Manufacturing Processes

Specific
Tolerances
Limit Dimensions
Permissible variation in a part feature size, consisting of the
maximum and minimum dimensions allowed

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 Manufacturing Processes
Specific
Tolerances
Unilateral Tolerance
Variation from the specified dimension is permitted in only one direction,

either positive or negative, but not both.

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 Manufacturing Processes Specific
Tolerances
Bilateral Tolerance
Variation is permitted in both positive and negative directions from
the nominal dimension.

It is possible for a bilateral tolerance to be unbalanced; for example,

2.500 +0.010, -0.005

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Dimensional
Angular size dimension tolerance Tolerances (Size)
It specifies the allowable variation on the
size or gap formed by two angular
elements of the shape.

Curved dimension tolerance

It is a tolerance on a dimension for a curved
feature element measured along the entire
path of the curve

Diameter dimension tolerance

It is the allowable variation of the size of a
hole in a feature.

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Dimensional
Radial dimension tolerance Tolerances (Size)
It is the allowable variation for the radial distance
from the center of a feature circular curve to a
point on the curve.

Location dimension tolerance

It is the allowable variation in locating one
feature of a point with respect to another.

Angular dimension tolerance

It defines the allowable variation in the angle

between two elements of a feature.

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 Geometrical Tolerances (Form)

Manufacturing Processes

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 Geometrical Tolerances (Form)

Manufacturing Processes

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 Geometrical Tolerances (Form)

Manufacturing Processes

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 Geometrical Tolerances (Form)

Manufacturing Processes

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 Geometrical Tolerances (Location)

Manufacturing Processes

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 Geometrical Tolerances (Location)

Manufacturing Processes

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 Geometrical Tolerances (Orientation)

Manufacturing Processes

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 Geometrical Tolerances (Orientation)

Manufacturing Processes

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 Geometrical Tolerances (Orientation)

Manufacturing Processes

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 Geometrical Tolerances (Orientation)

Manufacturing Processes

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 Geometrical Tolerances (Orientation)

Manufacturing Processes

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Tolerance
The tolerance of size is normally defined as the
Grades
difference between th upper and lower dimensions.

ISO 286 implements 20 grades of accuracy to satisfy the

requirements of different industries.

Production of gauges and instruments.

IT01, IT0, IT1, IT2, IT3, IT4, IT5, IT6.

Precision and general Industry.

IT 5, IT6, IT7, IT8, I9, IT10, IT11, IT12.

Semi finished products

IT11, IT14, IT15, IT16.

Structural Engineering
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ISO Tolerance Band "T "micrometres = (m-6) based on ISO 286 IT Grades 1 to 14

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Fits between
Fit is the general term used to Mating Parts
signify the range of
Looseness and Tightness
of mating parts

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Important
Terms
Nominal size: a dimension used to describe the general size.

Basic size: the theoretical size used as a starting point for the
application of tolerances.

Actual size: the measured size of the finished part after machining.

Limits: the maximum and minimum sizes shown by the toleranced

dimension

Allowances: the minimum clearance or maximum interference

between parts, or the tightest fit between two mating parts.

Tolerance (Tolerance zone): the total allowable variation in a

dimension; the difference between the upper and lower limits

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Tolerancing Holes and Shafts
Preferred fits: A specified system of fits for
holes and shafts for SI units

- Hole basis
•The minimum hole size equals
the basic hole size

• Uses the symbol “H” in the

tolerance specification

- Shaft basis
•The maximum shaft size equals
the basic shaft size

•Uses the symbol “h” in the

tolerance specification

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The most common types of fit found in industry
Type
s
Clearance Fit occurs when two toleranced mating
parts will always leave a space or clearance when
assembled.

Interference Fit occurs when two toleranced mating

parts will always interfere when assembled.

Transition Fit occurs when two toleranced mating

parts are sometimes an interference fit and
sometimes a clearance fit when assembled.

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Clearance and Interference fits between two Shafts and a Hole

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Manufacturing Processes
Transition fit between a Shaft and a Hole

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Fit Type
Determination
If feature A of one part is to be inserted into or mated with feature B
of another part, the type of fit can be determined by the following:

The Loosest Fit is the

difference between the
smallest feature A and the
largest feature B.

The Tightest Fit is the

difference between the
largest feature A and the
smallest feature B.

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Manufacturing Processes
ISO Tolerances for Holes (ISO 286-2)

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ISO Tolerances for Shafts (ISO 286-2)

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 Recommended Fits

Manufacturing Processes

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Tolerances and Manufacturing Processes

Some manufacturing processes are more accurate than

others

Examples:
– Most machining processes are quite accurate,
capable of tolerances = 0.05 mm or better

– Sand castings are generally inaccurate, and tolerances

of 10 to 20 times those used for machined parts must
be specified

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Manufacturing Processes associated with ISO IT Tolerance Grade

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 Metric Symbols of Fits

Manufacturing Processes

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Creating a Clearance Fit using The
Given the following fitBasic
Φ40 –Hole System
H11/c11
From table for hole diameter = 40 and H11 we find
Upper deviation = +160 μm & Lower deviation = 0
From table for shaft diameter = 40 and c11 we find
Upper deviation = -120 μm & Lower deviation = -280 μm
Calculations of dimension limits for hole and shaft
- Maximum hole diameter = 40 + 0.16 = 40.16 mm
- Minimum hole diameter = 40 + 0 = 40 mm
- Maximum shaft diameter = 40 +(-120) = 39.88 mm
- Minimum shaft diameter = 40 + (-280) = 39.72 mm

