Geology Fundamentals

Geology
Fundamentals
Alluvial fan
Granitic
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Delta
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Revision Date: 01-Jan-2009

Geology Fundamentals
Table of Contents
Title Page……………………………………………………………………………….…… i
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………….. ii
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………… vi
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………….. ix
Chapter 1: Basic Concepts of Geology

1.1 Objectives…………………………………………………………………………….. 1
1.2 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… 1
1.3 Hutton and Uniformitarianism………………………………………………………. 1
1.4 Geologic Time………………………………………………………………………… 4
1.4.1 Terminology of the timescale……………………………………………… 6
1.4.2 The Precambrian…………………………………………………………… 6
1.5 The Earth's Interior and Plate tectonics…………………………………………… 6
1.5.1 The Rock Cycle…………………………………………………………….. 6
1.5.2 The Earth’s Interior…………………………………………………………. 7
1.5.3 Sea floor spreading………………………………………………………… 9
1.5.4 Plate Tectonics……………………………………………………………… 11
1.5.5 The Causes of Plate Motion……………………………………………….. 15
1.6 Questions……………………………………………………………………………… 16
1.7 Answers……………………………………………………………………………….. 17
Chapter 2: Stratigraphy
2.1 Objectives…………………………………………………………………………….. 19
2.2 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… 19
2.3 Sedimentary Rocks………….………………………………………………………. 19
2.3.1 Introduction……………………..…………………………………………… 19
2.3.2 Weathering, Transportation and Deposition……………………………… 20
Weathering……………………………………………………………….. 20
Transport and Deposition……………………………………………….. 20
Lithification……………………………………………………………….. 20
2.3.3 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks……………………………………… 21
2.3.4 Detrital (clastic) Rocks……………….…………………………………….. 21
Coarse Detrital Rocks…………………………………………………… 21
Fine Detrital Rocks………………………………………………………. 25
2.3.5 Precipitated Sedimentary Rocks….………………………………………. 26
Limestones……………………………………………………………….. 27
Biochemical Limestones………………………………………………… 28
Coral Reefs………………………………………………………………. 28
Chemical Limestones……………………………………………………. 28
2.3.6 Evaporites……………………………..…………………………………….. 29
Anhydrite………………………………………………………………….. 30
2.3.7 Depositional Environment of Evaporites…………………………………. 31
2.3.8 Chert…………………………………………………………………………. 34
2.3.9 Coal………………………………………………………………………….. 34
2.4 Sedimentary Structures…………………………………..………………………..… 36
2.4.1 Cross bedding.……………………………..……………………………….. 37
2.4.2 Ripple Marks………………………………………………………………… 37
2.4.3 Concretions…………………………………………………………………. 37
2.4.4 Fossils……………………………………………………………………….. 38
2.5 Igneous Rocks……………..…………………………………………………………. 39
2.5.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………. 39
2.5.2 Classification of Igneous Rocks………………………………………….. 40
2.5.3 Volcanism…………………………………………………………………… 41
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2.5.4 Tectonic Settings of Volcanism……………………………………………. 42

2.6 Metamorphic Rocks………………………………………………………………….. 43
2.6.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………. 43
2.6.2 Agents of Metamorphism………………………………………………….. 43
Heat………………………………………………………………………... 43
Pressure…………………………………………………………………… 43
Chemically Active Fluids………………………………………………… 43
2.6.3 Types of Metamorphism…………………………………………………… 45
Regional Metamorphism………………………………………………… 45
Shear Metamorphism……………….…………………………………… 45
Burial Metamorphism………………………………………………….… 45
2.6.4 Metamorphic Rocks……………..…………………………………………. 46
2.6.5 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks…………………………………….. 46
Foliated Rocks……………………………………………………………. 47
Non-foliated Rocks………………………………………………………. 47
2.7 Questions…………………………………………………………………………….. 49
2.8 Answers………………………………………………………………………………. 51
Chapter 3: Structural Geology

3.1 Objectives…………………………………………………………………………….. 53
3.2 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… 53
3.3 Stress and Rock Deformation………………………………………………………. 53
3.3.1 Rock Response to Stress……..…………………………………………… 54
3.3.2 Factors Influencing Rock Response……………………………………… 54
3.4 Folds……………………………………….………………………………………..… 55
3.5 Fractures……………………………………………………………………………… 57
3.5.1 Joints.…………………………………………………………………….….. 57
3.6 Faults……………..……………………………………………………………………. 58
3.6.1 Horst and Graben..…………………………………………………………. 61
3.7 Unconformities…………………………….………………………………………….. 62
3.7.1 Types of Unconformities…………………………………………………… 63
3.8 Questions……………………………………………………………………………… 65
3.9 Answers……………………………………………………………………………….. 66
Chapter 4: Structural Interpretation

4.1 Objectives…………………………………………………………………………….. 67
4.2 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… 67
4.3 Structural Dip………...……….………………………………………………………. 68
4.3.1 Dip Computation…...…………..…………………………………………… 69
4.3.2 Visualizing Borehole Images….…………………………………………… 73
4.3.3 Borehole Reference….……………..……………………………………… 75
4.4 Regional, Structural and Stratigraphic Dip..……………………………………..… 75
4.4.1 Regional….……..…………………………………………………………… 75
4.4.2 Structural……………………………..……………………………………… 75
4.4.3 Stratigraphic………..…...…………….…………………………………….. 76
4.5 Structural Features……………………..………………………..………………….. 77
4.5.1 Fractures…………..…………………………………….………………….. 78
Fracture Identification……………………………………………………. 78
Fracture Interpretation….……………………..…………………………. 78
Mechanically Induced Fractures………………..………………………. 80
4.5.2 Faults…………..…………………………………….…………………..….. 81
Fault Analysis……….……………………………………………………. 81
Fault Plane Analysis….……………………..………………..…………. 82
Fault Log Examples……………………………………………………… 83
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4.6 Stratigraphic Features……………………….………………………………………. 85

4.6.1 Unconformities………………………………………………….…………… 85
The Process…….………………………………………………………… 85
Unconformity Classification……………………………………………… 85
4.6.2 Porosity and Permeability………………………………………………….. 87
4.6.3 Vuggy Porosity……………..……………………………………………….. 89
Interconnected Vugs….………………………………………………….. 89
Isolated Open Vugs…..………………………………………………….. 89
Mineral-filled Vugs……………………………………………………….. 89
4.7 Sedimentary Features…..…………………………………………………………... 90

4.7.1 Conglomerate.………………………………………………………………. 90
4.7.2 Turbidites……………………………………………………………………. 91
4.7.3 Cementation…………….…………..………………………………………. 92
4.8 Questions……………………………………………………………………………… 94
4.9 Answers……………………………………………………………………………….. 96
Chapter 5: Petroleum Geology

5.1 Objectives…………………………………………………………………………….. 98
5.2 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… 98
5.3 Petroleum Exploration……….………………………………………………………. 98
5.3.1 Magnetic Surveying..…………..…………………………………………… 98
5.3.2 Gravity Surveying…………………………………………………………… 99
5.3.3 Seismic Surveying…………………..……………………………………… 100
Basic Principles………………………………………………………….. 100
Data Acquisition………………………………………………………….. 101
Data Processing………………………………………………………….. 101
Seismic Interpretation……………………………………………………. 103
3D Seismic……………………………………………………………….. 104
4D Seismic……………………………………………………………….. 104
5.3.4 Geological Applications..…………….…………………………………….. 105
5.3.5 Seismic Log Examples….…………………………………………….……. 107
5.3.6 Borehole Seismic……………………..…………………………………….. 110
Checkshot Surveys………………………………………………………. 110
Vertical Seismic Profiling……………………………………………….. 111
5.3.7 Sequence Stratigraphy……………………………………………………. 111
5.4 Petroleum Geology……………………….………………………………………..… 113
5.4.1 Introduction……..…………………………………………………………… 113
5.4.2 The Organic Process………………..……………………………………… 113
5.4.3 Petroleum Migration…...…………….…………………………………….. 114
5.4.4 The Petroleum System and Basin Modeling...…………………….……. 116
5.5 The Reservoir……………………..………………………………………………….. 118
5.5.1 Porosity…………..………………………………………………………….. 119
Primary Porosity…….……………………………………………………. 119
Secondary Porosity…….……………………..…………………………. 119
Fracture Porosity…….…………………………..………………………. 120
5.5.2 Permeability…………………………………………………………………. 121
5.5.3 Interpretation of Permeability Data………………………………………. 122
5.5.4 Relationships between Porosity, Permeability and Texture…………… 123
Grain Shape……………………………………………………………… 123
Grain Size………………………………………………………………… 123
Grain Sorting……………………………………………………………… 123
Grain Packing…………………………………………………………..… 123
Grain Orientation……………………………………………………….… 124
5.5.5 Reservoir Continuity……………………………………………………….. 124
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Depositional Barriers……………………………………………………. 125

Structural Barriers……………………………………………………….. 125
5.5.6 Reservoir Characterization……………………………………………….. 126
Reservoir Calculations………………………………………………….. 126
5.6 Traps and Seals.…………..…………………………………………………………. 127
5.6.1 Traps…………………………………………………………………………. 127
Petroleum Distribution within a Trap……………………………………. 128
5.6.2 Seals and Cap Rocks………………………………………………………. 128
5.6.3 Classification of Traps……………..………………………………………. 128
5.6.4 Structural Traps…………………………………………………………….. 129
Fold Traps…………………………………………………………………. 129
Fault Traps…………………………………………………………..….… 130
Diapiric Traps………………………………………………………..….... 131
5.6.5 Stratigraphic Traps…………………………………………….………..…. 132
Traps Unrelated to Unconformities………..……………….………..…. 133
Traps Related to Unconformities………..…………….……………..…. 135
5.6.6 Hydrodynamic Traps……………….………………………….………….... 137
5.6.7 Combination Traps…………………………………………….……………. 137
5.7 Questions………………………………………………………………….………..… 138
5.8 Answers…………………………………………………………………….……….… 139
Glossary…………………………………………………………………………………….. 141
Bibliography and References…………………………………….……………………... 150
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List of Figures
1.1 The rock outcrop at Siccar Point…………………………………………………. 2
1.2 Series of evolution of the Siccar Point rock…………………………………….. 3
1.3 A fossil assemblage in an ancient limestone…………………………………… 4
1.4 Two examples of the Geological Timescale……………………………………. 5
1.5 The Rock Cycle……………………………………………………………………. 8
1.6 The structure of the interior of the Earth………………………………………… 8
1.7 Northwest Pacific Ocean showing a mid-ocean ridge with
Sea-floor spreading……………………………………………………………….. 9
1.8 Sea floor spreading recording the magnetic changes…………………………. 10
1.9 World map showing major and minor Tectonic Plates………………………… 10
1.10 The three types of plate boundaries…………………………………………….. 11
1.11 Mantle plumes creating rifting……………………………………………………. 12
1.12 Continent convergence……………………………………………………………. 13
1.13 A transform fault…………………………………………………………………… 14
1.14 A simple model of mantle convection current………………………………….. 15
2.1 The grains of a typical detrital rock………………………………………………. 21
2.2 Types of roundness for detrital grains………………….……………………….. 22
2.3 The degree of sorting related to transport…..…………………………………… 23
2.4 A diagram showing the degree of sorting….……………………………………. 23
2.5 Facies models………………………………………………………………………. 24
2.6 Some common depositional environments……………………………………… 24
2.7 A typical turbidite sequence………………………………………………………. 25
2.8 Freshly deposited vs. compacted clays…………………..……………………… 26
2.9 Cross-section of Ooids structure……..………………………………………….. 29
2.10 Halite and Gypsum……………..…………………………………………………. 29
2.11 Anhydrite……………………………………………………………………………. 30
2.12 A salt dome and interbedded gypsum layers…………………………………… 31
2.13 Depositional environments of modern evaporites……………………………… 32
2.14 A comparison of the most common hydrocarbon reservoir seals……………. 33
2.15 Graphs showing the comparison of the world’s giant and super-giant fields
seals………………………………………………………………………………… 33
2.16 Banded chert and conchoidal fracturing………………………………………… 34
2.17 Bituminous coal and Anthracite………………………………………………….. 35
2.18 Graded bedding sequence……………………………………………………….. 36
2.19 Cross-bedding……………………………………………………………………… 37
2.20 Ripple marks……………………………………………………………………….. 37
2.21 A concretion in limestone and a fossil assemblage……………………………. 38
2.22 A diagram illustrating common igneous structures…………………………….. 39
2.23 Common igneous rocks…………………………………………………………… 41
2.24 A cross-section of a volcano……………………………………………………… 41
2.25 World map showing active volcanoes…………………………………………… 42
2.26 The effect of pressure applied to crystalline mass in metamorphism……….. 44
2.27 The relationship between plate boundaries and metamorphism…………….. 46
2.28 Common metamorphic rocks…………………………………………………….. 47
2.29 A marble and a thin section of marble…………………………………………… 48

3.1 The three basic types of stresses.……………………………………………….. 53
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3.2 Lithostatic stress…………………………………….……………………………… 54

3.3 Brittle and ductile response to compressive stress……………………………. 55
3.4 Anticlines and synclines in eroded strata……………………………………….. 55
3.5 Common types of folds……………………………………………………………. 56
3.6 Large and small-scale folding……………………………………..……………… 57
3.7 Fracturing as a result of external force………………………………………….. 57
3.8 Large and small-scale fracturing…………………………………………………. 58
3.9 Common types of fault and their terminology…………………………………… 59
3.10 Photos showing common fault types…………………………………………….. 59
3.11 Growth fault………………………………………………………………………… 60
3.12 Relationship between faulting and erosion……………………………………… 60
3.13 Fold pattern of an anticline cut by a fault……………………………………….. 60
3.14 Diagram of drag across a fault plane……………………………………………. 61
3.15 Photos showing a reverse fault………………………………………………….. 61
3.16 Diagram of a Horst and Graben structure………………………………………. 61
3.17 Formation of sedimentary layers…………………………………………………. 62
3.18 Diagrams showing a disconformity and a parallel unconformity……………… 63
3.19 Diagrams showing an angular unconformity and a nonconformity…………… 64
3.20 Photos showing examples of unconformities…………………………………… 65

4.1 Diagram showing the measurement of strike and dip………………………….. 68
4.2 Diagram showing the amount of dip and dip azimuth…………………………. 69
4.3 Diagrams showing how to read dip and unrolling an image log……………… 70
4.4 An example of structural dip from a GVR log…………………………………… 72
4.5 Diagram showing the transition from 3D borehole to 2D image…..………….. 73
4.6 Unwrapped borehole image showing fractures………………………………… 73
4.7 Diagram showing three different borehole orientations……………………….. 74
4.8 Images showing the orientation of fractures and bedding planes……………. 75
4.9 Diagram showing regional, structural and stratigraphic dip…………………… 76
4.10 Diagrams showing zero and low structural dips……………………………….. 77
4.11 The different types of fractures…………………………………………………… 79
4.12 FMI log showing fractures………………………………………………………… 79
4.13 FMI image of 14-pu limestone with vuggy-porosity……………………………. 80
4.14 FMI images before and after a minifrac…………………………………………. 80
4.15 Images of mechanically induced fractures and borehole breakout………….. 81
4.16 The difference between a fracture and fault on an image log………………… 82
4.17 Diagrams showing the fault azimuth, fault plane dip and strike………………. 82
4.18 Images of sealing and non-sealing faults……………………………………….. 83
4.19 An example of a fault recognized on a FMI log………………………………… 83
4.20 Borehole image of a fault…………………………………………………………. 84
4.21 Borehole image of two connected faults………………………………………… 84
4.22 Example of an unconformity showing stratigraphic variations………………… 86
4.23 Examples of unconformities on FMI logs……………………………………….. 86
4.24 FMI log showing an angular unconformity defined by dip..……………………. 87
4.25 FMI log showing an angular unconformity………………………………………. 87
4.26 Several examples of porosity and permeability in FMI logs…………………… 88
4.27 Diagram of the types of vuggy porosities……………………………………….. 89
4.28 FMI logs showing vuggy porosity………………………………………………… 90
4.29 FMI image of pyritic shale…………………………………………………………. 90
4.30 FMI images and outcrop example of conglomerate..………………………….. 91
4.31 FMI image and diagram of a turbidite sequence………………………………. 92
4.32 FMI images of a carbonate and sandstone with cementation………………… 92
4.33 FMI image and outcrop example of concretions……………………………….. 93
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5.1 Diagram showing responses of Magnetic and Gravity surveying…………….. 99
5.2 Diagram showing marine seismic acquisition………………………………….. 101
5.3 Travel-time graph showing the relationship between velocity and time…….. 102
5.4 Diagrams showing the problem of seismic waves with steep beds………….. 103
5.5 Images of a seismic depth map and a synthetic seismogram………………… 103
5.6 A 3D cutaway image of a limestone reef………………………………………… 104
5.7 Images of 4D seismic……………………………………………………………… 105
5.8 Images of 3D survey’s over time and the associated changes……………….. 105
5.9 Illustration demonstrating the theory of bright spots…………………………… 106
5.10 Examples of seismic sections showing structural features……………………. 107
5.11 2D seismic section showing a flat spot and pull-down structure……………… 108
5.12 2D seismic showing salt ridges…………………………………………………… 108
5.13 2D seismic showing a sedimentary basin………………………………………. 109
5.14 3D seismic covering the Mississippi Canyon…………………………………… 109
5.15 Diagram explaining the setup for a Checkshot survey……….………………… 110
5.16 Diagram explaining the setup for VSP….……………………………………….. 111
5.17 Diagram of sequence stratigraphy………………………………………………. 112
5.18 The cycle of organic carbon with the Earth’s crust…………………………….. 113
5.19 Illustration showing primary migration…………………………………………… 115
5.20 Illustration showing secondary migration………………………………………… 115
5.21 Hydrocarbon seeps……………………………………………………………….. 116
5.22 The petroleum system…………………………………………………………….. 117
5.23 Primary pores in a sandstone……………………………………………………. 118
5.24 Catenary, cul-de-sac and closed pores…………………………………………. 118
5.25 Thin sections illustrating different types of porosity……………………………. 119
5.26 Secondary pores in a sandstone………………………………………………… 120
5.27 Fractures in two source rocks……………………………………………………. 120
5.28 Illustrations of the various ways fracture porosity is found……………………. 121
5.29 Basic arrangement for permeability measurement…………………………….. 122
5.30 Illustrations of differing porosity and permeabilities……………………..……... 123
5.31 Illustration of cubic and rhombohedral grain packing………………………….. 124
5.32 Block diagram of sand showing layered fabric…………………………………. 124
5.33 Illustrations of differing shapes of sand bodies…………………………………. 125
5.34 Descriptive terms for vertical sand bodies………………………………………. 125
5.35 Cross-section through a simple anticlinal trap and a field containing two
reservoirs…………………………………………………………………………… 127
5.36 Cross-section showing anticlines caused by block faulting…………………… 130
5.37 Faulted anticline trap showing displacement of hydrocarbons……………….. 130
5.38 Rollover anticline and growth fault traps………………………………………… 131
5.39 Cross-section illustrating the various types of salt movement traps…………. 131
5.40 Hydrocarbon traps around a salt diapir………………………………………….. 132
5.41 Example of a lens trap…………………………………………………………….. 133
5.42 Shoestring sand reservoirs……………………………………………………….. 134
5.43 Stratigraphic traps…………………………………………………………………. 134
5.44 Traps associated with a limestone reef…………………………………………. 135
5.45 Configurations of diagenetic traps……………….………………………………. 136
5.46 Cross-section showing the occurrence of strike valleys………………………. 136
5.47 Hydrodynamically tilted oil-water contact……………………………………….. 137
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List of Tables
2.1 Classification of common sedimentary rocks.………………………………….. 21
2.2 The Wentworth scale for classifying sediments by size………………………. 22
2.3 Classification of metamorphic rocks…………………………………………….. 46

5.1 Basic classifications of hydrocarbon traps……………………………………… 129
5.2 Classification of stratigraphic traps………………………………………………. 133
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Geology Fundamentals Basic Concepts of Geology
1.1 Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Explain the key concept behind Uniformitarianism.

