequently used
to determine the water vapor permeability index (imt) and water vapor permeability (Wd) using
the following relations:
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Moisture Management
Moisture management characteristics are determined according to the AATCC
195-2011 test method, which not only covers the measurement of liquid moisture management
properties, but also classifies textile fabrics on the basis of these properties. Moisture
management characteristics are largely dependent on fabric structure and the wicking
characteristics of the constituent material. The moisture management tester (MMT) is used to test
the transport and delivery behavior of a liquid solution in the fabric samples. The schematic of an
MMT is shown The measuring principle involves information on the transportation of moisture
through a fabric. It is measured by placing the fabric sample
The measuring principle involves information on the transportation of moisture through a
fabric. It is measured by placing the fabric samplebetween horizontal (upper and lower) electrical
sensors. The change in voltage will give the difference of the moisture content in the upper and
lower surfaces of the fabric, which can then be calculated. A fabric sample of 80 × 80 mm is
placed in the tester, keeping the fabric face downwards. Now, the upper portion of the fabric is
considered to be the surface next to human skin, while the bottom surface of the fabric is closest
to the environment. The test solution is obtained by dissolving 9 g of sodium chloride in 1 L of
distilled water, with its electrical conductivity adjusted to 16 ± 2 millisiemens at 25 °C. A set
amount (0.15 g) of this solution is dropped onto the upper face of the fabric to replicate a drop of
sweat. The signal for electrical resistance of the fabric samples is processed by the MMT’s
software. The measured parameters include wetting time (top and bottom surface), absorption
rate (top and bottom surface), maximum wetted radius (top and bottom surface), spreading speed
(top and bottom surface), one-way transport, and overall moisture management capability.
For ease of interpretation, all the parameters measured are graded and converted from
value to grade based on a five-grade scale (1–5), The fabrics can be classified into seven types
based on the results obtained from the MMT, for example, waterproof fabric and moisture
management fabric.

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Air Permeability
Air permeability can be measured by using distinct test protocols, for example, ASTM D 737
and ISO 9237. According to these test methods, the airflow through a given area of fabric is
measured at a constant pressure drop across the fabric. The fabric is clamped over the air inlet,
and the air is drawn through this fabric sample by means of a suction pump. The rate of air flow
at this point is measured using a flow meter (Booth, 1968). The value of permeability may differ
considerably across the entire area of the fabric due to irregularities in the yarn (Havlova, 2014).
The permeability findings are not influenced by fabric orientation because the measured area is
always circular. The test conditions for the measurement of air permeability are the clamping
area of the sample (cm2) and the pressure difference (Pa). According to the ASTM standard, the
recommended test area is 38.3 cm2, while alternate areas are 5 and 100 cm2. The air is drawn
perpendicularly through the fabric and the airflow rate is adjusted to provide a pressure
difference of between 100 and 2500 Pa between the two fabric surfaces (minimum pressure drop
of 125 Pa). The pressure drop is 100 Pa for apparels and 200 Pa for industrial fabrics. The air
permeability in mm/s can be calculated as

IR Thermography

Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy. It has specific electrical and

magnetic properties. Different particles behave differently when they are exposed to
electromagnetic radiation. The wavelength range of such radiation is termed the electromagnetic
spectrum (Sankaran and Ehsani, 2014). It has two parts, that is visible radiation and invisible

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radiation, depending on whether it is visible to the human eye. there systems exist to identify the
presence of the invisible part of the spectrum, which consists of radiowaves, microwaves, the
infrared, the ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.
Any object with a temperature above 0 K emits IR (Ghassemi, 2012). The pattern
of this radiation can be recorded by using an infrared camera. As infrared relates to the heat, this
technique is known as thermography or IR thermography. The use of thermography has
increased dramatically within commercial and industrial applications during recent years (FLIR,
2009). It helps firefighters during incidents with a lot of smoke. Thermography, as its name
indicates, is a technique used to map the temperature of a scene. It actually allows us to see
thermal energy or heat. It is a rapid, efficient, and full-field technique for non-destructive testing
and evaluation. Special cameras are used to take thermal images that are generally called IR
cameras.
These cameras use special focal plane arrays (FPAs) as sensors. Previously, such cameras
used a bolometer as a sensor, which required a cooling mechanism. The new methods involve
the use of a cheap, uncooled micro-bolometer, such as an FPA. IR cameras have several
applications, for example, night vision, research, non-destructive testing, process control,
medical, surveillance, and health care. The biggest use, right now, of IR thermography is for
night vision devices. In addition to that, it is also used for research and development. IR
thermography can also be used for maintenance.
Any kind of leakage of gas can be detected with an IR camera. On the other hand, the
excessive heating of the parts of an electronic circuit can also be spotted with an IR camera. A
new application of these cameras is the study of interface pressure distribution (IPD) in a car
seat. As soon as a human body comes in contact with a car seat, heat exchange starts between
them due to the temperature difference between the bodies. However, the amount of heat
exchanged decreases as the temperature difference between both bodies reduces and finally
comes to equilibrium. Further, the pressure exerted by the human body on the car seat is not the
same at all points.
There were two hypotheses in this study:
1. Heat transferred at different points in the car seat is not the same.
2. Heat transferred has a correlation with the pressure exerted