Maximum clearance = Maximum hole diameter – Minimum shaft diameter

= 40.16 – 39.72 = 0.44 mm
Minimum clearance = Minimum hole diameter – Maximum shaft diameter
= 40 – 39.88 = 0.12 mm

Allowances = minimum clearance = 0.12 mm = 120 μm

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Creating an Interference Fit using The Basic Hole System
Given the following fit Φ40 – H7/s6
From table for hole diameter = 40 and H7 we find
Upper deviation = +25 μm & Lower deviation = 0
From table for shaft diameter = 40 and s6 we find
Upper deviation = +59 μm & Lower deviation = +43 μm

Calculations of dimension limits for hole and shaft

- Maximum hole diameter = 40 + 0.025 = 40.025 mm
- Minimum hole diameter = 40 + 0 = 40 mm
- Maximum shaft diameter = 40 + 0.059 = 40.059 mm
- Minimum shaft diameter = 40 + 0.043 = 40.043 mm

Maximum interference = Maximum shaft diameter – Minimum hole diameter

= 40.059 – 40 = 0.059 mm
Minimum interference = Minimum shaft diameter – Maximum hole diameter
= 40.043– 40.025 = 0.018 mm

Allowances = maximum interference = 0.059 mm = 59 μm

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Surfaces
Nominal surface - intended surface contour of
part, defined by lines in the engineering drawing

– The nominal surfaces appear as absolutely straight

lines, ideal circles, round holes, and other edges and
surfaces that are geometrically perfect

Actual surfaces of a part are determined by the

manufacturing processes used to make it

– The variety of manufacturing processes result in wide

variations in surface characteristics

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Why Surfaces are
important
• Aesthetic reasons.

• Surfaces affect safety.

• Friction and wear depend on surface characteristics.

• Surfaces affect mechanical and physical properties.

• Assembly of parts is affected by their surfaces.

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Surface Technology

Concerned with:
– Defining the characteristics of a surface
– Surface texture
– Surface integrity
– Relationship between manufacturing
processes and characteristics of resulting
surface

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A magnified cross-section of a typical metallic part surface

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Surface Texture
The topography and geometric features of the surface
When highly magnified, the surface is anything but
straight and smooth. It has roughness, waviness, and
flaws
It also possesses a pattern and/or direction resulting
from the mechanical process that produced it

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Surface
Integrity
Concerned with the definition, specification, and control of the
surface layers of a material (most commonly metals) in
manufacturing and subsequent performance in service.

Manufacturing processes involve energy which alters the part

surface.

The altered layer may result from work hardening (mechanical

energy), or heating (thermal energy), chemical treatment, or even
electrical energy

Surface integrity includes surface texture as well as the altered

layer beneath

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Four elements of
1. surface
Roughness - small, finely-spaced texture
deviations from nominal surface
determined by material characteristics and process that formed the
surface
2. Waviness - deviations of much larger spacing; they occur due to
work deflection, vibration, heat treatment, and similar factors
– Roughness is superimposed on waviness

3. Lay - predominant direction or

pattern of the surface texture

4. Flaws - irregularities that occur on

the surface
– Includes cracks, scratches,
inclusions, and similar defects in
the surface.

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Surface Roughness and
Surface Finish
• Surface roughness - a measurable characteristic
based on roughness deviations

• Surface finish - a more subjective term denoting

smoothness and general quality of a surface

• In popular usage, surface finish is often used as a

synonym for surface roughness

• Both terms are within the scope of surface texture

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Surface Roughness
Average of vertical deviations from nominal surface over a specified
surface length

Surface roughness can be approximately calculated using the following equation

n y
Ra  i
where i 1 n
Ra = average roughness;
yi = vertical deviations (absolute value) identified by subscript i; and
n = number of deviations included in Lm
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Surface
• Integrity
Surface texture alone does not completely describe a
surface

• There may be metallurgical changes in the altered

layer beneath the surface that can have a significant
effect on a material's mechanical properties

• Surface integrity is the study and control of this

subsurface layer and the changes in it that occur
during processing which may influence the
performance of the finished part or product
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Surface and Manufacturing Processes

• Some processes are inherently capable of

producing better surfaces than others
– In general, processing cost increases with
improvement in surface finish because
additional operations and more time are
usually required to obtain increasingly better
surfaces
– Processes noted for providing superior
finishes include honing, polishing, and
superfinishing

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Surface Roughness Produced by common Manufacturing Processes

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 Surface Roughness and Production Cost

Manufacturing Processes

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 Surface Roughness and Production Time

Manufacturing Processes

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Metrol
ogy
Science of physical measurement applied to variables
such as dimensions, surface finish, and mechanical and
physical properties.
Measurements require Precision and Accuracy.
Precision is the degree which the instrument gives
repeated measurements of the same standard.
Accuracy is the degree of agreement of the measured
dimension with its true magnitude.

Sensitivity is the smallest difference in dimensions

that the instrument can detect or distinguish.
Stability – The instrument’s capability to maintain its
calibration over a period of time
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