2. Explain the difference between geological time and absolute time.
3. Differentiate between continental and oceanic crust.
4. Explain the concept behind the Rock Cycle.
5. Understand the theory of Plate Tectonics and sea-floor spreading.
6. Explain the difference between Convergent, Divergent and Transform boundaries.
1.2 Introduction
Geology is the science of the earth, the study of its composition, structure, and history. It is a
science concerned with everything from migration of sand dunes across a desert to the
migration of continents across the globe. The scope of geological investigations ranges from
atomic to global, from events that occur in seconds to those that take billions of years to
unfold.
In the petroleum industry, which finds and recovers oil and gas from deep within the earth’s
crust, geology is fundamental. Petroleum occurs mostly in isolated, hard-to-find
accumulations. The scientific study of the earth’s history and its life, especially as recorded in
the rocks of the crust, reduces the risk of drilling dry holes and lowers the cost of production
by helping determine the most efficient way of drilling a well. Knowledge of geology increases
the total supply of petroleum by helping recover more of the resource in place.
Petroleum geologists are most concerned with rocks formed in the earth’s surface by
processes closely associated with both climate and life. The way these rocks are created and
changed, as well as how oil and gas form and accumulate in them, are the principal concerns
of the petroleum geologist. For a thorough understanding of these processes, it is necessary
to look back in time, first, to the beginning of the modern science of geology; then, to the
beginning of the earth itself.
1.3 Hutton and Uniformitarianism
Geology is a relatively young science, having begun to evolve into something like its modern
form in the late eighteenth century. Little was known in the early days of the composition and
structure of the Earth’s crust and the interior of the Earth was a mystery.
Ancient geologists believed that the earth had been created all at once, complete with all its
mountains, canyons, and oceans, in a single great cataclysm. In the 1700’s, scientists began
to understand that familiar natural processes, such as the accumulation and erosion of
sediment, and “minor” cataclysms, such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, could
account for all the features of the earth’s crust given enough time. The theories of
Catastrophism were eventually replaced by the theory of Gradualism or Uniformitarianism,
which still holds today.
The founding of modern geology is called the Huttonian revolution, in honour of the
contributions of the Scottish physician, James Hutton (1726-1797). His ideas can be
expressed in three principles:
1. The processes that presently shape the Earth have acted in much the same manner
throughout geologic time; so direct observation of the Earth today enables us to
interpret the past.
1
2. Observation of the Earth reveals that these processes cause change in very small
increments, but the sum of the changes observed are enormous.
3. Earth is a dynamic planet whose surface is in a constant state of change and whose
materials are ceaselessly cycled and recycled.
Hutton’s first principle is called Uniformitarianism. It is summarized by the phrase “the

present is the key to the past”, meaning that by looking at the geological processes of today
we can understand what has happened in the past. This concept of gradual change is central
to modern geology.
Hutton reached his conclusions regarding the Earth’s great age and dynamism by applying
the principle of Uniformitarianism to the rocks he observed in the field (Figure 1.1 and 1.2).
One outcrop of rock he observed showed that the rock layers, or strata, were sedimentary
rocks consisting of fragments derived from the wearing away of older rocks. He also noted
that there were two distinct sequences of strata present: a nearly horizontal sequence resting
atop one of that had been compressed into a series of wavelike folds. The boundary between
the two is known as an unconformity.
The vertical sequence had originally been deposited horizontally on the sea floor and was the
remnant of a much thicker accumulation of sedimentary rock. The rocks were then folded
and uplifted by powerful forces from within the Earth to form a mountain range. With uplift
came erosion that wore the rock down to sea level, and the younger, nearly horizontal strata
were spread over the underlying folded rock. What we don’t know, and have no way of
knowing, is the amount of time it took to erode the older rock from being a mountain to sea
level that is represented by the unconformity.
Figure 1.1 The rock outcrop at Siccar Point, Scotland, where Hutton drew his theory from concerning
the Earth’s age and ability to recycle materials (taken from Dolgoff, 1996).
Uniformitarianism Theory – “The present is the key to the past”
2
(a) Strata 1 is deposited on the sea floor (b) Strata 1 is folded and uplifted above
sea level
(c) Strata 1 eroded (d) Strata 2 deposited on top of eroded

surface
(e) Both strata sequences tilted and

uplifted above sea level. Strata 2 eroded.
Figure 1.2 Series of evolution of the Siccar Point rock (taken from Dolgoff, 1996).
3
1.4 Geologic Time
In the early days of geology, the determination in which the sequence of rocks was formed,
their relative ages, was made by tracing the physical relationships among the rocks.
However, such methods could not be applied to rocks that were in separate locations. In
order to compare the ages of rocks of rock sequences in Scotland to those in China, for
example, we require the existence of objects that are preserved in the strata throughout the
world and are the same relative age wherever they are found – fossils. Fossils are the
physical evidence of past plant and animal life preserved in rocks, and rocks with the same
fossils were considered to be of similar age.
We can interpret the time significance of fossils (Figure 1.3) through the application of
Uniformitarianism principles. By noting that many animal and plant species are distributed
over wide regions of the Earth’s surface, usually by wind and ocean currents. We can
observe the shells of these and other organisms being preserved today in the sedimentary
layers deposited on lake and sea bottoms; proof that the shells are the same age as the
sediment layers. If the present is the key to the past, we can conclude that a plant or animal
fossil must be the same age as the sedimentary layer in which it was found. Using the
principle of superposition, the oldest fossils are found in the oldest layer, which is generally at
the bottom of a sedimentary sequence, and the fossils in each succeeding layer are younger
than those in the layer directly beneath them (known as faunal succession).
Figure 1.3 A fossil assemblage in an ancient limestone (taken from Dolgoff, 1996).
By comparing and correlating rock strata the world over, geologists were able to construct a
chronological ordering of geologic events called the geologic time scale (relative because it
denotes the sequence of events and not the actual time they occurred). This was largely the
work of nineteenth-century geologists. The earliest division of the time scale is listed at the
bottom, with successively younger ones on top, just the way the ages of rock strata are
deduced in the field.
Until recently, geologists had no way of determining absolute time – the age of objects in
years. Geologists now obtain close estimates of the age of rocks by measuring their
radioactivity. Naturally occurring radioactive elements (such as Uranium) change at a
measurable rate into other elements (non-radioactive or stable elements, such as lead). The
age of a rock can be calculated from the knowledge of the decay rates and the proportion of
radioactive to stable products present. However, not all rocks can be radiometrically dated
and must be used with methods of relative age determination.
4
Figure 1.4 Two examples of the Geological Timescale. Above, the most common form of
representation of geological timescale showing the sequential subdivision of eons, eras and
epochs. Below, the geological timescale and the important life forms for each division
(adapted from Netherwood, 1999).
5
1.4.1 Terminology of the Timescale
The relative time scale is divided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs, in order of decreasing
magnitudes of time (see Figure 1.4). Sedimentary rocks of the Phanerozoic eon contain
abundant, easily recognizable fossils – virtually the entire record of advanced life. This eon is
divided into the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras, on the basis of the fossil content of
rocks deposited during those times. The boundaries of these eras are marked by major
changes in the presence of life forms, including both extinctions and the development of new
species. The Paleozoic era is the age of extinct shelled organisms, primitive fish,
amphibians, reptiles, and plants. The Mesozoic era is the age of reptiles (the best known are
the dinosaurs) and of invertebrate ammonite (ancestor of the modern nautilus and squid).
The Cenozoic era is the age of mammals and flowering plants.
Boundaries between periods are based on less extreme change. Most of the names for the
places where the rocks representing these ages were first described or for distinctive rock
types within these regions. For example, the Devonian period was named for the rock strata
exposed in Devonshire in southwestern England.
Periods in turn are divided into epochs. Although there are many epochs, only those of the
Cenozoic era are listed on Figure 1.4. The Pleistocene epoch, for example, is the time of the
ice ages – the most recent ice advance having retreated only 10,000 to 15,000 years ago.
The lower boundary of this epoch is marked by abrupt changes in microscopic marine fossils
brought on by the onset of cold climates.
1.4.2 The Precambrian
The Cambrian period marks the onset of the Palaeozoic era. Rocks of this era contain the
first abundant fossils. In many places, these Cambrian rocks rest on non-fossil bearing
metamorphic rock. These older rocks are simply called Precambrian rocks, which refers to
the time preceding the first appearance of abundant, easily recognized fossils.
Precambrian rocks make up about 85 percent of geologic time (Figure 1.4). The immense
history of life recorded in the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic rock is packed into only 15
percent of the Earth’s history. Thus Precambrian rock contains the bulk of the Earth’s history
and the story of the development of early life. The problem is that the fossil record is almost
non-existent; metamorphism, mountain building, and erosion have obliterated much of it.
Also, most of the organisms of that time had not yet evolved hard parts (shells, skeletons,
plates, teeth), so there were few hard-part remains to be preserved as fossils. Most of the
existing fossil record discovered so far consists of bacterial colonies, single-celled organisms,
and algal structures, stretching back nearly 4 billion years.
1.5 The Earth’s Interior and Plate Tectonics
1.5.1 The Rock Cycle
The rock cycle demonstrates how any type of rock; sedimentary, igneous, or metamorphic,
can be broken down into its constituent parts (usually minerals) and be recycled to form a
new, possibly different, type of rock. Igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks form a
closed loop that reflects how; internal heat, solar energy, water and gravity act upon and
transform the materials of the Earth’s crust.
The rock cycle is not a smooth-functioning loop. Sediment is transformed to metamorphic

rock only if it is buried deeply (increased pressure) and in a region undergoing mountain
building or igneous activity (increased temperature). In addition, not all materials are cycled
at an equal rate, because external and internal processes do not act with equal intensity
throughout the Earth (Figure 1.5).
6
Together with the principle of Uniformitarianism and the recognition of the Earth’s great age, it
remains a central theme of geology.
1.5.2 The Earth’s Interior
One area critical to modern geology is our evolving understanding of the physical and
chemical properties of the Earth’s interior – the source of volcanism, earthquakes, mountain
building, and metamorphism.
The major problem in studying the interior has always been our inability to drill far beneath the
surface (the deepest vertical depth is about 10 miles). Geologists have had to infer the
properties of the interior by measuring the Earth’s gravitational and magnetic fields, by
sampling the heat that escapes through to the surface, and by detecting the vibrations set off
by earthquakes (seismic waves) that travel through the Earth’s interior.
By analyzing the wave patterns detected at recording stations located around the world,
geologists were able to reconstruct the wave paths through the interior. They discovered that
at certain depths, seismic waves bend abruptly or are reflected back to the surface, while at
other depths waves die out completely. Geologists realized that the abrupt changes at
various depths mark the boundaries between materials that differ from one another either in
composition or in their physical state. The Earth was established to be largely solid and
consists of four major concentric layers: crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core, which differ
in thickness, density, composition and other physical properties (Figure 1.6).
The outermost layer, the crust, is the thinnest of the four. It is divided into high standing
continental crust, from 12 to 25 miles thick, and low-standing oceanic crust, from 1 to 6
miles thick. Their contrasting thicknesses reflect a fundamental difference in their
compositions and densities. The continents are composed largely of light elements, such as
silicon, aluminium, sodium and potassium. Oceanic crust consists of the some of the same
elements (in lesser proportions), plus a large percentage of the denser elements iron and
magnesium.
Both continental and oceanic crust sit on the denser mantle. The mantle is about 1800 miles
thick, from the base of the crust to the Earth’s outer core and this layer comprises most of the
Earth’s volume and mass.
The boundary between the mantle and the outer core is marked by abrupt changes in
seismic wave patterns. Waves capable of travelling only through solids die out together,
indicating that the Earth is molten at that depth. Judging from the velocity of the waves that
do pass through and from inferred pressures and temperatures at that depth, the outer core is
composed mostly of iron mixed with lighter elements, possibly carbon, sulphur, or silicon.
The outer core reaches a depth of 3190 miles. Seismic waves are reflected sharply at that
depth and those waves that do pass through speed up. From these observations and the
estimated pressures and temperatures at that depth, it is inferred that the inner core is a
solid metallic ball about 1640 miles in diameter.
7
Weathering, erosion,
transportation & deposition
Compaction &
cementation
Sediment (lithification)
Cooling &
solidification
Igneous
rock Sedimentary
Uplift rock
Melting
Metamorphic
Heat & Pressure rock
Magma (Metamorphism)
Figure 1.5 The Rock Cycle. Solar and gravitational energy along with the release of internal
heat, power the rock cycle, which has been in operation for at least 4 billion years (adapted
from Dolgoff, 1996).
Figure 1.6 The structure of the interior of the Earth, showing the division of the internal layers
and approximate thicknesses (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
8
1.5.3 Sea-floor Spreading
In the early 1960s, geologists proposed that, in a process of sea-floor spreading, oceanic
crust separates along the rift valley in the mid-ocean ridge allowing magma to bleed to the
surface and form fresh oceanic crust. The crust then slowly spreads laterally, cooling and
contracting as it moves toward the subduction trenches. There it descends back into the
mantle and triggers the deep line of earthquakes beneath the trenches. Evidence for this
theory lies in magnetic reversals and in sea-floor sediment.
Magnetic reversals are seen as parallel bands of strong and weak magnetism in the ocean
floor run parallel to the axis of the mid-ocean ridge. Identical alternating bands of magnetism,
found in continental lava layers, record magnetic reversals – periods in the Earth’s history
when a compass needle that would today point north pointed south, alternating with periods
when the needle pointed north again. The most recent reversals occur at the mid-ocean ridge
(Figure 1.7), and progressively older ones are found toward the flanks of the ocean basins,
evidence that each segment of the oceanic crust was originally formed at the rift valley and
has been moved gradually away from the ridge (Figure 1.7 and 1.8).
Magnetite is an iron oxide found in basaltic lavas that spill onto the surface of the continents
or ocean floor. As soon as the lava begins to cool, the tiny minerals form as solid crystals.
They become magnetized when they cool and they acquire the magnetic orientation
characteristic of the latitude they are located. As the lava solidifies, the magnetites are locked
in place and thus preserve a record of their relation to north at the time they were formed.
Unless disturbed by erosion, metamorphism, or remelting, these magnetites are reliable
records of the past position of the magnetic poles.
If the continents have remained stationary throughout time, we should expect the magnetism
of ancient rocks to match the Earth’s present magnetic field. If we were to compare the
magnetic inclination of an ancient continental rock to the inclination of a compass needle at
the same latitude, we are likely to find that they do not match. Therefore, we can conclude
that after the rock was formed, it moved from the magnetic equator to its present location
(Figure 1.8).
Mid-ocean ridge
Direction of
spreading
Figure 1.7 Northwest Pacific ocean showing a mid-ocean ridge with sea-floor spreading
(adapted from Netherwood, 1999).
Plate Tectonics: The theory that proposes that the lithosphere is divided into
plates that interact with one another at their boundaries, producing tectonic
activity.
9
Spreading away from

the mid-ocean ridge
Figure 1.8 Sea-floor spreading recording the magnetic changes. Over time the Earth’s
magnetic field (b) changes and can reverse polarity. These changes are recorded in the
rocks magnetic elements, such as Magnetite, whose particles align with the magnetic field as
they cool and lock in the polarity for that time. As the sea floor spreads (a and b) these
changes are recorded and can be used to reconstruct the changes of polarity and timing
(taken from Dolgoff, 1996 and Netherwood, 1999).
Figure 1.9. World map showing the six major, and numerous smaller tectonic plates (taken
from Netherwood, 1999)
10
1.5.4 Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is a theory stating that the Earth’s surface is divided into lithospheric plates
(Figure 1.9) and that the interactions occurring at plate boundaries are responsible for the
production and destruction of oceanic crust; the rifting, drifting, and collision of continents; the
formation of mountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes; and more.
The theory of plate tectonics is a relatively new one and offers a comprehensive theory of the
Earth’s crustal structure. The crust is divided by a worldwide system of faults, trenches, and
mid-ocean ridges into six major plates and many minor plates that fit together like the pieces
of a jigsaw puzzle. The process of sea-floor spreading established that new oceanic crust is
created at mid-ocean ridges by magma erupting from the beneath the seafloor and that the
new crust is then moved as if it was on a conveyor belt to the deep-sea trenches, where it
descends back into the mantle to be recycled.
Because the plates are rigid slabs packed tightly together on the surface of a sphere, there
are only three ways they can interact: they may diverge, converge or slide by one another
(Figure 1.10). The narrow zones where these interactions occur constitute the three principal
types of plate boundaries, each displaying characteristic features, earthquake patterns, and
igneous activity. Divergent boundaries, where the plates separate and grow, are
characterized by mid-ocean ridge rift valleys and their continental extensions (Figure 1.11).
New crust is formed and spreads outwards between the two continental halves. The Atlantic
Ocean was born this way about 200 million years ago when North and South America split
away from Europe and Africa.
Deep-sea trenches, volcanic arcs, and fold-mountain belts characterize convergent

boundaries, where the plates collide and cycle lithosphere back into the mantle. Where the
plates meet head on, several things happen. If oceanic crust meets oceanic crust, one plate
is subducted (slips beneath the edge of the other plate) and descends into the mantle,
forming a trench in the ocean floor. The descending plate is melted by the hot mantle in the
subduction zone. Some of its minerals melt at lower temperatures than others and rise
through the crust as magma, which may either cool and solidify within the crust, forming
igneous rock such as granite, or reach the surface as volcanic lava.
If one of the converging plates is made up of continental crust, it overrides the heavier
oceanic plate, which flexes downwards in a trench along the continental margin. When this
happens, magma may erupt from the descending plate in continental volcanoes (Mount St
Helens). If both plates are continental, the collision buckles and folds the rocks into great
mountain ranges (the Himalayas, Figure 1.12).
Magma
Plate
Asthenosphere
Divergent
boundary
Transform
boundary
Convergent
boundary
Figure 1.10 The three types of plate boundaries (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
11
Dome above
Continent plume
Mantle
(a)
Arabian
Red Sea Peninsula
Gulf of
Aden
Ethiopian
escarpment
Somali
Escarpment
East
African
rift valley
(b)
Figure 1.11 (a) A rising mantle plume beneath the continental crust forms a dome with three
branching fractures. (b) The fractures spread apart, forming narrow rift valleys that widen and
deepen far enough for magma to well up from the mantle and form oceanic crust. The third
rift does not completely separate (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
12
Indian Ocean Tethys Sea Trench Volcanic

arc
Asia
India
Accretionary
Continental
shelf wedge
deposits
Continental crust Continental crust
Lithosphere
Australian – Indian Plate Subduction Eurasian Plate

zone
(a)
Himalayas
Indian Ocean Tibetan

Plateau
India
Asia
Continental crust
(b)
Figure 1.12. Continent convergence. (a) Sediment accumulated in the now-vanished Tethys
Sea as the Australian-Indian Plate is subducted beneath the Eurasian Plate. (b) As the
Indian and Eurasian landmasses collided, the Himalayas developed from the uplifted and
deformed Tethys sediment (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
13
Transform boundaries are where the plates slide by one another, and are characterized by
narrow fracture zones that connect offset segments of the mid-ocean ridge or deep-sea
trenches (Figure 1.13).
How thick are the plates? Using seismic waves is the best method to date in determining the
thickness, and the wave velocities increase to a depth of 62 miles, confirming that this outer
zone of the Earth is quite rigid. This depth marks the base of the lithosphere, which is
composed of the crust and a thin layer of the upper mantle. It is divided into many plates;
which are what geologist’s refer to in discussing plate tectonics. Seismic wave velocities
decrease markedly beneath the lithosphere and do not recover until they reach 155 miles,
which suggest a zone in the mantle that is close to melting and has lost some of its rigidity.
The plates glide over, or are carried along on, this soft yielding zone in the mantle, the
asthenosphere.
Figure 1.13. A transform fault may connect (a) two offset ridges, (b) a ridge to a trench, or (c)
two offset trenches (taken from Dolgoff, 1996).
Plate tectonics is responsible for all aspects of the petroleum system; the
types and distributions of petroleum basins, source rocks, seals, reservoirs,
style and type of trap development, and preservation.
14
1.5.5 The Causes of Plate Motion
One major problem posed by the theory of plate tectonics is that no one has been able to
determine precisely what causes the plates to move. The main problem is that with current
methods, we cannot see far enough into the Earth to solve the problem beyond doubt. Most
theories emphasize the role of mantle convection currents, in which warm rock rises from
the interior, releases the heat as it spreads, and sinks back into the mantle where it is
reheated (Figure 1.14). This is the same process that happens with air or water (or any
substance that can flow), where the substance is heated, rises up until it is cooled. Once
cooled the substance will sink back down to a level where it can be reheated, and then will
rise up again, thus the cycle is established.
Mid-ocean ridge
Subduction Subduction
zone zone
The rock is
cooled and Mantle
begins to sink
Cold rock
sinks and is Heated rock rises
recycled at up at mid-ocean
subduction Rock is reheated ridge
zones and begins to rise
again
Figure 1.14. A simple model of mantle convection current: the plates separate above the
rising limb of the current and sink into the mantle above the descending limb (adapted from
Dolgoff, 1996).
15
1.6 Questions
1) What is the concept of Uniformitarianism and how is it applied in geology?
2) Why does an unconformity represent a time gap in the geological record?
3) Explain how geological time is different to absolute time.
4) In decreasing order, rank the magnitudes of time for the geological time scale (with 1
being the largest, 4 being the smallest):
Eons
Epochs
Eras
Periods
5) Explain the rock cycle and the four basic requirements for the cycle to work.
6) Explain how the process of magnetism the rocks have helped prove the theory of
sea-floor spreading.
7) Explain the difference between the plate tectonic types of boundaries.
8) True or False:
Oceanic crust is thicker than continental crust.
Oceanic crust is lighter than continental crust.
The Cenozoic era is the age of flowering plants and mammals.
Precambrian rocks make up about 85 percent of geologic time.
Sea-floor spreading occurs at mid-ocean ridges.
Deep-sea trenches, volcanic arcs, and fold-mountain belts characterize divergent
boundaries.
The collision of the Indian Plate into the Asian continental plate is an example of
convergence.
Hot magma rises and comes to the surface at subduction zones, cools and is
recycled at the mid-oceanic ridges.
16
1.7 Answers
1) What is the concept of Uniformitarianism and how is it applied in geology?

The main idea of Uniformitarianism is that to understand the past, you need to look at the
present, understand the processes and assume that these processes occurred in the
same fashion in the past. Hence, Hutton’s phrase, “The key to the past is in the present”.
2) Why does an unconformity represent a time gap in the geological record?

An unconformity represents a gap in the time record because there is no way of telling
what occurred in during this gap. For example, did any deposition take place, but then
was eroded and removed from the record? Maybe no deposition took place at all; instead
maybe there was some uplift and more erosion. It is impossible to know. Extrapolations
can be made from nearby locations that may have a more complete record, but you can
never be 100% certain.
One useful analogy when thinking about unconformities is as follows:
“The geologic record typically includes gaps, as if pages were either torn from the book or
were never included.” (Dolgoff, 1996)
3) Explain how geological time is different to absolute time.

Geological time, or relative time, is the chronological ordering of events without reference
to their age in years. Absolute time is the age of an object or event as measured in time
units such as years. Absolute time is often determined by radiometric dating techniques.
4) In order, rank the magnitudes of time for the geological time scale (with 1 being the
largest, 4 being the smallest unit of time):
1 Eons
4 Epochs
2 Eras
3 Periods
5) Explain the rock cycle and the four basic requirements for the cycle to work.
The rock cycle demonstrates how any type of rock; sedimentary, igneous, or
metamorphic, can be broken down into its most basic material (i.e. minerals) and be
recycled to form new rock.
The four basic requirements for the cycle to function are: internal heat, solar energy,
water and gravity.
6) Explain how the process of magnetism of rocks has helped prove the theory of
sea-floor spreading.
Magnetite is an iron oxide found in basaltic lavas that spill onto the surface of the
continents or ocean floor. As soon as the lava begins to cool, the tiny minerals form as
solid crystals. They become magnetized when they cool and they acquire the magnetic
orientation characteristic of the latitude they are located. As the lava solidifies, the
magnetites are locked in place and thus preserve a record of their relation to north at the
time they were formed. Unless disturbed by erosion, metamorphism, or re-melting, these
magnetites are reliable records of the past position of the magnetic poles.
If the continents have remained stationary throughout time, we should expect the
magnetism of ancient rocks to match the Earth’s present magnetic field. If we were to
compare the magnetic inclination of an ancient continental rock to the inclination of a
compass needle at the same latitude, we are likely to find that they do not match.
Therefore, we can conclude that after the rock was formed, it moved from the magnetic
equator to its present location.
17
7) Explain the difference between the plate tectonic types of boundaries.

A divergent boundary is the borders between two plates that are moving away from
each other as new crust is formed. A convergent boundary is the border between two
plates that are colliding with each other. At these boundaries, crustal material is
subducted back into the mantle. A transform boundary is the border between two
plates that are sliding by one another horizontally without creating or destroying oceanic
crust.
8) True or False:
F Oceanic crust is thicker than continental crust.
F Oceanic crust is lighter than continental crust.
T The Cenozoic era is the age of flowering plants and mammals.
T Precambrian rocks make up about 85 percent of geologic time.
T Sea-floor spreading occurs at mid-ocean ridges.
F Deep-sea trenches, volcanic arcs, and fold-mountain belts characterize divergent
boundaries.
T The collision of the Indian Plate into the Asian continental plate is an example of
convergence.
F Hot magma rises and comes to the surface at subduction zones, cools and is
recycled at the mid-oceanic ridges.
T There are considered to be seven major tectonic plates.
18
Geology Fundamentals Stratigraphy
2.1 Objectives:
1. Explain the difference between Sedimentary, Metamorphic and Igneous rock types.
2. Explain the effect of weathering, transportation, and lithification on the formation of
sedimentary rocks.
3. Understand the size classification of sedimentary rocks.
4. Identify the dominant sedimentary rock type for beach depositional environment.
5. Define the difference between the limestones and understand how they are formed.
6. Understand how evaporites are formed.
7. Name the common evaporites.
8. Understand how and where igneous rocks are formed.
9. Explain the difference between plutonic and volcanic rocks.
10. Define the process formation and types of metamorphic rocks.
2.2 Introduction
Stratigraphy is the representation of the layers in the earth’s crust. In stratigraphy, the law of
superposition (see Chapter One: Hutton and Uniformitarianism) assumes that layers are
deposited in succession, with the older layers at the bottom and the younger layers at the top.
Stratigraphy involves the discovery of how the layers are applied over time. It includes the
study of the deposition, formation, weathering and erosion of rock. There are many different
types of rock that have been classed into three main groups: Sedimentary, Metamorphic and
Igneous. Each rock group is formed by unique processes that determine how the rock forms,
and reacts to physical and chemical processes.
Stratigraphy also includes the identification and correlation of fossils and bedding structures
that can be found in rock deposits. These features can be used to aid in dating and
reconstruction of the ancient environment in which the sediment was deposited that later
became rock.
2.3 Sedimentary Rocks

2.3.1 Introduction
Sedimentary rocks make up only 7 percent of the Earth’s crust by volume, but covers 75
percent of its surface area. Sedimentary rocks and sediments amount to little more than a
thin coating on the hard igneous and metamorphic crust. Yet they are important for several
reasons.
Sediments and sedimentary rocks are the only Earth materials deposited at or near the
surface under everyday conditions. As such, they contain the entire fossil record of life on the
Earth. In them are recorded the composition, climate, and topography of former landmasses,
as well as physical, chemical, and biological conditions of the oceans that no longer exist.
Sediments also have significant economic importance. Virtually every material useful to
civilisation is mined from them: gold, copper, zinc, iron, lead, diamonds, limestone, gravel,
and clay. Oil, gas and coal are exclusive to sedimentary rocks.
19
2.3.2 Weathering, Transport, Deposition and Lithification
In any low-lying area of the Earth’s surface, such as an ocean floor or lake basin, that acts as
a basin for sediments will have two types deposited. The first are detrital sediments, the
land-derived gravel, sand, silt and clay brought to the basin by streams, winds or glacial ice.
A typical sedimentary basin also contains precipitated sediments from ions that were carried
to the ocean in solution. These sediments are chemical in origin if the ions precipitated
directly from seawater, or are biochemical in origin if the ions precipitated as a result of
organic processes. Often, a single sedimentary deposit will contain fractions of all three
types: detrital, chemical and biochemical.
The raw materials that compose both detrital and precipitated sediments are derived from
three processes: weathering, the physical and chemical breakdown of exposed surface
rocks; transport of the weathered materials to the basin; and deposition in the basin.
Weathering
Weathering causes both mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rock. In

mechanical weathering, the rock is broken down into small fragments or into individual
mineral grains, but the composition remains unchanged. It occurs when water that has
seeped into the rock fractures and pores freezes, expands, and wedges them apart; when
temperature variations cause minerals to expand and contract unevenly; and when release of
pressure causes rock fractures to widen.
In chemical weathering, water and dissolved ions react with solid rock and mineral fragments
to produce materials of fundamentally different composition. Water mixes with ions in the
rock as it passes through, forming acids (i.e. carbonic acid from carbon dioxide and water)
that speed up the breakdown.
Transport and Deposition
Weathering prepares materials for transport. It is the first step in the erosion process that
acts to level continents. Erosion may involve streams, glaciers, winds, ocean waves, and
currents, all of which are capable of transporting sediments great distances from their origin.
Streams carry the greatest load by far, and deposit in a variety of environments where they
are buried at a later date and converted to sedimentary rocks. These environments include
basins, continental margins, coastal plains, and the deep-ocean floor – each of these
environments contain many sub-environments.
Lithification
Lithification is the conversion of sediment to sedimentary rock, and compaction is the first
step in the process. Successive layers of sediment exert pressure on the buried sediment
beneath, squeezing grains tightly together. This can cause a reduction in volume down to a
quarter of the original volume. Pore space remains between the grains, and the pores may
be empty or filled with a matrix (Figure 2.1). The composition of the matrix determines what
type of lithification follows. If the matrix is composed of clay and silt, the heating and drying
due to compaction will harden the matrix to a brick-like mass holding the larger fragments.
However, if the matrix is filled with groundwater or saltwater saturated with silica, calcium
carbonate, or iron oxide, these compounds will precipitate and bind the grains together in a
process called cementation (Figure 2.1). During recrystallization, the mineral grains act as
cementing agents. Under pressure, the grains dissolve slightly at points of contact and they
recrystallize in the pore space between the original fragments.
20
Quartz Feldspar Silica Quartz

overgrowth Pyrite grain
Rock
fragment
Chemical cement Pore

Matrix (mica, clay, quartz) (carbonate) space
(a) (b)
Figure 2.1 The grains of a typical detrital rock consist of a mixture of minerals and rock
fragments. The grains may be bound together by (a) a clay and silt matrix or by (b) chemical
cements (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
2.3.3 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
As with sediments, most sedimentary rocks may be divided into three broad categories:
detrital, chemical, and biochemical (Table 1). The categories reflect the origins of the rock
components. The rocks are further classified within each of these categories on the basis of
texture and mineral content. Texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of the
components of the rock.
Table 2.1 Classification of common Sedimentary rocks.
2.3.4 Detrital (Clastic) Rocks
Detrital rocks consist mainly of fragments weathered from pre-existing rocks. There are a
number of features that a geologist looks for in analyzing the texture of a detrital rock,
including particle size, sorting and shape.
Detrital rocks are also commonly called Clastic rocks, after their texture.
The most obvious textural characteristic is particle size, defined by the Wentworth Scale
(Table 2), which is the basis for classifying the common detrital rock types. Particle size
ranges from boulders, cobbles, and pebbles down to sand, silt and clay. Deposits consisting
of sand or larger sizes are referred to as coarse sediments, whereas silt and clay are fine
sediments. A rock formed largely of gravel is a conglomerate if the particles are rounded or
a breccia if they are angular. Sandstone is formed of sand-sized particles and a siltstone of
21
silt-sized particles. Shale and mudstone are composed of a mixture of the finest particles,
clay and silt. In the petroleum industry the term shale is used to mean both, whereas by
definition, the difference is that shale splits into thin layers and mudstone is thickly layered
and breaks into chunks.
Table 2.2 The Wentworth Scale for classifying sediments by size.
Sorting refers to the range of particle sizes within the sediment and is another useful
indicator of the differences between detrital rocks. It is related to the mode of sediment
transport and deposition.
Particle shape tells a similar story, whatever the original shape of the fragment; it will be
modified during transport to the depositional site. Two measures of shape are the sphericity
and roundness of the fragment. The first is a measure of the degree to which the particle
approaches a spherical shape during transport, whereas roundness refers to the degree to
which the sharp corners and edges of the fragment have been worn down and rounded
(Figure 2.2).
Angular Subangular Subrounded Rounded Well rounded
Figure 2.2 Types of roundness for detrital grains (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
Coarse Detrital Rocks
Detrital rocks are also classified by composition, which is determined mainly by the degree of
weathering at the source (Figure 2.3). The minerals with the greatest resistance to
weathering have the greatest chance of showing up in detrital sedimentary rocks. Therefore,
quartz and clay are the chief constituents of detrital rocks.
22
(a) (b)
Figure 2.3 The degree of sorting is closely related to the transport history of the sediment.
(a) Well-sorted beach sand transported by waves and currents. The finer particles have been
sifted out. (b) Poorly-sorted glacial sediment deposited directly by melted ice, large and small
particles had no opportunity to separate during transport (taken from Dolgoff, 1996).
The mineralogy and texture of detrital rocks are the products of the composition of the source
rocks and of their weathering, transport, and depositional history (Figure 2.4). In mountainous
regions with steep slopes, erosion is rapid leaving little time for mechanical and chemical
weathering. The rock fragments have not travelled far, so there has been little opportunity for
large and small particles to separate or become rounded. Thus, the sediments deposited this
close to the source will be poorly sorted and angular, with a high percentage of coarse
fragments in a clay and silt matrix (the clay and silt come from mudflow deposits). The
sediments buried here will form breccia.
The streams that emerge from the mountains spread sediment as alluvial fans. Sorting is
somewhat improved, and abrasion has rounded the fragments considerably. If fragments
remain pebble-sized but are rounded, then the rock that forms is called a conglomerate.
Finer fragments are transported further and more rapidly, so that sand-sized particles are
predominant at the outer fringes of the alluvial fans and in channels downstream.
Alluvial Delta; flood Beach

fan plain
Quartz Rock fragment Quartz

Feldspar
Mica
Figure 2.4 A diagram showing the degree of sorting, roundness and sphericity improve with
distance from the origin (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
Sandstones vary widely in mineral content, grain shape and sorting. The cleanest (pure
Quartz), most uniform and most porous sandstones are those deposited in beach and dune
environments. Well-sorted sandstones with smooth, round grains tend to be very porous (up
to a maximum of about 35% porosity). Sorting improves as clay and silt are separated from
the coarse particles, leaving a “cleaner” deposit (less matrix). So the sandstones deposited
near sea level in deltas and flood plains or on the continental shelf are much better sorted,
more rounded and cleaner than those deposited upstream, closer to the source.
23
Much of the sediment that is transported by streams and rivers will eventually reach the
beach. As waves wash the grains back and forth across the beach and sea bottom, the fine
particles are sifted out and the coarser fraction remains at the beach. For this reason, beach
sands are often well-sorted sediments.
Swamp Beach Shallow Marine Deep Marine
Peat
(a) Limy Mud Clay
Coal Sandstone Limestone Shale
(b)
Figure 2.5 Facies model showing: (a) the different depositional environments and (b) their
associated sedimentary rocks.
Alluvial
Granitic Fan Flood
Mountain plain
s
Delta
Beach
Submarine
Fan
Figure 2.6 Some common depositional environments of detrital rocks. The table below
outlines the resulting texture of the rocks (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
24
The sediments in the beach and near-shore environment are deposited in strips parallel to the
coast: pebbles or sand-sized particles close to shore, finer sediments in the deeper waters
farther offshore. These strips roughly coincide with the energy of the depositional
environments, which decrease with distance from the beach. Each strip is composed of
sediments whose mineralogy, texture, fossils, etc. make it distinct from neighbouring strips of
the same age. Each strip represents a facies, which are essential to the analysis of
sedimentary deposits (Figure 2.5 and 2.6).
Turbidite deposits are sediments bought to the ocean by streams or rivers and become
subject to submarine transport. Often, the sand and silt are swept away by currents and
waves to the deltas or continental shelf edges, where they are deposited on underwater
slopes. Any disturbance (earthquake, storm or simply too much sediment accumulation) can
trigger a submarine avalanche sending the deposits down submarine canyons. The flows
emerge from the canyons, lose power and spread the sediment as submarine fans.
Turbidites show a characteristic vertical sequence of five units (a-e), deposited by

decelerating flow, called a Bouma sequence (Figure 2.7 a and b). As the sediment settles out
suspension in the water, the largest (usually the heaviest) particles will settle first, and the
finest particles last, into what is called graded bedding.
Bouma
Unit Bottom of the sequence above,
Shows an irregular scoured base
e Mud
d Laminated
silts
(a) Cross-laminated sands; ripples;
c Deposited under low flow
b Parallel laminated sands
a Massive sand and rock fragments;

Deposited rapidly under high flow
Top of the sequence below, shows

An irregular scoured base
Proximal Distal
(b)
Figure 2.7 (a) A typical turbidite (or Bouma sequence) showing the five units. (b) Not all units
can be recognized in every individual turbidite (e.g., a-b-e, a-c-e, b-d-e, etc., may be found).
The deposits commonly become finer distally as well as vertically.
25
Fine Detrital Rocks
Fine-textured sediment consists of minute clay minerals derived from weathering of feldspar
and tiny particles of quartz powder derived from the abrasion of larger quartz fragments.
They tend to be poorly sorted, as sorting mechanisms aren’t effective with such light, fine
particles. The rounding process is also less effective, because the particles are so small they
are protected from abrasion by films of water (bound water).
Clays and silts are deposited in calm waters, which occur in a great variety of environments:
lakes, flood plains, deltas, the continental margin, and the deep ocean. Where deposition
occurs with coarse sediments, the clay and silt form the matrix of the coarse detrital rock.
Where coarse detrital sediments are absent, the clay and silt particles form shale and
mudstone. The difference between shale and mudstone is the environment, where burrowing
organisms stir the sediment mudstone forms, and where they are absent, thinly layered shale
forms.
Unlike the generally round grains of sandstone, the flat, microscopic particles of clay that
make up a typical shale are both adhesive and cohesive; they cling to one another and to
water, making clay both sticky and water-absorbent. The clay particles in a freshly deposited
layer have a loose, disorderly arrangement, like a heap of cards that may have a porosity of
up to 90% and contain a great deal of water (Figure 2.8a). When buried deeply and
compacted, clay particles break and line up like bricks in a wall with little void space between.
Porosity may be reduced to 10% or less as fluids are squeezed out (Figure 2.8b).
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.8 (a) Freshly deposited clays, and (b) deeply buried and compacted clays (taken
from Petroleum Geology and Reservoirs, University of Texas publication).
2.3.5 Precipitated Sedimentary Rock
Precipitated sedimentary rock can be divided into two categories: chemical rocks, which form
through direct chemical or physical means, and biochemical rocks, which form through the
work of organisms in the water. Chemical precipitation is initiated by the evaporation of water
within which ions are dissolved, by the addition of excess ions, or by temperature and
pressure changes that affect the capacity of the water to hold the ions in solution.
Biochemical precipitation is initiated by organisms through metabolic activities. These
activities alter the pressure, temperature, and concentration of ions in water. Most of the
organisms use these ions to make shell matter.
26
Limestones
Limestones are mainly composed of calcium carbonate and are the most common of the
precipitated rocks. The majority are biochemical in origin, having been derived from shell
matter. These carbonate sediments are directly precipitated in warm, shallow waters of
tropical or subtropical seas but rarely in great quantity at colder, higher latitudes or in very
deep water.
Many features of carbonate sediments are analogous to those in terrigenous clastic

sediments, but with some notable differences:
1. Most carbonate rocks are intrabasinal: the rocks mainly originate in the basin of
sedimentation rather than being transported.
2. Many carbonate rocks are "biogenic" in origin, due either to biochemically-

induced mineral precipitation or due to high concentrations of skeletal shell
components. Some carbonate rocks, however, are inorganic in origin.
3. Carbonate rocks generally lithify very rapidly.
4. Particle size in carbonates does not necessarily reflect the energy of the
environment of deposition. Some coarse particles can form or be deposited in
low-energy environments.
The main minerals in carbonate rocks are:
1. Calcite: CaCO3
2. Mg-Calcite: CaCO3, but with some Magnesium
3. Aragonite: CaCO3
4. Dolomite: CaMg(CO3)2
Calcite and aragonite are polymorphs - they have the same chemical composition (although
their trace elements are different), but a different crystal structure: calcite is trigonal, whereas
aragonite is orthorhombic.
The common carbonate minerals differ in their solubility. Calcite is less soluble (i.e. more
stable) than aragonite in most fluids at the earth's surface. The solubility of Mg-calcite (high
magnesium calcite) varies with the amount of Mg substitution for Ca in the calcite crystal
lattice, but Mg-calcite is commonly more soluble than aragonite. Mg-calcite commonly
recrystallizes to calcite during diagenesis; aragonite, being more soluble the calcite
(especially in fresh water), may dissolve to produce secondary porosity or may alter to calcite
during diagenesis.
Like detrital sedimentary rocks, most carbonate rocks are composed of particles, matrix,
cement, and porosity, but there are some significant differences in their origins. The rocks that
form the framework of reefs, for example, have no equivalent in detrital rocks.
Carbonate grains can be divided into skeletal grains and non-skeletal grains. Skeletal grains
encompass both whole and broken fragments of the hard parts (shells) of organisms (i.e.
fossils). Although most skeletal grains in carbonate rocks are calcite and/or aragonite,
siliceous (e.g., sponges, radiolarians) and phosphatic skeletal parts may also be present.
The most common skeletal grains come from molluscs (bivalves, gastropods, cephalopods),
brachiopods, echinoderms (echinoids, crinoids), corals, calcareous algae, and foraminifera.
Skeletal grains can be recognized mainly by their morphology and size; in thin section, they
can be identified by their shape, and the composition and structure of their skeletal parts.
Some shells are aragonite and dissolve readily during diagenesis to form a mould, or are
replaced by calcite. Shells that were originally calcite may undergo less alteration.
27
Non-skeletal grains are dominated by ooids, spherical particles of CaCO3 (Figure 2.9). They
are typically < 2 mm in diameter and consist of a nucleus (e.g., sand grain) surrounded by
concentric lamellae.
The porosity of limestone is little affected by compaction, but depends largely on the type and
proportion of other sediments, such as clay or sand, that make up the rock, as well as on the
degree to with Calcite or other cement fills its pores. New limestone is very porous (as much
as 60 – 70%) void space. As limestone ages, cementation can reduce porosity to 5 percent
or less. Later leaching by groundwater may restore lost porosity by creating solution
channels and small holes called vugs. Leaching by Magnesium-rich water can also lead to
dolomitization, the replacement of Calcium Carbonate by Magnesium Carbonate (Dolomite).
The porosity of limestone petroleum reservoirs ranges from 5 to 20 percent, but is usually
localized and irregular (low permeability).
Biochemical Limestones
Shells are the raw materials for biochemical rocks. After the organism dies, what happens to
the shell largely determines the properties of the resulting rocks. They may remain intact; or
waves and currents may break them into large fragments, carbonate sand, and limy mud.
Their degree of sorting depends largely on the intensity and duration of the wave and current
action. Limestones made of shells that have been subjected to intensive abrasion in beach
zones display similar properties to those of quartz sandstones formed in the same
environment. The ground-up shells are sand-sized, well sorted, and have a clear, chemically
precipitated matrix.
If deposition occurs in the opposite type of environment, in water where there is no current or
wave action (tidal flat or lake), fine particles settle out of the water and are deposited as lime
mud.
Most limestones are deposited in an environment between these energy extremes. They
consist of a mixture of intact and fragmented shells embedded in a lime mud matrix.
Coral Reefs
Biochemical sediments predominate where there is a little terrigenous sediment and where
waters are warm and teeming with life. In these regions, shells of marine organisms are
deposited on the continental margins and form continental shelves. Where warm ocean
currents supply abundant nutrients to shallow waters, conditions are favourable for growth of
coral reefs. Anchored to the mainland, or an island, the reefs are built from the skeletal
secretions and remains of coral colonies.
Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, 932 miles long, is the largest living coral reef. There are
several other massive buried reefs of similar dimensions, including one buried offshore along
the coast of the eastern United States (150 million years old) and an exposed reef system
220 million years old, El Captain of the Guadalupe Mountains in West Texas.
Chemical Limestones
Ooids form in shallow marine (especially tidally influenced) environments, and in freshwater
environments (lakes, hot springs, cave pools). Oolite is the sedimentary rock composed
mainly of ooids (Figure 2.9b).
Modern marine ooids are mainly composed or minute (< 5 µm) needles of aragonite (rarely
Mg-calcite) aligned tangentially to the surface. They typically form in shoals in seawater that
has slightly elevated salinity and temperature. Although the processes are not fully
understood, ooids form by chemical precipitation in seawater (agitation and CO2 degassing),
28
but microbes, especially bacteria, may play a biochemical role in forming some of the
lamellae.
In freshwater, ooids are composed of either aragonite or calcite. Calcite can precipitate in
freshwater because the lower Mg-ion concentrations do not inhibit its growth. Calcite ooids
commonly have a radial structure with crystals radiating outward from the nucleus (Figure
2.9a).
(a) (b)
Figure 2.9 (a) Cross-section of ooids structure. (b) An Oolitic limestone
2.3.6 Evaporites
The term evaporite is used for all deposits, such as salt deposits, that are composed of
minerals that precipitated from saline solutions concentrated by evaporation. The most
common evaporites include halite, or rock salt, the calcium sulfate minerals gypsum and
anhydrite, although there are many less abundant salts that are defined as evaporites.
Evaporites occur in all rocks of all ages, but they are particularly common in Cambrian,
Permian, Jurassic, and Miocene sequences (refer to Chapter 1, Figure 1.4).
(a) (b)
Figure 2.10. (a) Halite, and (b) Gypsum (Images from Andrew Alden, licensed to About.com,
Inc., 2000/2003).
29
Anhydrite
Gypsum can be altered into anhydrite by dehydration with burial of a few hundred meters.
The loss of water is accompanied by a 19-38 percent decrease in solid volume of the
gypsum. Anhydrite can be hydrated back to gypsum after uplift and exposure to low-salinity
surface waters, with an accompanying increase in volume. This is a major hazard when
drilling through these evaporites. As the anhydrite is re-hydrated, it can squeeze into the
borehole and cause a stuck pipe situation. On the basis of their structural properties there
are three fundamental groups of anhydrites: nodular anhydrites, laminated anhydrites, and
massive anhydrites.
Nodular anhydrites are irregularly shaped lumps of anhydrite that are partly or completely
separated from each other by other sediment, generally by a salt or carbonate matrix.
The term chickenwire structure is used to describe a particular nodular anhydrite that
consists of masses of anhydrite separated by thin stringers of other minerals such as
carbonate or clayey minerals (Figure 2.11a).
These anhydrites have been observed in many modern coastal sabkha environments (salt-
encrusted tidal zones in areas such as the Trucial Coast of the Persian Gulf where climates
are arid and evaporation rates are high). Nodular anhydrites can also form in deep-water
environments, in very specific circumstances.
Laminated anhydrites consist of thin, nearly white anhydrite or gypsum laminations that
alternate with dark grey or black laminae rich in dolomite or organic matter (Figure 2.11b).
These laminae are commonly only a few millimetres thick, although individual laminae may be
traced laterally for long distances – some nearly 300km. Also, they may comprise vertical
sequences hundreds of metres thick in which hundreds of thousands of laminae may be
present (e.g. the Permian Castile Formation, southeast New Mexico and west Texas).
Massive anhydrite is anhydrite that lacks any internal structure. Massive anhydrite is the
least common anhydrite.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.11 (a) Chickenwire structure in a nodular anhydrite (b) Laminated Anhydrite, picture
width is 7 cm (Boggs, 2000).
30
(c) (d)
Figure 2.12. (a) A salt dome that has reached the surface, from Qarat Kibrit, Central Oman.
The salt (mainly Halite and Sylvite) is of Cambrian age and contains blackish organic-rich
carbonates, which got carried to the surface inside the salt. (b) Gypsum layers interbedded
with thin clay beds from Talheim, South Germany. Many gypsum layers show ductile
deformation as a result of overburden stress by behaving ductile. Picture width is 3 in.
(Courtesy of Karl Leyrer, Schlumberger Dhahran Carbonate Research Centre, 2004).
2.3.7 Depositional Environments of Evaporites
Modern evaporite sequences are deposited in a variety of environments, including: relatively

shallow marine areas and within semi-enclosed basins connected to the sea by narrow
openings called salinas; in both coastal and continental sabkhas, or salt flats; and interdune
environments (Figure 2.13). . With the possible exception of the Dead Sea no modern
examples of a deep-water evaporite basin exist, however, many geologists believe that many
of the thick, laterally extensive ancient evaporite deposits did accumulate in deep-water
basins.
Some ancient evaporite deposits (such as the Permian Zechstein of the North Sea) exceed 2
km in thickness, yet evaporation of a column of seawater 1000 m thick will produce only about
15 m of evaporites. Evaporation of all the water in the Mediterranean Sea would give a mean
thickness of around 60 m. Obviously, special geologic conditions operating over a long
period of time are required to deposit thick sequences of evaporites. The basic requirements
for deposition of marine evaporites are a relatively arid climate, where rates of evaporation
exceed rates of precipitation, and partial isolation of the depositional basin from the open
ocean.
As surface water evaporates from the basin, the dissolved materials become more
concentrated until the first evaporite precipitate (typically gypsum) starts to form. The
concentrated solution formed at the surface, called brine, is denser than the water below due
to its greater content of dissolved salt, and sinks to the bottom. As it does, normal seawater
flows in at the top through the seaway from the open ocean. The denser brine flowing out
through the bottom of the seaway sets up a continuous circulation pattern. Thus, a steady-
state system is created in which gypsum is continually removed as precipitate while seawater
circulates through the evaporite basin.
Circulation of this sort occurs in the Mediterranean Sea and the Straits of Gibraltar. Atlantic
Ocean water flows in the top of the straits to the saltier Mediterranean, which has a high
evaporation rate, and saltier Mediterranean bottom water flows out to the Atlantic through the
bottom of the straits. The Mediterranean does not evaporite sufficiently now to form gypsum.
If evaporation is extreme, salts precipitate in a circular pattern with the least soluble on the
fringes and the most soluble at the center. The sequence runs from carbonates (certain
limestones) to sulfates (gypsum) to halides (halite).
31
Figure 2.13. Depositional environments of modern Evaporites (taken from Boggs, 2000).
Evaporites are a prime reservoir-quality indicator as their mineralogical composition;

sedimentological features and log signatures are often significant indicators for the quality of
associated reservoirs. Figure 2.14, shows the excellent quality of evaporite rock as a seal,
showing at least equal to considerably less permeabilities than shale.
Evaporites are largely ignored in hydrocarbon reservoir characterization studies because they
are typically perceived as reliable seals, rather than contributors to an understanding of
porosity distribution in the sealed reservoir. And yet, evaporite plugging is a major contributor
to reservoir degradation in most evaporite-sealed giant and supergiant fields in Permian and
Jurassic and Eocene reservoirs of the Middle East, Permian reservoirs of west Texas, and
Devonian reservoirs in Canada.
Evaporite seals characterize some of the most important giant and super-giant oil- and gas
fields in the world. An enhanced understanding of these evaporites will most likely result in
an improved oil recovery rate (Figure 2.15).
32
Figure 2.14 A comparison of the most common hydrocarbon reservoir seals exhibits
evaporites as having the best sealing qualities (Courtesy of Karl Leyrer, Schlumberger
Dhahran Carbonate Research Centre, 2004).
Figure 2.15 Graphs showing the comparisons of the World’s Giant and Super-giant fields that
are sealed by shale and evaporites (Courtesy of Karl Leyrer, Schlumberger Dhahran
Carbonate Research Centre, 2004).
33
2.3.8 Chert
Siliceous sedimentary rocks are fine-grained, dense, very hard rocks. Chert is the general
term used for siliceous rocks as a group (Figure 2.16a and b). Cherts are common rocks in
geologic sequences ranging in age from Precambrian to Tertiary; however, they make up less
than 1 percent of all sedimentary rocks.
Some organisms use silica (SiO2, i.e. Quartz) rather than calcium carbonate for their shells.
Tiny single-celled organisms (Radiolaria and Diatoms) extract most of the silica from
seawater. When these organisms die, the shells fall to the ocean floor and form layers of
deep-sea ooze. Silica precipitates under the same conditions that carbonate does not, thus
oozes are mainly found in polar seas and in regions where cold water rises to the surface
from great depth. Upon lithification, the oozes form bedded chert. However, organisms with
silica shells also exist in warm waters. If the shells are deposited along with abundant
calcium carbonate, they will form impurities in the limestone and collect as nodules.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.16 (a) Banded Chert layers with silty sediment. (b) Chert showing conchoidal
fracturing (Images from Andrew Alden, licensed to About.com, Inc., 2001/2002)
2.3.9 Coal
Coal is generally classified as a biochemical rock, although it is not precipitated by organisms

but consists of the compressed, altered remains of vegetation. The typical environment
where coal forms is a stagnant swamp. Dead plant matter collects on the swamp floor and as
it is buried deeper, compression and heat converts the plant matter first to peat and later to
coal.
Coal differs from every other kind of rock in that it is made of organic carbon: the actual
remains, not just mineralized fossils, of dead plants. Today the vast majority of dead plant
matter is consumed by fire and decay, returning its carbon to the atmosphere as the gas
carbon dioxide—it is oxidized. The carbon in coal, however, was preserved from oxidation
and remains in a chemically reduced form, available for oxidation.
The old saying in geology is that the present is the key to the past. Today we can find plant
matter being preserved in anoxic places, without oxygen: peat bogs like those of Ireland or
various wetlands like the Everglades of Florida. And sure enough, fossil leaves and wood are
found in some coal beds supporting the analogy. It is clear that coal is basically fossilized
peat, formed by the heat and pressure of deep burial. But the wide occurrence and size of the
world's coal beds, some of them tens of meters in thickness, says that the ancient world must
have had enormous and long-lived anoxic wetlands when the coal was being made.
While coal has been reported in rocks as old as Proterozoic (possibly 2 billion years) and as
young as Pliocene (2 million years old), the great majority of the world's coal was laid down
during the Carboniferous Period, a 75-million-year stretch (360-285 mya.) when forests of
34
giant ferns and cycads grew in gigantic tropical swamps. But the key to preserving the forests'
dead matter was burying it. We can tell what happened from the rocks that enclose the coal
beds: there are limestones and shales on top, laid down in shallow seas, and sandstones
beneath, laid down by river deltas.
Coal comes in three main types, or grades. First the swampy peat is squeezed and heated to
form a brown, soft coal called lignite. In the process, the material releases hydrocarbons,
which migrate away and eventually, become petroleum. With more heat and pressure lignite
becomes the higher-grade bituminous coal (Figure 2.17a). Bituminous coal is black, hard
and usually dull to glossy in appearance. Still greater heat and pressure yields anthracite, the
highest grade of coal (Figure 2.17b).
(a) (b)
Figure 2.17 (a) Bituminous coal. (b) Anthracite (Images from About.com, Inc.)
35
2.4 Sedimentary Structures

Regardless of how they are transported, sediments settle to the bottom of the sea, lakebed,
flood plain, and so on, under the influence of gravity. However, deposition is never
continuous and there will be temporary interruptions that may vary from days to thousands of
years. These gaps (unconformities), allow earlier deposits to begin to compact before fresh
sediments cover them. The compacted sediments form cohesive layers, known as beds, or
strata. The surface of the bed, the bedding plane, lies parallel to the depositional surface
and is the boundary between layers. Bedding is the most prominent structural characteristic
of any sedimentary deposit and is an integral part of the depositional process.
Various types of bedding give clues to the environments in which they formed. In graded
bedding, each layer displays a change in particle size, coarse to fine, from the bottom to the
top of the bed (see Figure 2.18). This grading indicates the velocity of the current carrying the
sediment diminished. This condition occurs in submarine flows that deposit turbidites. Each
turbidite bed represents a single flow event.
(a)
Graded
bed 1
Bedding
Planes
(erosional) Graded
bed 2
Graded
bed 3
(b)
Finer
sediments
Fining
upwards
sequence
Coarser
sediments
Figure 2.18 a) Diagram showing a graded bedding sequence in a typical turbidite

deposit. The layers were deposited during separate flow events. The coarse
sediments settled first, followed by finer sediments as the energy of the flow
decreased (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996). (b) Rock showing one graded bedding
sequence.
36
2.4.1 Cross-bedding
Cross-bedding refers to thin beds inclined at an angle to the main bed (Figure 2.19). Only
deposition by a moving stream of water or air can cause such a feature. The cross-beds are
formed when sediment is moved up the less steep side (stoss) in the direction of flow and
rolls down the steeper leeward slope. Shifts in the inclination of the cross-beds mark shifts in
the direction of the wind or current. This bedding can occur on a small or large scale, from
fine layering within a single bed to the thick complex structures of huge deltas that form at the
mouths of rivers entering lakes or oceans.
Figure 2.19 Cross-bedding; formed as the ripples migrate, continuous erosion of the
stoss side of the ripples and deposition on the leeward side.
2.4.2 Ripple marks
Ripple marks are formed by currents and waves that disturb the soft bottom where
sediments have settled. Symmetrical ripple marks indicate circular wave motion of the kind
seen on beaches, whereas asymmetrical ripple marks result from currents flowing in one
direction, such as stream and long-shore currents Figure 2.20).
(a) (b)
Figure 2.20 Ripple marks formed (a) by wind, and (b) by waves along a beach.
2.4.3 Concretions
Concretions are round or irregular masses of more resistant rock formed as a result of
cement precipitating around a core material, usually a fossil or grain of a different
composition. Concretions are commonly found in shale, sandstone and limestone beds
(Figure 2.21a).
37
2.4.4 Fossils
Many types of sediment contain fossils, the remains of past life. Some fossil traces are
simple bedding-plane features, such as worm burrows and plant imprints; others are
preserved bones, shells (most common in the oilfield) and other organic matter (Figure
2.21b). Typically, they are either recrystallized shells or moulds and casts of these shells.
The orientation of the shells can be indicative of sea-bottom conditions when they settled.
For example, shells arranged randomly can indicate a calm sea-bottom, as the slightest
current or wave action will flip the shells concave side down.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.21 (a) A concretion in limestone rock, and (b) fossils in limestone rock (Dolgoff,
1996).
The term fossil includes animal remains, but burrow tracks, plant remains,
animal tracks, carbonization and moulds of animals and plants and
petrification.
38
2.5 Igneous Rocks

2.5.1 Introduction
Most of the Earth’s crust is igneous in origin. Most of the crust is oceanic, formed by the
upwelling of magma from beneath the mid-ocean ridges. This crust is also very young, as the
entire crust is recycled back into the mantle via the process of sea-floor spreading.
The influence of igneous activity is not confined to the oceans. Continental crust is too light to
be subducted, and so has grown through time by the addition of igneous rocks. As oceanic
lithosphere descends beneath subduction zones, it generates fresh magma, which rises and
while cooling intrudes the continent; and builds volcanic chains. Where erosion has stripped
away the thin sedimentary layers of the continents, the igneous rocks that formed beneath the
surface are exposed (Figure 2.22).
Below the surface the molten rock is called magma; at the earth's surface it becomes lava,
although nothing has changed except the name. Most magma is generated through partial
melting of the upper mantle. The magma then rises and spread from the source regions and
intrudes the crust. Most of them crystallize beneath the surface, forming intrusive rock bodies
or plutons.
Large volumes of magma may also rise through the crust and escape onto the surface. If the
magma rises to the surface through a more or less localized vent, the lava and fragments will
pile up around it. Repeated eruptions of this sort will build a large conical volcano.
Alternatively, if the lava pours onto the surface through a long fissure or fracture, it will flood
the surrounding region building a thick lava plateau. All of these types of igneous activities
are types of volcanism.
Eroded volcano
Volcanic Dikes
pipe
Volcano
Lava flow
Dike
Laccolit
h
Sill Eroded
Dikes Sil laccolit
Batholit l h
h
Diatreme
Figure 2.22 A diagram showing some common igneous-rock structures and landforms (they
would not be found this close together in nature) (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
Plutons are generally classified by their relation to the layering of the surrounding rocks that
they intrude through. Plutons are classified into two types; those that intrude parallel to the
layering and those that cut across the layering. Plutons that are parallel to the layering come
in two main varieties: sills and laccoliths. Sills are flat, tabular bodies intruded parallel to the
surrounding rock. They can range from less than a meter to hundreds of meters thick; some
extend for hundreds of kilometres, and others disappear in a few short steps. Laccoliths are
39
mushroom-shaped bodies, fed from a lower vent, magma rises and domes the overlying
layers while it spreads laterally.
Plutons that cut across layers include dikes, plugs, pipes, and batholiths. Dikes are tabular
bodies. They may occur in a variety of patterns, some forming deep irregularly shaped
intrusions. Plugs are cylindrical bodies, intrusions that filled and solidified in vents that once
fed laccoliths, sills, or volcanoes high in the crust. Diatremes are cylindrical, pipe-like
intrusions and many can contain diamonds (Kimberlites).
Batholiths are enormous, complex rock bodies composed mostly of granite. Many show
they have been formed over millions of years by repeated injections of smaller magma
bodies. They form the basic building blocks of the continents.
2.5.2 Classification of Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are separated into four groups, all dependant upon mineral content. These
four groups are (Figure 2.23a to d):
1. Peridotites: found in the upper mantle

2. Basalts: the components of oceanic crust
3. Andesites: associated with subduction zone volcanoes
4. Granites: the main components of the continental crust.
Peridotite is a dark, coarse-grained intrusive rock, believed to form the bulk of the upper
mantle. As such, it is directly or indirectly the source rock of the magmas from which most
other igneous rocks are derived. This rock is relatively rare in the crust, but can be found
where as inclusions in other igneous rocks or as layers in deep fracture zones of the oceanic
crust.
Basalt is a fine-textured, dark extrusive rock. It forms almost the entire upper layers of the
oceanic crust. The oceanic volcanoes of the Hawaii Island – Emperor Seamount chain, the
entire island of Iceland, and great plateaus of the sea floor are all composed of basalt.
Extensive deposits of basaltic lava on the continents have built the Deccan Plateau of India,
the Columbia Plateau of Washington, and similar features the world over.
Andesite is a grey, fine-grained volcanic rock named after the rocks and lavas characteristic
of the Andes Mountains of South America. They are typical of the volcanic island arcs and
continentals chains that border subduction zones.
Granite is a light-coloured, coarse-grained intrusive rock that composes most of the

continental crust. It is significant that granite is only found on the continents.
Magma: molten rock material, generated within the Earth that forms igneous
rocks when solidified.
40
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 2.23 (a) Peridotite, (b) Basaltic lava flow, (c) Andesite and (d) Granite (Photo’s a-c
from USGS Photo Gallery, d from Dolgoff, 1996).
2.5.3 Volcanism
The term volcano refers to an outlet to the Earth’s surface through which magma, gases, and
fragments erupt and to the commonly conical shape constructed by these materials. Usually,
the outlet or vent is cylindrical, having been shaped by gases and rock fragments escaping
the magma. During an eruption, most of the fragmental material accumulates close to the
vent, as does magma that pours out onto the surface as lava. Successive eruptions build the
classic cone-shaped structure common to most volcanoes (Figure 2.24).
Figure 2.24. A cross-section of a volcano consists of a central vent and a network of dikes
and sills filled with solidified lava (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
41
The main pipe is generally located near a summit of the cone, where it opens to a bowl-
shaped crater, or a much larger caldera. The crater can form from a violent eruption that
blows away the top of the volcano or from gentle accumulation of material on all sides of the
vent. Large volcanoes are commonly fed through a network of vents that reach the surface
on the volcanoes from their sides and create flanking cones (Figure 2.24). This internal
system is filled between eruptions with congealed magma that provides the volcano with an
internal skeleton. In active volcanoes, this skeleton acts as a pressure cap on the magma
below.
2.5.4 Tectonic Settings of Volcanism
There are some 600 active volcanoes on the continents and islands of the Earth today (Figure
2.25). Over two-thirds of these are located in the ‘Ring of Fire’ that borders the subduction
zones of the Pacific Ocean. There are several thousand volcanoes that have not erupted in
recorded history but whose lightly eroded cones indicate that they are of geologically recent
origin and could erupt again. Also, there have been some 50,000 submarine volcanoes
identified on the Pacific Ocean floor alone.
Most volcanic activity (volcanism) occurs along diverging and converging plate boundaries
(see Chapter 1: Geology Fundamentals), along the rift valleys of the mid-ocean ridges and
along the island arcs and continental margins that border subduction zones. However,
volcanism is not limited to the plate boundaries and hot mantle plumes can be found in the
middle of plates, where the magma has forced its way to the surface (i.e. Hawaii Island
Chain).
Figure 2.25. Most of the active volcanoes – above sea-level, are located at or near plate
boundaries. They are also numerous along the margins of the Pacific Ocean, referred to as
the ‘Ring of Fire’ (taken from Dolgoff, 1996).
Extrusive: Igneous rocks formed from lava flows or pyroclastic materials that
were brought to the Earth’s surface.
42
2.6 Metamorphic Rocks

2.6.1 Introduction
Metamorphism is the set of processes by which pre-existing rocks are changed by the
pressures, temperatures, and chemical conditions that prevail deep within the Earth. These
changes produce rocks of markedly different mineralogy, texture, and structure that define a
metamorphic rock.
Rocks remain in the solid state during metamorphism. Metamorphism occurs at pressures
and temperatures well above those at the earth’s surface but below those that cause melting.
In most metamorphic transformations, the overall chemical composition of the rock changes
little, although reactions between minerals of the original rock may produce entirely new
minerals.
Metamorphism occurs in deep mountain cores, in rocks surrounding igneous intrusions and in
the fractured crust beneath mid-ocean ridges. Metamorphic rocks are found mainly in the
core regions of the continents and mountain belts. Where exposed, they constitute 25
percent of the surface area of the continental crust. However, greater volumes of
metamorphic rocks are blanketed by much younger sedimentary rock.
2.6.2 Agents of Metamorphism
Heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids are the agents responsible for metamorphism.
Heat
Heat is the energy source that powers metamorphic reactions. It raises the temperature of
the rocks, which means that is causes the ions of the minerals to vibrate more rapidly.
Chemical bonds are broken and the ions are forced to realign in new combinations, creating
new minerals as the old ones are destroyed. In addition, heat mobilizes hot water and gases
within the rock. The fluids act to exchange, dissolve, and precipitate elements within the rock
and accelerate the reaction rates. Heat also affects the mechanical properties of the rock by
softening it and allowing it to deform plastically.
Pressure
A rock subjected to pressure, it is in a state of stress. If the forces are applied equally in all
directions, then the body is said to be in a state of lithostatic stress. In the Earth, this stress
is caused by the pressure of the overlying rocks.
Lithostatic stress squeezes rocks together and reduces their volume. Reactions in which the
atoms of minerals recombine into denser forms are favoured. The degree of lithostatic stress,
along with temperature, defines the general environment of metamorphism, however, the
compressional stress is more directly responsible for many features associated with
metamorphic rocks. For example, pressure is exerted on rocks trapped between colliding
tectonic plates. Most rocks that are metamorphosed in this environment develop a
pronounced layering, or foliation, perpendicular to the direction of maximum compression
(Figure 2.26).
Chemically Active Fluids
Fluids, especially water charged with dissolved gases, greatly accelerate chemical reactions
because they have the ability to dissolve ions in regions of high pressure and temperature
and to precipitate them in regions of lower pressure and temperature. This means they are
43
Figure 2.26. The effect of pressure applied to crystalline mass in metamorphism. The
elongated pebbles illustrate the role of compression in altering the original character of
sedimentary rock (taken from Dolgoff, 1996).
able to decompose old minerals and form new ones. This ability increases with depth, where
the elevated temperatures and pressures convert water to a superheated state, which is able
to dissolve huge quantities of matter that are not ordinarily soluble at low temperatures and
pressures. For example, quartz rarely dissolves at surface, but readily dissolves with
superheated hot water and dissolved gases.
The sources of the chemically active fluids are varied. Clays and some other minerals hold
water as part of their structure (in the form of OH¯ ions); water can be held in the pore spaces
and fractures, or may be seawater trapped in sediment at the time of deposition. Water can
also be introduced; from magma in the crust, from seawater that has penetrated fractured
oceanic crust, or from groundwater that has filtered down from the surface. The dissolved
gases are also derived from a number of sources, but most are released from minerals
subjected to high pressure and temperature. For example, carbon dioxide may come from
the breakdown of calcite and shell matter.
Lithostatic stress: The uniform stress caused by the weight of overlying rocks.
44
2.6.3 Types of Metamorphism
The various types of metamorphism are based on the geologic processes responsible for
them (Figure 2.27).
Regional Metamorphism
Regional metamorphism is the most widely occurring type, and it is the type most commonly
associated with the term, metamorphism. It is induced in pre-existing rocks during subduction
and plate collisions that produce fold-mountain ranges. In these mountain-building
environments, the rocks are invaded by the heat and fluids that escape from magmas rising
from subducting plates, and they are subjected to enormous compressive stresses caused by
the plates squeezing together. Most regionally metamorphosed rocks exhibit a pronounced
foliation developed in response to this stress. Regional metamorphism generally occurs at
depths of 3 to 24 miles.
Contact Metamorphism
Contact metamorphism occurs where magma alters the cooler rock surrounding the
igneous intrusion. The rock is baked, recrystallized, or otherwise changed through reactions
driven by the infusion of heat and by the fluids mobilized within the magma and the rock itself.
Shear Metamorphism
Shear metamorphism typically occurs within active fault zones where one block of the crust
moves with respect to another. High in the crust, where the lithostatic stress is low, rocks in
the vicinity of the fault are subject to intensive grinding and are broken into rolled or rotated
fragments, which are further pulverized to a fine powder. At deeper levels, the rocks are also
subject to a great deal of plastic deformation and recrystallization. Faults and shear zones
are generated along convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries, and this is where
shear metamorphism occurs.
Burial Metamorphism
Burial metamorphism is the change induced by the weight of overlying rocks. It occurs in
the thick deposits of sedimentary basins at relatively low temperatures and is basically a
continuation of the same processes that have converted the sediments into sedimentary
rocks. These processes include the growth and hardening of the clay matrix, cementation,
precipitation in pore spaces, and the dissolving and recrystallization of mineral grains at
points of contact.
Foliation: The arrangement of a rock in parallel planes or layers.
45
Subduction
zone Shear metamorphism
Divergent Fold-mountain at transform fault
boundary belt boundary
Hydrothermal
metamorphism
Shear metamorphism
Regional metamorphism
Shear metamorphism Contact metamorphism
Figure 2.27 The relationship to plate boundaries of the various types of metamorphism.
Some types, such as shear metamorphism, can occur at convergent, divergent, or transform
boundaries. Others, such as regional metamorphism, are confined to a single boundary type
(convergent) (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
2.6.4 Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks contain information concerning conditions within the crust, just as
sedimentary rocks contain information concerning conditions at the surface of the crust. Their
textures and internal structures are a consequence of deep crustal forces that have molded
them. Their mineral content is a consequence of the pressures and temperatures that
prevailed within the crust at the time of metamorphism. In this sense, metamorphic minerals
are sensitive pressure gauges and geological thermometers.
2.6.5 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are classified on the basis of texture and mineral content, as are igneous
and sedimentary rocks. As Table 4 shows, metamorphic rocks are classed into foliated and
non-foliated categories.
Table 2.3 Classification of metamorphic rocks
46
Foliated Rocks
Increasing metamorphic intensity caused by elevated temperatures and pressures often lead
to an increase in grain size and a general coarsening of the texture of foliated rocks. Slate,
gneiss, and schist are among the most common foliated rocks (Figure 2.28). Slate, is a fine-
grained metamorphic rock formed from the transformation of shale. Schist is a foliated,
coarse-textured metamorphic rock; most of the minerals display a pronounced parallelism.
Several types of schist can be recognized, based on the minerals present: mica schist, garnet
schist, chlorite schist, etc. Gneiss (pronounced “nice”) is a foliated rock in which bands of
granular minerals alternate with bands of flaky minerals.
Rocks subjected to shallow shear metamorphism are transformed into fault breccia. The
rock consists of angular, fragmented mineral grains resulting from mechanical grinding and
pulverization.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 2.28 (a) Slate, (b) schist, (c) gneiss, (d) quartzite
Non-foliated Rocks
Non-foliated rocks generally have a smooth texture where the minerals display no preferred
direction of growth. They are distinguished mainly by their composition. Quartzite (Figure
2.28d, above) and marble (Figure 2.29a and b), the most common types of non-foliated rocks
are composed of interlocking quartz and calcite grains. They are products of metamorphosed
sandstone and limestone.
47
(a) (b)
Figure 2.29 (a) A coarse-grained pink marble (b) A thin section of the marble displays the
interlocking calcite mineral grains. This texture is typical of non-foliated rocks (taken from
Dolgoff, 1996).
48
2.7 Questions
1) Sedimentary rocks make up approximately … percent of the Earth’s crust;

metamorphic rocks accounts for …% and igneous rocks make up the remaining …
percent of the crust.
2) Fill in the gaps on the diagram below.
Swamp Beach …………………….. ………………….
……… Limy Mud Clay
Coal …………….. ……………….. Shale
3) Which of the following rocks are (A) Detrital, Precipitated – (B) Biochemical or (C)
Chemical? Write the letter of the rock type next to each rock name.
Breccia Conglomerate
Rock Salt Siltstone
Coal Chert
Shale Gypsum
or Limestone Sandstone
Dolomite Anhydrite
4) What features of a turbidite indicate its mode of deposition?
5) Which types of rock are (A) sedimentary, (B) metamorphic or (C) igneous? Write
the letter of the rock type next to each rock name.
Conglomerate Peridotite
Granite Lava
Sandstone Coal
Oolite Dolomite
Schist Marble
Shale Anhydrite
6) The three types of anhydrite are: , and .
7) Evaporites have the potential to be the best reservoir seal because they have the
highest permeability of any rock type. True/False?
8) Cross-bedding, ripple marks, concretions and fossils are types of what?
49
9) Fill in the gaps:

Most of the Earth’s crust is ………… in origin. Most of the crust is …………, formed
by the up welling of magma from beneath the …-… …... Below the surface the
molten rock is called ; at the earth's surface it becomes , although
nothing has changed except the name.
10) The three agents that cause metamorphism are:
11) Slate, is a fine-grained metamorphic rock formed from the transformation of which
sedimentary rock?
50
2.8 Answers
1) Fill in the gaps on the diagram below.
Swamp Beach Shallow Marine Deep Marine
Peat Limy Mud Clay
Coal Sandstone Limestone Shale
2) Which of the following rocks are (A) Detrital, Precipitated – (B) Biochemical or (C)
Chemical? Write the letter of the rock type next to each rock name.
A Breccia A Conglomerate
C Rock Salt C Siltstone
B Coal A Chert
A Shale A Gypsum
B/C Limestone B Sandstone
B Dolomite C Anhydrite
3) What features of a turbidite indicate its mode of deposition?

Turbidites show a characteristic vertical sequence deposited by decelerating flow, called
a Bouma sequence. As the sediment settles out suspension in the water, the largest
(usually the heaviest) particles will settle first, and the finest particles last, into what is
called graded bedding.
4) Which types of rock are (A) sedimentary, (B) metamorphic or (C) igneous? Write
the letter of the rock type next to each rock name.
A Conglomerate C Peridotite
C Granite C Lava
A Sandstone A Coal
A Oolite A Dolomite
B Schist B Marble
A Shale A Anhydrite
5) The three types of anhydrite are: Nodular, Laminated and Massive.
6) Evaporites have the potential to be the best reservoir seal because they have the
highest permeability of any rock type. True/False?
False. Evaporites tend to have the lowest range of permeabilities of any rock type.
7) Cross-bedding, ripple marks, concretions and fossils are types of what?

They are examples of sedimentary depositional features.
51
8) Fill in the gaps.

Most of the Earth’s crust is igneous in origin. Most of the crust is oceanic, formed
by the upwelling of magma from beneath the mid-ocean ridges. Below the surface
the molten rock is called magma; at the earth's surface it becomes lava, although
nothing has changed except the name.
9) The three agents that cause metamorphism are:

Heat, Pressure and Chemically active fluids.
10) Slate, is a fine-grained metamorphic rock formed from the transformation of which
sedimentary rock?
Shale
52
Geology Fundamentals Structural Geology

3.1 Objectives
1. Define strain and the three types of stress.

2. Explain the different responses of brittle and ductile rocks to stress and strain.
3. Identify the different types of folds.
4. Explain the difference between fractures, joints and faults.
5. Explain the difference in the sense of movement between Normal, Reverse and
Lateral (Strike-slip) faults.
6. Understand what an unconformity represents.
7. Differentiate between the different types of unconformities.
3.2 Introduction
Folds, faults and joints are important to geologists because they are the key elements in
interpreting the architectural history of the crust. By determining the geometry of folds and
faults, geologist are able to trace where hydrocarbons may have moved to and been
potentially trapped, as oil and gas accumulate in certain fold structures.
Unconformities are not purely structural as they include elements of Stratigraphy as well. An
unconformity is a gap in the rock record. It is identified by an erosional surface between rocks
of different ages, and it signifies a major depositional break between the rocks above and
below that surface.
3.3 Stress and Rock Deformation
Stress is defined as the magnitude of the force applied divided by the area of the plane.
Consider the three blocks of rock in Figure 3.1. The forces in (a) exert compressive stress,
because they tend to squeeze the rock. Typically, compression shortens, thickens or buckles
rocks. In (b), the forces exert tensile stress, because they tend to pull the rock apart.
Tension elongates and thins the rock. The forces in (c) exert shear stress, because they
distort the shape of the rock. When subjected to shear, a cube will became distorted to a
rhomboid shape, and a sphere will become elliptical.
(a) Compressive stress (b) Tensile stress (c) Shear stress
Figure 3.1 The three basic types of stresses: compressive, tensile, and shear (adapted from
Dolgoff, 1996).
The rock in Figure 3.2 is subject to equal stress on all axes (unlike the blocks of rock in Figure
3.1). This uniform stress (lithostatic stress or pressure) occurs in the Earth’s mantle at a
depth of many miles. The change in volume or shape of the rock that results from stress is
called strain; the particular strain caused by unevenly applied stress is expressed by a
change in shape, whereas an increase in uniform stress leads to a volume reduction.
53
Figure 3.2 Lithostatic stress (also called hydrostatic pressure) results when compressive
stress is applied equally in all directions (taken from Dolgoff, 1996).
3.3.1 Rock Response to Stress
The response of rocks to stress takes three forms: elastic, ductile (plastic), and brittle. The
type of response depends on the type of stress applied, the temperature and pressure
conditions, and the mechanical properties of the rock.
If stress is light, a rock will deform in proportion to the stress; then when stress is removed,
the rock will return to its original shape. This is an elastic response. If the stress is above a
certain level, the elastic limit, the rock may deform permanently in a ductile response.
Strain is no longer in proportion to stress and the rock will not return to its original shape when
the stress is removed. If the stress continues beyond the elastic limit, brittle response may
occur, where minute cracks develop and the rock tears.
Ductile response causes folds, which are permanent wavelike distortions of the rock. The
stresses that created the folds may have ended millions of years ago, yet the structures
remain frozen. The brittle response is expressed by fractures. Faults are fractures in the
crust along which the rocks on either side have been offset with respect to one another.
Where there is no movement, the fracture is called a joint.
3.3.2 Factors Influencing Rock Response
Two rocks may respond quite differently when subjected to similar stress. In Figure 3.3, the
brittle rock (Rock A) ruptures at or just beyond the elastic limit. The ductile rock B shows
permanent deformation beyond the elastic limit.
Whether a rock responds as a brittle or ductile substance depends on a number of factors,

such as: the type of stress applied, the depth of burial, the temperature, the absence or
presence of fluids, the degree of layers and impurities (homogeneity), and time. Most rocks
have the same responses: they have great resistance to compressive stress and display a
wide range of plastic deformation. However, they are weak and fail easily when subject to
tensile stress.
Elastic limit: the maximum amount of stress a material can withstand before it
deforms permanently.
54
Figure 3.3 Two common responses to compressive stress. In a brittle response, rock A
ruptures just beyond its elastic limit. In a ductile (plastic) response, rock B is permanently
deformed beyond the elastic limit (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
3.4 Folds
Folds are permanent wavelike bends or distortions in the planar features of rocks. Tectonic
plate motion is one of the events that can change the shape and orientation of sedimentary
rock layers. Wherever plates converge, the crust is subjected to enormous horizontal forces
that can gradually compress it by ten’s to hundred’s of kilometres, causing folding and/or
faulting.
Figure 3.4 Anticlines and synclines in eroded strata. In an anticline, the limbs dip away from
the axial plane. Older rock is exposed toward the axis of the fold. These relationships are
reversed in the syncline; the limbs dip toward the axial plane and younger rock is exposed
toward the fold axis (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
55
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 3.5 Common types of folds. The top of each block represents the surface pattern of
the fold type after erosion has levelled the top layers. The front of each block shows the
structure of the fold type in cross section. The dashed lines are the axial planes. (a) In
symmetrical folds, axial planes are vertical and the limbs of the folds dip in opposite directions
at equal angles. (b) In asymmetrical folds, the axial planes are inclined and the limbs of the
folds dip in opposite directions but at different angles. (c) In overturned folds, the limbs of
each fold dip in the same direction. (d) In recumbent folds, the axial planes are horizontal
(adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
The first thing to notice is that a fold may be divided by an imaginary surface called the axial
plane. The two parts of the fold thus divided are called the limbs of the fold. Where the limbs
meet the axial plane at the crest of the fold, they form a line that can be considered the fold
axis (see Figure 3.4).
The block diagram of Figure 3.4 shows two types of folds, an anticline and a syncline. The
limbs of the anticline dip away from the axial plane, giving the fold a convex-up (upward
pointing) orientation. Because of this orientation, erosion has exposed the oldest rock in the
center of the anticline and progressively younger rock on the limbs. These relationships are
reversed in the syncline. Limbs dip toward the axial plane, giving the fold a concave-up
orientation, so that the youngest rock is exposed in the center of the fold. The symmetrical
folds in Figure 3.5 have vertical axial planes and limbs that dip oppositely but at equal angles.
Asymmetrical folds have tilted or inclined axial planes and limbs that dip at unequal angles.
In overturned folds, the limbs dip in the same direction rather than in opposite directions.
For this arrangement to occur, one limb must be rotated so that the older rocks lie above the
younger rocks, in a reversal of the normal sequence. In regions of intense folding, the axial
planes are themselves rotated until they are horizontal and the folds are pushed over on their
sides, producing recumbent folds.
56
(a) (b)
Figure 3.6 (a) A large-scale overturned fold with a near horizontal fold axis. (b) cm-scale
folding in a schist.
3.5 Fractures
When a rock is subjected to various stresses that exceed its tolerance, the rock will rupture.
For example, in Figure 3.7 and 3.8, the rock is subject to compressive stress in the direction
of the external force and tensile stress at right angles to the forces. Planes between these
extremes are subjected to shear. Tension fractures will form roughly parallel to plane A, and
shear fractures roughly parallel to plane B. When the stresses are released, the rock will
expand, creating release fractures parallel to plane C.
Figure 3.7 External force applied to a rock can cause a complex pattern of parallel fractures
(Dolgoff, 1996).
3.5.1 Joints
Natural fractures in rocks where there is no relative movement are called joints (Figure 3.8).
As in the above example, joints have a definite orientation to applied stress. Studies of joints
help to understand regional stress patterns and how the regional topography formed.
57
(a) (b)
Figure 3.8 (a) large-scale fracturing. It is common in fractures to provide a weakened zone
for accelerated erosion. (b) cm-scale jointing in a mudstone.
3.6 Faults
Anticlines and synclines are graphic proof that solid rock can flow like ice in a glacier. Like
most solid materials, rock is slightly plastic. Under uniform pressure over long periods of time
rock can bend without breaking (faulting or fracturing). A fracture in the crust along which the
rocks on both sides have moved relative to each other is called a fault (Figures 3.9 and 3.10).
A normal fault is where the fault plane is at an angle to the rock layers and along which the
rock on the upper-side has moved downward in the direction of the dip. In geology, the dip of
any surface is measured from the horizontal, and is the direction in which a marble would roll
if placed on it. Another way to look at the sense of movement is to define the footwall and
hanging wall sections either side of the fault plane. The footwall section lies below the
horizontal or inclined fault, the hanging wall lies above the fault plane. A normal fault is when
the hanging wall moves down the fault plane relative to the footwall (i.e. keeping the footwall
stationary).
A reverse fault is one in which the rock on the upper side has been displaced upward along
the fault plane – the hanging wall has moved upwards relative to the footwall. A normal fault
allows extension (stretching) of the crust and is often caused by tectonic forces that stretch
the crust. Forces that squeeze the crust together, causing a break where one piece overrides
another, cause a thrust fault.
A thrust fault is where the slip plane is nearly horizontal. The displacement is the result of
large horizontal movements of the crust. Along some overthrust faults, one slab has slipped
several kilometres over the top of another so that a well drilled through the fault would
penetrate the same series of rock layers twice. The thrust fault has a fault plane that is less
than 45 degrees and most often less than 15 degrees (where normal and reverse faults are
usually 45 to 60 degrees).
A lateral, or strike-slip, fault is where the movement is in the horizontal plane, thus opposite
sides of the fault plane move past each other. The fault plane itself may be vertical.
In Geology, the dip of any surface is the inclination from the horizontal plane.
58
Figure 3.9 Some common types of faults and their terminology. Relative motion of the
opposing blocks on either side of the fault is classified as normal, reverse, or strike-slip. A
thrust fault is a low-angle reverse fault (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
Footwall: The rock mass beneath an inclined fault plane.

Hanging wall: The rock mass overlying an inclined fault plane.
Same beds
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 3.10 Photos showing a normal fault (a) and a thrust fault (b). A large-scale strike-slip
fault is shown in (c). The red dashed lines indicate the fault plane and the red arrows, the
direction of relative movement.
59
A growth, or rollover, fault is often invisible at the surface. The growth fault has an active
fault plane in unconsolidated sediments where continued deposition causes layers on the
downthrown side to grow thicker than those across the fault. The plane of a growth fault
curves towards the horizontal at depth and total displacement at depth is greater than near
the surface. Curvature of the layers on the downthrown side often creates a broad rollover
anticline (Figure 3.11).
(a) (b)
Figure 3.11 (a) Growth faulting diagram and (b) in a shale
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3.12 Faulting combined with erosion can disrupt the sequence of rock strata normally
expected to be exposed at surface. (a) Upturned layers 1, 2, 3 and 4 are visible at the
surface. (b) A thrust fault slices and offsets the strata. (c) After erosion, layer 3 is no longer
visible at the surface (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
Normal
fault
Anticline
structure
Figure 3.13 The fold pattern of the anticline ends where it is cut by a fault (adapted from
Dolgoff, 1996).
Figures 3.12 and 3.13 show examples of stratigraphic and structural displacements caused
by faulting. Faults bring rock of different ages into direct contact. Faults combined with
erosion may also cause unexpected thickening, omission, and repetition of strata.
60
Recognizing a fault and determining its relative movement are not always simple. Close
examination of the fault plane may reveal the sense of fault movement. Often, the rock
surface along the plane may be polished, gouged or grooved during faulting. These features
point in the direction of fault movement. Drag in the strata on either side of the fault plane is a
common feature that indicates the sense of movement (Figure 3.14). Because of friction the
rock on the downside are deformed so that they dip away from the fault plane and rock on the
upthrown side dip toward it.
Figure 3.14 Friction caused by the motion of opposing blocks may cause drag in the strata
close to a fault plane. There is a reversal of dip direction in the upthrown and downthrown
blocks (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
3.6.1 Horst and Graben
Normal faulting on a large scale causes Horst and Graben structures (Figure 3.15b and
3.16). They usually consist of a series of massive parallel upthrown blocks (horst) and basins
(grabens), and can extend for several hundred miles. These structures are caused by
stretching of the crust causing some blocks to drop relative to the others along the normal
fault planes.
Drag Horst
downwards Graben
Horst
Drag upwards
(a) (b)
Figure 3.15 Photos showing a reverse fault with drag (a) and a horst and graben (b). On the
reverse fault the sediment layers are dragged backwards against the fault movement
direction. The red dashed lines indicate the fault plane and the red arrows, the direction of
relative movement.
Graben Graben
Horst
Figure 3.16 Horst and Graben structures, caused by the stretching of the crust. This
stretching causes some blocks to be downthrown (grabens) relative to the others (horsts)
along normal fault planes (adapted from Dolgoff, 1996).
61
3.7 Unconformities
As Geologists gather information about the structure and character of the rock formations,
they arrange it in graphic form. This not only helps them visualize what they cannot see
directly, but also provides a way to communicate their findings to others. In particular, it helps
them visualize and display the stratigraphy of the crust – information that describes the origin,
composition, distribution, and succession of rock layers.
The term, stratigraphy, encompasses the techniques used by the geologist to determine the
succession of depositional environments and the relative ages of rocks.
The character of a sedimentary rock depends upon its depositional environment. Some of
many environments where sediments are deposited on today’s Earth: alluvial fans, flood
plains, deltas, the shallow continental shelves, and the deep-ocean floor. Though very
different from one another in texture and mineralogy, these sediments all have one thing in
common: they are deposited in layers parallel to the Earth’s surface (the horizontal plane, see
Figure 3.17).
A sedimentary layer is deposited in a continuous, unbroken sheet with an essentially

horizontal upper surface but a lower surface that conforms to a previous land surface or
seafloor (Figure 3.17). Each layer is deposited on top of older sediments in an undisturbed
series of rock layers with the youngest layer on top and the oldest on the bottom.
Figure 3.17 Sedimentary layers are formed like in B, not A (taken from Petroleum Geology
and Reservoirs, University of Texas publication).
Once a sedimentary rock layer is formed, its continuity or horizontally may be disrupted in a
number of ways; it may be eroded; it may be fractured, faulted, or folded by crustal
movements (tectonics); it may be invaded by magma that cools to form a subsurface body of
igneous rock. Any event that disrupts the continuity of a formation is younger than the
deposition of that layer. Also, any layer that cuts across another layer must have been
deposited after the layer it cuts, and is therefore younger.
62
3.7.1 Types of Unconformities
Sometimes a sedimentary basin is uplifted so that deposition ceases and erosion takes over,
an erosion surface is formed. The upper surface of the most recent sediment layer is eroded
by water, wind, ice or other means to a certain level where erosion no longer takes place.
With time, the region subsides and more sediment accumulates. The gap in the rock record
is called an unconformity (Figure 3.20); it is identified by the erosional surface between
rocks of different ages, and represents a major depositional break between the rocks above
and below that surface. A useful analogy is to think of the rock record as a book, the gap in
the rock record as pages either torn out or never included, and the unconformity as the last
page before this gap.
There are several kinds of unconformity. If the uplift is gentle so the rock layers are not tilted
or deformed, the gap in the record will be called a disconformity. Here, the layers above
and below the disconformity are parallel, but the erosional surface itself represents the
erosional environment (i.e. stream channels). If the erosional surface is, more or less,
horizontal the gap in the record will be called a parallel unconformity, and may not be
readily apparent (Figure 3.18).
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.18. (a) Disconformity, (b) Parallel unconformity (taken from Petroleum Geology and
Reservoirs, University of Texas publication).
Deposition of sediments on layers that have been deformed and eroded produces an angular
unconformity (Figure 3.19a). Sedimentary layers below such an unconformity are not
parallel with those above, and the gap in the record is obvious.
The most profound gap in the depositional record is that beneath the oldest sedimentary
layers. A nonconformity is an erosion surface on igneous or metamorphic rock that has been
buried beneath sediments (Figure 3.19b). In petroleum geology, the rock beneath a
nonconformity is usually referred to as basement rock.
Any unconformity is younger than the rocks beneath it and older than those above it. Thus, it
is a useful tool in determining the relative ages of rocks and the events that have affected
them over geological time.
63
(a) (b)
Figure 3.19 (a) Angular unconformity. (b) Nonconformity (taken from Petroleum Geology and
(a)
Unconformity
Disconformity
Nonconformity
(b)
(c)
Figure 3.20 (a) An angular unconformity, consisting of horizontal limestone resting on the
eroded, upturned edges of a sandstone. (b) A nonconformity, in which sandstone layers rest
on eroded schist. (c) A disconformity, in which the sediments deposited by an ancient stream
rest on the rock that the stream cut its channel through. (taken from Dolgoff, 1996)
Unconformity: an erosion surface bounded by rocks of different ages and

signifying a break in the geologic record.
64
3.8 Questions
1) An upward fold or arch of sedimentary rock is called:

a) An overthrust fault
b) An anticline
c) A disconformity
d) A syncline
2) An unconformity represents a surface on which:

a) Faulting has been followed by erosion
b) Deposition has been followed by faulting
c) Subsidence has been followed by folding
d) Erosion has been followed by deposition
3) An unconformity is always:
a) Younger than the rocks beneath it and older than the rocks above it
b) Older than the rocks beneath it and as old as the rocks above it
c) Older than the rocks beneath it and younger than the rocks above it
d) As old as the rocks beneath it and younger than the rocks above it
4) What type of fault causes Horst and Graben structures?
5) How does a joint differ from a fault?
6) Define the sense of movement in a reverse fault?
7) What is the difference between stress and strain?
8) Name the three types of stress that can be applied to a mass.
9) In an overturned fold, one limb must be rotated so that the older rock overlies the
younger rock? True/False.
10) In a syncline, progressively older rock is exposed towards the axis of the fold.
True/False.
11) What does an unconformity represent? And how is it identified?
12) Define an angular unconformity.
65
3.9 Answers
1) An upward fold or arch of sedimentary rock is called:

b) An anticline
2) An unconformity represents a surface on which:

d) Erosion has been followed by deposition
3) An unconformity is always:
d) As old as the rocks beneath it and younger than the rocks above it
4) What type of fault causes Horst and Graben structures?

These structures are caused by stretching of the crust causing some blocks to drop
relative to the others along the normal fault planes.
5) How does a joint differ from a fault?

A joint is a natural fracture where there is no relative movement. A fault is defined as a
fracture in the crust along which the rocks on both sides have moved relative to each
other.
6) Define the sense of movement in a reverse fault?

The sense of movement in a reverse fault is where the rock on the upper side has been
displaced upward along the fault plane – the hanging wall has moved upwards relative to
the footwall.
7) What is the difference between stress and strain?

Stress is defined as the magnitude of force applied to a plane divided by the area of that
plane. The change in volume or shape of the rock that results from stress is called
strain.
8) Name the three types of stress that can be applied to a mass.

The three basic types of stresses: compressive, tensile, and shear.
9) In an overturned fold, one limb must be rotated so that the older rock overlies the
younger rock? True/False.
True
10) In a syncline, progressively older rock is exposed towards the axis of the fold.
True/False.
False.
11) What does an unconformity represent? And how is it identified?

An unconformity represents a gap in the geologic rock record. It can be identified by an
erosional surface between rocks of different ages, and represents a major depositional
break between the rocks above and below that surface.
12) Define an angular unconformity.

Deposition of sediments on layers that have been deformed and eroded produces an
angular unconformity. Sedimentary layers below such an unconformity are not parallel
with those above, and the gap in the record is obvious.
66
Geology Fundamentals Structural Interpretation
4.1 Objectives
1. Define the terms Strike and Dip

2. Explain the difference between apparent and true dip
3. Explain the different references for image logs
4. Explain the differences between Regional, Structural, and Stratigraphic dip
5. Differentiate between faults and fractures on image logs
6. Identify the difference between a mechanically induced, natural and polygonal
fractures
7. Differentiate between structural features on image logs
8. Recognize an unconformity on image logs
9. Identify the common sedimentary features that occur in image logs
4.2 Introduction
Images and dips are invaluable for interpretation of the geology in the borehole. They provide
structural information on faults, fractures and dips. Stratigraphic information includes;
unconformities, sedimentary features (cementation, secondary porosity, thin beds, etc.) and
dips. In order to get reservoir geometry and orientation of reservoir bodies we apply
stratigraphic interpretation of dipmeter data. We do that by identifying dips (other than
bedding planes) that were not deposited horizontally but at some angle to bedding due to the
process of sedimentation.
Images and dips can provide information on where the borehole is geologically - not just in
co-ordinates. This application of image and dip data, in particular dip data measured while
drilling, lies in Geosteering. Azimuthal data collected around the borehole is used to provide
formation images from which dips can be computed and made available in real time.
Geosteering uses forward modelling of log responses to estimate distance of the bit from an
upper and lower boundary. Now real-time dips can be used to tell us if we are drilling up or
down relative to bedding or if we crossed a fault.
Benefits of image and dip data include:

1. In structural and stratigraphical analysis to find and delineate reservoirs
beyond the resolution of seismic.
2. Enhance petrophysical evaluations by understanding rock texture.
3. Evaluate drilling induced features for borehole stability
4. Borehole breakouts, drilling induced fractures are used for that purpose and
are best recognized on borehole images.
5. Geosteering: knowing where the drill bit is geologically
6. Invasion through time lapse logging
67
4.3 Structural Dip
Image logs from various tools (EcoScope, GVR, ADN, FMI, ARI, HALS) allow the calculation
of structural dip of the bedding planes adjacent to the borehole. By resolving the dips of the
beds, geologists can determine what is happening structurally to the formations. This
becomes very important when trying to map the extent of a reservoir, what structural changes
has it undergone, and where the hydrocarbon (if any) may have migrated and accumulated.
In order to know where to drill next, structural dip can:
1. Correctly position the rock layers in 3-D. With this information, the formations can be
tracked on a regional scale.
2. Definition of the shape of the reservoir body or bodies and how they are positioned in
space relative to each other. This requires structural and stratigraphical interpretation
for which dipmeter data is well suited.
In geology, two features are extremely important in mapping the orientation and attitude of
formations structure, strike and dip. Figure 4.1 shows the intersection of an imaginary
horizontal plane with the bedding plane forming a straight line. The compass direction of that
line is the strike of the layer or bed. It gives the trend of the layer on the Earth’s surface. The
second line shows that the bedding plane surface forms an angle with the horizontal; this
angle is the dip of the bed. The dip is always perpendicular to the strike. Strike and dip are
used to denote the orientation of any planar surface – foliation, fracture and fault planes, and
bedding planes. For the rest of this chapter will only be concerned with the dip.
Figure 4.1 Diagram showing the measurement of strike and dip (note that geological dip is
measured from the horizontal, not the vertical as for hole inclination) (Strike and Dip
Presentation, Schlumberger, 1998).
The structural dips from these logs can be picked by hand or be automated by computer
software. A computer correlates deviations on the logs and calculates the amount and
direction of bedding dip and assesses the dip reliability. Calculated dips are usually
represented next to the image log as a tadpole plot, where the head refers to the amount of
dip and the tail points indicates the dip azimuth (Figure 4.2). The dip computed is a statistical
measure of the dips of all the surfaces within the interval processed. However, picking the
dips manually allows for greater control and to determine the dip of a specific surface (i.e. a
fault plane).
Computing these dips requires the following information:

1. The relative position of 3 points on the plane.
2. Orientation of the tool.
3. Angle and Direction of deviation of the tool.
68
Dipmeters provide much valuable information, such as: direction and amount of dip around
the borehole, identifying faults, fractures, unconformities and sedimentary structures.
However, to interpret fully they need to be combined with other logs and information.
Figure 4.2 Tadpole plot used to indicate the dip and dip azimuth (Strike and Dip Presentation,
Schlumberger, 1998).
4.3.1 Dip Computation
The computation of dip values is simply the description of the orientation of a plane that best
fits the interface in which we are interested. To describe this orientation two angles are used;
dip and dip azimuth. Dip azimuth is the direction of maximum downward dip (strike).
There are many computer methods used to represent dip orientation. However, a person
usually needs a graphical representation of the data to fully visualize the geometry of a
problem. When manually calculating dips from images, either on the workstation or from
azimuthal hardcopy plots, we are not looking at a cylinder with a plane cutting through it. As
seen in Figure 4.3, we cut the borehole cylinder along one direction, usually at North, and
unroll it. The dip plane that cuts through the cylinder now appears as a sine wave. The
magnitude of the sine wave is proportional to the dip magnitude of the plane. The direction at
the lowest point on the sine wave is the direction of the dip azimuth.
An important issue involves the reference used for the dip values. When calculating the dip
directly from an image log, it is an apparent dip, or the dip in relation to the borehole. If the
well were perfectly vertical, the apparent dip would be the same as true dip, which is
referenced to North, East, and vertical. However, if the borehole is deviated, apparent dips
have to be rotated to remove that deviation to get a true dip value.
69
(a)
Figure 4.3 Diagrams showing (a) how to read the dip magnitude and dip azimuth from a log
plot, and, (b) unrolling the image log into a 2-D image and calculating the dip, α (Dip
Computation Methods Presentation, Schlumberger 2001).
Unrolling  ( A − B) 
3-D View The Cylinder α = tan −1  
 BoreholeDiameter 
Strike Strike = Dip azimuth at X ± 90°

W
Fracture
Plane W
A
Depth
(deg)
(b) X
W Dip azimuth θ W
Example from Figure 4.3: A = 5210.3 ft; B = 5211.0 ft; Borehole diameter = 8.5 in
 
 
 5211.0 − 5210.3 
α = tan −1  
  8.5  
 12.0*  
   
 0.7 
⇒ α = tan −1  
 0.708 
⇒ α = 44.66 o
* The borehole diameter is divided by 12 to convert from inches to feet.
70
NB: The image penetration must be added to the borehole diameter. This value is
measurement dependent. For laterolog resistivity the image penetration is 1.5 in, while for
density images a value of 1 in. should be used.
Any plane not perpendicular to the borehole axis intersects the cylinder (or borehole surface)
along an ellipse, which, when cut and unrolled, is represented by a sinusoid. The azimuth of
the lowest point of the sinusoid (the trough) indicates the apparent azimuth of the dipping
plane. The apparent dip angle is the maximum dip read at the inflection point. The tangent is
equal to the difference between the bottom (B) and the top (A) of the sine wave divided by the
borehole diameter (Figure 4.3).
There are three basic types of interpretation problems that users of dipmeter data may wish to
solve. These three types of problems are:
1. Structural interpretation
2. Large-scale stratigraphic features
3. Maximum detail, very fine stratigraphic features
71
Figure 4.4 An example of structural dip from a GVR log through a sand reservoir (care of
Schlumberger)
72
4.3.2 Visualizing Borehole Images
It can be difficult to visualize and interpret image logs, especially when there are other
features (structural and stratigraphic) present that confuse the issue further. Image logs are
usually presented referenced to North for vertical boreholes and to the top of hole for
horizontal wells.. As seen in Figure 4.5, below, a plane cutting through the borehole at an
angle will be shown on an image log as a sinusoid. Fractures and faults can be easily
identifiable when they cut across bedding planes (Figure 4.6)
Figure 4.5 Diagram showing the transition from a 3D vertical borehole to a 2D image log.
The image is referenced to North (Dip Computation Methods Presentation, Schlumberger
2001).
Top
Figure 4.6 Unwrapped borehole image showing fractures cut across a bedding plane. The
image is referenced to the top of hole (Fractures Presentation, Schlumberger 1998).
73
Figure 4.7 Diagram showing the three different borehole orientations and how the difference
of the intersecting planes affects the image (Deviated Borehole Presentation, Schlumberger
2001).
Images are observed on the presentation as recorded in the borehole. This does require an
adjustment in the viewing perspective. Vertical fractures are observed in a vertical borehole
as high amplitude sine waves while the horizontal bedding planes are low amplitude sine
waves (Figure 4.7).
As the borehole is deviated to 45°, the bedding plane s and fractures may both be medium
amplitude sine waves. This is due to the relative position of the borehole to the events and
can be confusing.
For horizontal boreholes, the perspective has changed completely. The vertical fractures
cross the borehole as low amplitude sine waves. While the bedding planes create high
amplitude sine waves.
74
4.3.3 Borehole Reference
A borehole reference of North is the standard for vertical boreholes. This loses meaning in
horizontal wells. A more useful reference is the top of hole. The top of the borehole is on the
edges of the presentation, which the bottom of the hole is in the center of the presentation.
Figure 4.8 Images showing the orientation of fractures and bedding planes in a vertical (top)
and horizontal (bottom) borehole (FMI vs GVR, Schlumberger 1998, and Fractures
Presentations, Schlumberger 2001).
4.4 Regional, Structural, and Stratigraphic Dip
4.4.1 Regional dip
Regional dip is best by determined from surface seismic data. It describes the strike and dip
of a sequence of rocks over a large area (Figure 4.9a).
4.4.2 Structural dip
Structural dip is the strike and dip of a formation on a smaller scale (Figure 4.9b). Structural
dip implies that the rocks have been subjected to tectonic forces and no longer have the
orientation they had when deposited. In order to determine structural dip we need to identify
beds that were deposited horizontally.
75
4.4.3 Stratigraphic dip
Stratigraphic dip is down in the scale by another order of magnitude if compared to structural
dip. Most importantly, stratigraphic dips originate not by tectonic deformation of horizontal
strata but are generated by the process of sedimentation itself. For example, wind in a desert
transports sands by migrating dunes. Sand-grains are blown up the gentle (1- 5 degrees)
windward slope until they reach the crest of the dune from where they slide down creating
steeply dipping (angle of repose about 32 degrees) cross-beds (Figure 4.9c). The cross-bed
angle is measured from a horizontal plane (the bedding plane), which is represented by the
desert floor. Cross-beds come preserved in sets and point in the wind direction and are the
most important sedimentary dip. Water currents in river or the ocean also move sand in the
same fashion and from the analysis of cross-beds the direction of flow of an ancient sediment
flow can be reconstructed.
50 mi
(a)
(b)
(c)
15 ft
(d)
Figure 4.9 (a) Seismic section showing regional dip. (b) Structural dip across an anticline
structure. (c) A cross-bed sequence showing stratigraphic dip (Structural Dip Presentation,
Schlumberger 1998). (d) Photo of cross-beds showing stratigraphic dips (University of British
Columbia, W.K. Fletcher).
76
(a)
Mixed
directions
of tadpoles
in
horizontal
beds
(b)
3°°
Tadpoles
show SE
dip
azimuth
Figure 4.10( a) Flat strata showing zero dip (b) Structural dip of about 3 degrees SE.
(Structural Dip Presentation, Schlumberger 1998).
4.4.4 Structural Dip Interpretation
Dips are referenced to a horizontal plane and deforming horizontal strata causes regional and
structural dips. Bedding planes are formed parallel to the surface on which the sediments
accumulate. The continental shelf, for example, dips at 1/10 of a degree, while turbidite
reservoirs accumulate in deep ocean basins, which have a slope of less than 1:1000. Even
continental deposits like river floodplains have slopes of about a degree or less. In general
the assumption can be made that most bedding planes were deposited horizontally.
However, there are some environments like alluvial fans or the continental slopes have
depositional surfaces of one to six degrees.
Figure 4.10a shows an idealized section of strata with no dip and no azimuth direction. The
tadpoles lie centred at the zero dip line and have no tails. Real data is shown on the right,
interpreted as a section with zero structural dip just as presented in the diagram.
Standard procedure is to look for dips in shales. Tadpoles opposite high GR intervals would
fit the requirement but in this example, we have no lithology indicator. Nevertheless, the
interpreter identified structural dip as a trend around zero degrees indicated by the solid
tadpoles.
There is no real possibility that a computed dip is exactly zero, and as such (unless it is
exactly zero) it will have an azimuth direction and hence a tadpole tail. A minute difference in
picking a correlation point in horizontal beds can introduce a change of 180 degrees in
77
azimuth, which is the reason why horizontal beds produce tadpole plots that looks rather
noisy.
On Figure 4.10b, the diagram shows beds that were tilted down to the southeast after they
had been deposited. The real data more complex than for the flat strata, and is showing dip
of about 3 degrees to the southeast.
4.5 Structural Features
4.5.1 Fractures
A fracture, also called joint, is a crack in the rock that generally is caused by tectonic forces.
If a fracture is open it contributes storage capacity in form of fracture porosity (<2%) but its
greatest contribution is to reservoir permeability.
Naturally occurring open fractures are very important to producibility in many carbonate and
sandstone reservoirs. As such, the characterization of fracture systems from electrical
images includes: the identification of the fracture type as to vertical, polygonal, or
mechanically induced; the definition of the fracture morphology as to open, mineral-filled, or
vuggy.
The most important parameters concerning fractures are their frequency (# of fractures per
foot), strike, width and if they are open or cemented. These features can be identified by
electrical images.
Fractures tend to have a dip of 60 to 90 degrees. Horizontal fractures are rare except in very
shallow wells or in areas of high compressive tectonic forces where the principal stress is not
vertical.
Fracture Identification
Vertical fractures in a vertical borehole can be identified as a high amplitude feature, which
crosses other bedding planes. The feature is conductive if open and resistive if mineral-filled.
Polygonal fractures are caused by the chemical or mechanical de-watering of a carbonate

or by tectonic forces. These types of fractures often appear at changes in the lithology.
Polygonal fractures have a braided appearance and are often referred to as “chicken-wire”
fractures.
Mechanically induced fractures are created by the drilling process or by a hydraulic

fracturing. These fractures are always open.
Fracture Interpretation
When interpreting fractures it is important to remember:

1. Fractures may be open, mineral-filled, or vuggy.
2. Open fractures are more conductive than the surrounding matrix and the degree of
conductivity depends on the resistivities of the mud, the flushed-zone, and the
fracture geometry.
3. Visual inspection of the images may be used only as a guide to interpretation.
4. A salt mud system will enhance the appearance of fracture (more conductive) while a
fresh mud system will reduce the appearance.
5. Mineral-filled fractures will appear less conductive than open fractures.
78
Natural
(Angles from
60° to vertical)
Polygonal
(Chicken-wire)
Mechanical:
Hydraulic
Stress
Figure 4.11 The different types of fractures: Natural, Polygonal, and Mechanical, and below,
the log motifs of fractures; open, filled and solution-enhanced (Fractures Presentation,
Schlumberger 2001).
N E S W N
Open
N
W E
S
Partially filled
Mineral filled
Solution
enhanced
(Vuggy)
Bedding
Fractures
Fractures
(a) (b)
Figure 4.12 (a) FMI log showing fractures (Schlumberger Geology Image Library) (b) FMI
image of a limestone with a porosity of 2-pu, displaying polygonal fracturing (Fractures
Presentation, Schlumberger 2001).
79
Vugs filled
with solution
Figure 4.13 FMI image of a 14-pu limestone with solution-enhanced vuggy porosity (Images
Presentation, Schlumberger 1998)
Mechanically Induced Fractures
Fractures are also caused by the drilling process and are often interpreted from other logs as
open fractures. A primary use of drilling induced fractures is to orient the direction of
hydraulic fracturing (i.e. Minifrac). A Minifrac will propagate along the strike of the drilling
induced fractures and has great potential to increase porosity and drainage of a reservoir
formation.
Induced fractures can be recognized on electrical images by:

1. Never crosses the borehole (i.e., does not make a sine wave).
2. Often has curvature at termination (often a ‘Z’ shape).
3. Always open - no vugs or mineral-filled;
4. Oriented parallel to maximum and intermediate principle stresses (usually vertical).
Induced fractures
Figure 4.14 FMI images before and after a minifrac. (Images Presentation, Schlumberger
1998).
Figure 4.14 show images of the very same interval logged before and after a minifrac. The
log on the right shows induced, open fractures. Hydraulic fractures align parallel to the
maximum horizontal stress in a vertical well. These fractures can extend on opposite sides of
80
the hole for tens or hundreds of feet. However, this is not the case in the example here where
the fractures appear have a sinusoidal shape similar to open fractures. The small z-shaped
breaks in the sinusoids characterize these fractures as induced fractures.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.15 (a) Image of a mechanically induced tensile fracture in sand (b) Showing
breakout in the borehole. (Schlumberger Geology Image Library).
4.5.2 Faults
Faults occur when external forces cause displacement of rock mass along a fault plane.
There are three primary fault types: normal, reverse, and lateral.
Normal faults occur when a rock mass is displaced downward along a fault plane. Normal
faults are primarily dip-slip and include fault types such as: rollover, growth, and drag faults.
When a borehole penetrates a normal fault, a missing vertical section will normally occur.
Reverse faults occur when a rock mass is displaced upward along a fracture plane. Reverse
faults are also dip-slip. This fault type includes: reverse, thrust, overthrust faults. When a
borehole penetrates a reverse fault, a repeated vertical section will normally occur.
Lateral faults occur when rock masses are displaced along strike with respect to each other.
Lateral faults are strike-slip. When a borehole penetrates a lateral fault, there is no change in
the vertical section.
Review Chapter 3: Folds, Faults and Unconformities for more detail.
Fault Analysis
The primary objective of fault analysis by formation imaging is the evaluation of the fault plane
and bedding place distortion surrounding the fault.
The following parameters can be determined independent of the fault model:

1. Depth the borehole intersects the fault plane
2. Strike of the fault
3. Angle of the fault plane
4. Distortion of the adjacent fault blocks
81
A normal fault and a reverse fault may exhibit the same fault plane and distortion
characteristics. An outside input such as local geology or log correlation is required to
determine whether there is missing or repeated section in order to define the fault model.
(a)
Fracture Fault
(b)
Sealing Non-sealing
Figure 4.16 (a) Diagrams representing the difference between a fracture and a fault on an
image. (b) A resistive (white) fault plane is normally a sealing fault while a conductive (black)
fault plane may be sealing or non-sealing (Faults Presentation, Schlumberger 2001).
Fault Plane Analysis
A fault plane will have the appearance of a very large fracture. The distortion of the beds may
conform to the fault plane or there may be no distortion of the surrounding beds. Bedding
planes will not correlate across a fault but will correlate across a fracture.
N E S W N
Figure 4.17 Diagrams showing the fault azimuth, fault plane dip and strike for a normal fault
(Faults Presentation, Schlumberger 2001).
A best-fit sine wave at the base or top of the fault plane will give the fault azimuth and angle
while the strike of the fault is perpendicular to the fault azimuth. The fault angle is the angle
between the fault plane and horizontal.
A resistive (white) fault plane is normally a sealing fault while a conductive (black) fault plane
may be sealing or non-sealing. It may be difficult to observe a very thin fault plane.
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Fault Log Examples
Sealing fault
Non-sealing plane
fault plane
No break in
bedding
(a) (b)
Figure 4.18 (a) A non-sealing fault represented by a conductive fault plane (black). Notice
that in this example the bedding planes match on both sides of the fault, indicating that there
has been no displacement. (b) A sealing resistive (white) fault plane with some missing
section (Faults Presentation, Schlumberger 2001).
Fractures
Fault plane
Bedding
Figure 4.19 An example of a fault recognized on a FMI image by a lithology contact (blue
sinusoid) that is not parallel to bedding. Bedding in this image is not easy to detect as it
expresses itself as layers of different pebble sizes in what is a pebbly sandstone lithology.
The blue zigzag lines mark two fracture traces paralleling the fault trace (Images
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Fault plane
Fault plane
Figure 4.20 The borehole images reveal a fault and the exact location where the fault cuts
the borehole in the outcrop (Images Presentation, Schlumberger 1998).
Fault planes
High angle
Fault dips
A
Fault planes
Figure 4.21 The borehole images reveal two connected faults. The diagram shows the sense
of fault movement, with a normal (A) and reverse (B) fault (Thin Beds Presentation,
Schlumberger 1999).
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4.6 Stratigraphic Features
Images are used resolve, with certainty, sedimentary details like cross-bedding, erosional
surfaces, bioturbation (animal burrows), lithological details like conglomerates, concretions,
and structural details such as faults and fractures, that were previously unresolved.
4.6.1 Unconformities
An unconformity is the erosional surface that represents a geological time gap between
younger and older rock. Unconformities are created when there is non-deposition on
previously deposited sediments or when there is erosion of the previously deposited
sediments.
The Process
The process for the interpretable types of unconformities is shown below. The original shale-
line sequence can be altered by either structural tilting or by faulting. Subsequent erosion
causes changes in dip magnitudes and azimuths or in loss of section. These dip changes
and the resulting unconformity surfaces are the subject of this section.
Unconformity Classification
These may be located from arrow plots by changes in:

1. Dip density
2. Dip magnitude
3. Dip azimuth
Figure 4.22 illustrates these changes:
1. The lower unconformity, between A and M, is a change in dip azimuth. The

dip magnitude is constant over the contact by the dip azimuth shifts from
West to East.
2. The next unconformity, between M and D, is a change in dip magnitude. The
dip azimuth remains constant over the contact, but there is a decrease in dip
magnitude.
3. The unconformity between D and N is very difficult to recognize. The dip
magnitude and azimuth remain constant over the unconformity but there is a
difference in the frequency of computed dips. This is the result of a well
bedded versus a poorly bedded formation.
4. The upper unconformity does not possess any dip changes and cannot be
determined from arrow plots. This type of unconformity may often be
recognized on the electrical images.
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Figure 4.22 Example of an unconformity showing variations between the layers of dip
azimuth, magnitude and density (Unconformities Presentation, Schlumberger 1999).
3D Image 2D Image
Unconformity
surface
Change in dip
magnitude
and azimuth
Unconformity
surface
(a) (b)
Figure 4.23 (a) An unconformity between shale and conglomerate beds. (b) Borehole image
showing an unconformity with change in dip magnitude and azimuth (Unconformities
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Unconformity
surface
Change in dip
magnitude
and azimuth
Figure 4.24 An angular unconformity. It is difficult to pick the angular unconformity visually
from the FMI log, but is defined by the stratigraphic dip (Courtesy of Francis Advent, DCS
Perth).
Unconformity
surface
Figure 4.25 An angular unconformity. The unconformity can be picked from the image log
from the change in dip of the beds, as delineated by the purple line (Schlumberger Intouch)
4.6.2 Porosity and Permeability
Pore spaces, or voids, within a rock are generally filled with connate water, but contain oil or
gas within a reservoir. Traditionally, porosity is often difficult to define in images, as it is often
quickly lost in clays and carbonate sands due to the effects of compaction and cementation.
However, porosity can be defined very well from images using the Porospect software.
Porosity can be also calculated from FMI resistivity logs in the flushed zone, as long as the
pore spaces are filled with water.
Resistivity images contribute much in understanding permeability. Porosity can be

determined relatively easily using FMI, but permeability can only be measured using the MDT
(REW Modular Dynamic Tester). In simple pore systems, the empirical equations relating
87
porosity and irreducible water saturation work quite well. However, in more complex pore
systems (most carbonate rocks) there is no porosity/permeability relationship and in such
rocks we derive a reasonable permeability indicator from a textural image analysis (FMI).
We can see from the images below (Figure 4.26, a and b) that rocks may have identical
porosities with completely different fabric (arrangement and spatial composition). Both of the
rocks have 18% porosity. If rock fabric varies then a porosity based permeability estimate will
be greatly wrong. The image on the left is contorted sandstone; the picture on the right is a
laminated sand/shale section often typical for the low-resistivity pay present in deep-sea
turbidite sequences. A section like this gives a density-neutron separation typical of shale.
Production, however, may be measured in thousands of BOPD
Figures 4.26 (c) and (d), show a limestone breccia and a vuggy limestone. In (c), the material
between the resistive, angular limestone blocks consists of sand and is highly permeable.
This formation can produce thousands of barrels per day. In (d), porosity may be high but if
the vugs are not well connected then permeability will be slight.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.26 FMI images of (a) Sandstone with 18% porosity, (b) a laminated sand/shale, (c)
a limestone breccia with 14% porosity, and, (d) a vuggy limestone (Images Presentation,
Schlumberger, 1998).
(c) (d)
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4.6.3 Vuggy Porosity
Secondary porosity in carbonates includes vugs and fractures. Vugs are cavities that form
naturally in carbonates. Producibility can be greatly enhanced if the vuggy porosity is
interconnected. Vugs can be identified by images and classified into open or mineral-filled as
well as interconnected or isolated.
Interconnected Vugs
Vugs that are interconnected will appear as a dark smudge on the electrical images. This is
due to the depth of investigation of the image tools. The interconnected vugs form a path of
diffusion for the electrical current and cause the smudged appearance.
Isolated Open Vugs

Isolated vugs do not contribute to production. These are recognized as individual vugs with
no blurring.
Mineral-Filled Vugs
As vugs become mineral-filled, the permeability is greatly reduced or even reduced to
nothing. Mineral-filled vugs have a “white” appearance since the common filling minerals are
calcite and anhydrite that are resistive.
Images alone cannot determine the lithology of the filling material but can indicate the
presence of such resistive material.
Figure 4.27 Diagram of the types of vuggy porosities in a block of formation and as an
unrolled image (Vugs Presentation, Schlumberger 1998).
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Vugs
Mineral-filled vugs
Micro-fault
(a) (b)
Figure 4.28 FMI images showing (a) Interconnected open vuggy fractures, and (b) mineral-
filled vugs (Vugs Presentation, Schlumberger 1998).
Caution is required for the case of pyritic shale. Due to their conductive properties, even
extremely small pyrite crystals will show up as dark patches.
Figure 4.29 FMI image of pyritic shale (Vugs Presentation, Schlumberger 1998).
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4.7 Sedimentary Features
4.7.1 Conglomerate
A conglomerate is a rock formed largely of gravel, with individual grains ranging from 1/12th
inch up to 10 inches (2 - 264mm) in diameter. Conglomerate consists of sedimentary rock
that forms from the cementing of rounded rock fragments. The cementing agents that fill the
spaces to form the solid rock conglomerate are silica, calcite, or iron oxides. Conglomerate,
as with most sedimentary rocks, is laid down in layers, however, these layers are often so
thick that they may not be visible in an isolated outcrop.
Mixture of grain sizes

and orientation
(a) (b)
Random
tadpole dip
azimuths
Some bedding
visible
(c)
Figure 4.30 (a) FMI image of a conglomerate. (b) An outcrop of conglomerate, notice the
rounded grains supported in a matrix – compare to breccia in Figure 5.x. (c) “Bag o’ Nails”
dips in a conglomerate (Images Presentation, Schlumberger 1998).
The random appearance of tadpoles in Figure 4.30 (c) does not mean "bad dipmeter" but is
directly related to the formation. Here the image reveals a conglomerate that consists of dark
(conductive) and white (resistive) features. Both responses indicate individual pebbles, with
the resistive response caused by pebbles or part of them sitting in the borehole wall. Mud-
filled pebble moulds, the holes in the borehole wall where pebbles have been removed by
drilling, cause the conductive response. Some bedding can be seen on the image by the
layer of large pebbles.
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4.7.2 Turbidites
Deep-water deposition occurs in cycles, defined by turbidite sequences or Bouma cycles that
can be identified on FMI images.
Erosional
surface
Clay
Sand
Fining
upwards
sequence
(a)
Figure 4.31 (a) FMI image of a Turbidite deposit (Thin Beds Presentation, Schlumberger,
1999).
4.7.3 Cementation
Cementation is caused by solution (usually silica, calcium carbonate saturated) filling pores
with the minerals precipitating out of solution and binding the grains together. Secondary
cementation is local in nature, as it does not extend across the wellbore. The amount and
location of cementation can affect other log readings.
Calcareous
cementation
(a) (b)
Figure 4.32 (a) FMI image of a carbonate with localized calcareous cementation
(Schlumberger InTouch). (b) Density image of sandstone with localized calcite-cemented
concretions (light coloured bands) (FMI vs. GVR Presentation, Schlumberger 1998).
92
Cemented beds can be characterized by a low rate of penetration causing significant bit wear
and very dense log response. In Figure 4.32, density images resolve calcite-cemented
concretions with an irregular but roughly spherical shape that caused very hard drilling
conditions.
Concretions are round or irregular masses of more resistant rock formed as a result of
cement precipitating around a core material, usually a fossil or grain of a different
composition. Concretions are commonly found in shale, sandstone and limestone beds.
Concretions
Concretions
(a) (b)
Figure 4.33 (a) FMI image of concretions in sandstone. (b) Outcrop example of concretions
(Dip Imaging Presentation, Schlumberger 1999).
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4.8 Questions
1) Name three benefits of image and dip data in providing information on the
borehole.
2) Define the terms Strike and Dip.
3) On the diagram below, indicate which represents a fracture plane cutting the
borehole Vertically and Horizontally.
A B
4) Identify the following structural features:
A B C
5) Identify the following stratigraphic features:
A B C
6) What is the main difference between Structural and Stratigraphic dip?

Structural dip is the result of tectonic forces on the rock that no longer has the orientation
it had when deposited. Stratigraphic dips originate by the process of sedimentation itself.
94
For example, wind-blown sands in a desert environment or water-borne sediments in a

river migrating downstream.
7) What are the three main types of fractures?
8) What are the changes in dip arrow plots that can help classify an unconformity?
9) Identify the following:
A B C
10) Define the terms Apparent dip and True dip, and which we see on dip logs.
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4.9 Answers
1) Name three benefits of image and dip data in providing information on the
borehole.
1. In structural and stratigraphical analysis to find and delineate reservoirs beyond

the resolution of seismic.
2. Enhance petrophysical evaluations by understanding rock texture.
3. Evaluate drilling induced features for borehole stability
4. Borehole breakouts, drilling induced fractures are used for that purpose and are
best recognized on borehole images.
5. Geosteering: knowing where the drill bit is geologically
6. Invasion through time lapse logging
2) Define the terms Strike and Dip.

Strike: The direction of the line formed by the intersection of a horizontal plane with a
bedding or fault plane.
Dip: The angle formed by the intersection of a bedding or fault plane and the
horizontal plane: measured in a vertical plane perpendicular to the strike.
Geological dip is referenced to the horizontal = 0° dip, and should not to be
confused with “Tool Dip” as measured by D&I packages where the vertical = 0°
dip.
3) On the diagram below, indicate which represents a fracture plane cutting the
borehole Vertically and Horizontally.
4) Identify the following structural features.

A. A fault
B. Induced fracture
C. Polygonal or ‘chickenwire’ fractures
5) Identify the following stratigraphic features.

A. An unconformity
B. Vuggy fractures
C. Graded bedding
6) What is the main difference between Structural and Stratigraphic dip?

Structural dip is the result of tectonic forces on the rock that no longer has the orientation
it had when deposited. Stratigraphic dips originate by the process of sedimentation itself.
For example, wind-blown sands in a desert environment or water-borne sediments in a
river migrating downstream.
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7) What are the three main types of fractures?

Vertical (or natural), Polygonal (or chickenwire) and Mechanical.
8) What are the changes in dip arrow plots that can help classify an unconformity?
1. Dip density
2. Dip magnitude
3. Dip azimuth
9) Identify the following:

A. Open vuggy fractures
B. Pyritic shalez
C. Mineral-filled vugs
10) Define the terms Apparent dip and True dip, and which we see on dip logs.
Apparent Dip: The angle that a plane makes with the horizontal measured in any
randomly oriented section rather than perpendicular to strike.
True Dip: The magnitude of the inclination of a plane from horizontal. True, or maximum,
dip is measured perpendicular to strike.
When we calculate dips directly from images, we are looking at apparent dip or the dip in
relation to the borehole. If the well were perfectly vertical, the apparent dip would be the
same as true dip, which is referenced to North, East, and vertical. However, if the
borehole is deviated, apparent dips have to be rotated to remove that deviation to get a
true dip value.
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Geology Fundamentals Petroleum Geology
5.1 Objectives
1. List the advantages of Magnetic, Gravity, Seismic and Borehole seismic surveying.
2. Explain the process of seismic acquisition.
3. Explain the differences between 2D, 3D, and 4D seismic surveying.
4. Explain the difference between Primary and Secondary migration of hydrocarbons.
5. Define Primary, Secondary and Fracture porosity.
6. Define permeability.
7. Explain the relationship between porosity, permeability and grain texture.
8. Identify the parts of a reservoir and trap.
9. Define Net and Gross Pay
10. Explain the difference between Stratigraphic and Structural traps.
5.2 Introduction
Petroleum geology is the application of geology (the study of rocks) to the exploration for and
production of oil and gas. It is only one aspect of petroleum exploration and production.
Once the well has been (or being) drilled, geological concepts are applied to the interpretation
of the data. Petroleum geology still relies on value judgments based on experience and an
assessment of validity among the data presented.
5.3 Petroleum Exploration
Petroleum exploration and production are largely concerned with the geological interpretation
of geophysical data, especially in offshore areas. Three main geophysical methods are used
in petroleum exploration: magnetic, gravity, and seismic. Seismic surveying is used in both
exploration and development phases and is by far the most important of the three methods,
and is the one that will be covered here in most detail.
5.3.1 Magnetic Surveying
Magnetic Surveying uses the amount of magnetic field strength in a particular location to
identify the type of rock beneath the surface (Figure 5.1). It uses the same principles for
measuring the field strength as Schlumberger surveying techniques.
At any point above the Earth, the measured geomagnetic field will be the sum of the regional
field and the local field produced by the magnetic rocks in the vicinity. The purpose of
magnetic surveys is to measure the field strength over the area of interest. The recorded
variations of the field strength will be due to changes in the Earth’s magnetic field and to the
volume and magnetic susceptibility of the underlying rocks. These variations can be
eliminated and the residual values are then directly related to the rocks beneath. Data
acquired may be used to construct a map that contours the anomalies in the Earth’s magnetic
field (in gammas).
Magnetic anomaly maps can be interpreted and presented as a depth-to-magnetic basement

map and give information on the regional geology. They provide information on the presence
of igneous plugs, intrusives, or lava flows, areas normally avoided in exploration. They are a
quick and cost-effective way of defining broad-basin architecture. They are seldom used to
locate drillable petroleum prospects.
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5.3.2 Gravity Surveying
Gravity Surveying uses the principles of Newton’s law of gravitation to measure the gravity
anomalies at different locations to identify subsurface bodies. A gravity survey is inexpensive
to conduct, can cover a large area, and is able to measure minute variations in the pull of
gravity from rocks within the first few miles of the earth's surface. A gravity survey is most
useful when the sediments of interest are relatively shallow, and have an appreciably different
density than that of the surrounding formations. A salt dome for example, can have a low
gravity value compared to the values surrounding it. Gravity surveys are presented in the form
of contour maps of the gravity field, and tend to be much more ambiguous than seismic
surveys.
The interpretation of gravity maps presents many problems, the simplest of which are caused
by different subsurface bodies producing the same anomaly on the surface Figure 5.1).
The precise cause of an individual anomaly can be tested by a series of models, each model
being tested on various depths, densities, or geometries for the body. Gravity maps are
seldom used for detailed interpretation, because seismic surveys are more useful for showing
the broad architecture of a sedimentary basin.
Figure 5.1 Diagram showing the Magnetic and Gravity responses to various geological
features. (Selley, 1998).
Magnetic and gravity surveys are seldom sufficiently responsive to small-scale geological
variations so that they can be use in locating individual petroleum prospects. Both are cost-
effective methods of surveying large areas of the Earth’s surface onshore and offshore before
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lease acquisition. Their main use is in defining the limits and scale of sedimentary basins and
the internal distribution of structural highs and lows.
5.3.3 Seismic Surveying
Seismic surveying is the most important of the three types of geophysical prospecting and the
data acquired by seismic surveys are the most commonly used geophysical information
employed by the petroleum business. Seismic surveys utilize the seismic reflection method,
which gives an accurate representation of the subsurface structure, by measuring the time it
takes for a seismic wave generated at or near the surface to bounce off of rock interfaces and
return to the surface. It uses the same physics principles as Drilling & Measurements and
Wireline use for the Seismic and Sonic tools.
Seismic surveys result in seismic data (seismic sections) that may be used to determine the
subsurface structure of the earth. Structures as deep as 30,000 feet may be interpreted from
some geological provinces. Features such as anticlines, salt domes, faults, reefs, and
unconformities may be seen on seismic data. In addition to structure, which is generally
represented as contours on a map, seismic data may be used to determine the thickness of
formations, stratigraphy, and even for the direct detection of hydrocarbons.
Basic Principles
Consider a source of acoustic energy at a point on the Earth’s surface. Three types of waves
start at the surface and travel through the adjacent layers, which have the acoustic velocities
and densities v1p1 and v2p2. Surface, or longitudinal, waves move along the surface. The
two other types of waves, body waves, move radially from the energy source. P-waves
(push) pass on a radial movement to the wave front; S-waves (shake) pass on a tangential
movement. P waves are faster than S-waves. Surface waves are of limited significance in
seismic surveying. They move along the ground at a slower velocity than body waves. The
surface disturbance is termed ground roll and may include Rayleigh and other vertical and
horizontal modes of propagation.
When a P-wave traveling from the surface reaches a boundary between two layers that have
different acoustic impedance (equals density multiplied by velocity), some of the energy may
be reflected back into the upper medium. Depending on the angle of incidence (Snell’s Law),
some of the energy may be refracted along the interface between the two media or may be
refracted into the lower medium.
The fundamental principle of seismic surveying is to initiate a seismic pulse at or near the
Earth’s surface and record the amplitudes and travel times of the face or interfaces of one or
more layers of rock. Seismic surveying is more concerned with reflected ray paths than
refracted ones.
If the average acoustic velocity of the rock is known, then it is possible to calculate the depth,
D, to the interface:
vt
D=
2
where v = acoustic velocity and t = two-way travel time (there and back). The acoustic
velocity of a rock varies according to its density. As sediments compact during burial, their
density (and acoustic velocities) generally increases with depth.
If the acoustic velocity is unknown, the geologist and geophysicist will have to make their best
approximation, and this can lead to substantial errors when converting the two-way travel time
to depth. Often, the formation being drilled offshore will be present onshore and the acoustic
velocity can be measured directly. If there are offset wells nearby, the velocity can be taken
100
from the type of rock identified from the cuttings, or better yet, if a core has been cut. The
reduction of this uncertainty is one of the most valuable applications of the Seismic MWD tool.
Data Acquisition
Seismic surveys are carried out on land and at sea in different ways. On land the energy
source may be provided by detonating explosives buried in shot holes, by dropping a heavy
weight off the back of a truck, or by vibrating a metal plate on the ground. The returning
acoustic waves are recorded on geophones arranged in groups. The signals are transmitted
from the geophones along cables to the recording truck. Equipment in this truck controls the
firing of the energy source and records the incoming signals from the geophones.
The basic method of acquiring seismic data offshore is much the same as that of onshore, but
is simpler, faster, and cheaper. A seismic boat replaces the truck as the controller and
recorder of the survey. This boat trails an energy source and a cable of hydrophones, called
a streamer. It is possible for one boat to operate several energy sources (Figure 5.2).
Streamer lengths can extend for up to 3 miles.
Figure 5.2 Marine seismic vessels tow arrays of air guns, the seismic source and streamers
of hydrophones a few feet below the surface of the water (Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary).
There are a number of sources in use, but for deep exploration the air gun is widely used. In
this method a bubble of compressed air is discharged into the sea; usually a number of
energy pulses are triggered simultaneously from several air guns. The air guns can emit
energy sufficient to generate signals at between 5 and 6 sec two-way travel time, enough to
penetrate to more than 3 miles. The reflected signals are recorded by hydrophones on a
cable towed behind the ship.
Data Processing
Once seismic data have been acquired, they must be processed into a format suitable for
geological interpretation. This involves the statistical manipulation of vast numbers of data.
Consider the signals of three receivers (geophones/hydrophones) arranged in a straight line

from a shot point. The times taken for a wave to be reflected from a particular layer will
appear as a wiggle on the receiver trace. The arrival times will increase with the distance of
receivers from the shot point. Thus a time-distance graph may be constructed (Figure 5.3).
When time squared is plotted against distance squared, a straight line can be drawn through
the arrival times of the signal. Velocity of the wave through a medium is:
1
Velocity =
Slope
The depth from the surface can then be calculated as follows;
101
Depth = velocity × time (one-way)
But since the travel time is two-way (there and back):
Depth = velocity × time (two-way)

2
Reflections from the same subsurface points are recorded with a number of different
combinations of surface source and receiver positions, and the signals are combined, or
stacked. Thus time-wave graphs can be displayed in a continuous seismic section, and a
single seismic reflecting horizon can be traced across it.
Figure 5.3 Travel-time graph showing how velocity may be calculated by measuring the
length of time taken for a wave to travel from a shot point to geophones placed known
distances away (Selley, 1998).
During processing, many unwanted effects must be filtered out. All seismic records contain
both the genuine signal from the rocks and the background “noise” due to many reasons.
The signal-to-noise ratio is a measure of quality.
One important aspect of processing is wave migration. When beds dip steeply, the wave
from the reflector from a point not immediately beneath the surface location midway between
the shot point and each geophone, but from a point up-dip from this position (Figure 5.4).
During processing, the data must be migrated to correct for this effect. This migration causes
several important modifications in the resultant seismic section. Anticlines become sharper,
synclines gentler, and faults more obvious.
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Figure 5.4 Diagrams showing the problem encountered when beds dip steeply. (A) The
strata are horizontal, thus the wave fronts first strike the reflectors vertically beneath the
energy source and receiver. (B) In contrast, these beds are steeply dipping. Thus signals
return to the receiver from points up-dip earlier, and thus apparently shallower, than from the
true vertical depth (Selley, 1998).
Seismic Interpretation
The geophysicist who interprets the seismic data generally ties the top picks and fault cuts
that the geologist has made on the formations of interest to the seismic data. In that manner,
he will know, for example, that the strong reflector at 2.5 seconds corresponds to the Top of
the Sand ‘A' sand, at 2.51 seconds to the base of the Sand 'A', etc. By following the seismic
reflections, and recording the time values at a reasonable common depth points or spacing on
a map, the geophysicist can make maps of the subsurface. He is actually mapping the two
way time to a reflector - but these time maps can be converted to depth maps with adequate
velocity information Figure 5.5a). Geophysicists also make synthetic seismograms from sonic
logs, which turn a well log into a 'wiggle trace', that can more accurately tie into the seismic
data (Figure 5.5b).
(a) (b)
Figures 5.5 (a) Seismic depth map, and (b) a synthetic seismogram (Schlumberger Oilfield
Glossary).
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The geophysicist will incorporate the faults that the geologist could interpret from the well
logs, but he will also be able to see many more faults on the seismic data that could not be
determined by the log data. The first step in constructing a map of a given surface, called a
'horizon' by the geophysicist, is usually to tie all of the faults together for that surface, before
interpreting the horizon. Log data, no matter how dense the well coverage is, cannot provide
the amount of data samples that seismic data can provide. In addition, with some geological
environments and special processing techniques, hydrocarbons may be directly observed on
the seismic data.
Locations for drilling wells are generally based on the seismic interpretation. In the ten years,
workstations have made a major difference in the way geophysicist’s interpret data. In
addition, advances in acquisition and processing have made advances in the quality of the
data. As a result, far more information is extractable from the data than ever before.
Mapping the characteristics of the seismic data such as amplitude is now commonplace, and
could not be done before modern workstations were available.
3D Seismic Surveying
If seismic surveys are taken on a grid of only 150 ft or so, then a three-dimensional matrix of
data is acquired that enables seismic displays to be produced, not only along the survey lines
shot, but also in any direction. This is 3D seismic, and is very appealing because horizontal
displays, or time slices, can be produced (Figure 5.6). Not only can these reveal structural
features, such as faults and salt domes, but also stratigraphic ones, such as reefs and
channels.
Figures 5.6 A limestone reef imaged by 3D seismic. 3D seismic data can be sliced in any
orientation, including horizontal time slices such as those shown (Selley, 1998).
4D Seismic Data
Four-dimensional seismic data is same as 3D, with time. 3D data acquired at different time
over the same are to assess changes in a producing hydrocarbon reservoir with time.
Changes may be observed in fluid location and saturation, pressure and temperature. 4D
seismic data is one of several forms of time-lapse seismic data that can be acquired on the
surface or in a borehole (Figures 5.7 and 5.8).
104
Figure 5.7 These maps of an oil reservoir were made from 3D seismic data acquired at
different times over the same area to assess changes in the fluid saturation with time. In
1985 (left) the areas with red outlines, A and B, were predominantly oil-saturated. After ten
years of oil production (1995, right), both areas show an increase in water saturation
(Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary).
Before start of production After second survey
After third survey After fourth survey
Seismic changes (Blue) indicate fluid replacement
Figure 5.8 3D surveys acquired at different times allow assessment of changes in a

producing reservoir with time. This series of reservoir fluid content maps shows the oil in
green, water in blue, and wells as white circles. In time, oil is replaced by water
105
5.3.4 Geological Applications
Seismic surveying is an essential part of the whole cycle of petroleum exploration and
production. It is applied in six main ways: regional mapping, prospect mapping, reservoir
delineation, seismic modeling, direct hydrocarbon detection, and the monitoring of petroleum
production.
The extraction of seismic attributes, such as amplitude, dip and azimuth can produce
remarkable 3D images of rock formations (previous Figure 5.6). One application of identifying
seismic features is the direct recognition of hydrocarbons. Sometimes a single horizontal
reflector is
Figure 5.9 Illustration demonstrating the theory of the formation of flat spots (Selley, 1998).
encountered crosscutting many parallel dipping reflectors. This is termed a flat spot (Figure
5.9). Flat spots are commonly discovered to be reflectors generated from petroleum/water
contacts. Normally they are produced by gas/water contacts, rather than oil/water contacts,
because of the greater impedance of the former.
Occasionally, structures exhibiting flat spots fail to reveal the presence of hydrocarbons. A
possible explanation for these disappointments is that they are remnants of old fluid contacts
in traps that have leaked. Petroleum inhibits cementation, but cementation of a reservoir
commonly continues in the water zone beneath a hydrocarbon accumulation. Thus, if the
petroleum leaks out of a trap, there may be sufficient velocity contrast at the old fluid contact
between cemented and uncemented sand to generate a reflecting horizon.
A flat spot is normally the result of a rapid increase in velocity caused by a seismic wave
crossing from acoustically slow gas-saturated sand to faster water-saturated sand. Where a
downward increase in velocity generates a strong deflection of the seismic trace, a flat spot
appears as a black high amplitude reflector termed a bright spot.
106
5.3.5 Seismic Log Examples
The seismic traces below (Figure 5.10a) shows a faulted section cutting through several
layers of formation, while Figure 5.10b, shows an anticline with a potential flat spot
underneath. The colors are chosen only to differentiate between horizons, while the
brightness represents the amplitude of the layers.
Faults
Figure 5.10 (a) The 2D seismic above shows a faulted section (pink). (b) A
classic example of a subsurface anticline.
Anticline
Flat spots
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The seismic line below (Figure 5.11) in an East-West direction is from a survey in the
Norwegian Sea. The 2D survey defines several structural closures and direct hydrocarbon
indicators like a flat spot, and a pull down structure.
Pull down
Flat Spot
Figure 5.11 2D seismic showing a flat spot and pull down structure (taken from TGS-
NOPEC).
Figure 5.12, is from an Schlumberger Brasil non-exclusive seismic survey offshore Brazil. The
survey, the largest of its kind in the World, includes over 125,000 line miles of seismic, gravity
and magnetic data and covers the primary deep-water sedimentary basins in southeast and
northern offshore Brazil.
The line shows a remarkable depth image of salt-cored ridges and intervening mini-basins
overlying a thick sub-salt section typical of the structure of the outer Santos Basin in southern
Brazil. To date this section has not been drilled and for many years it was not possible to
demonstrate the section underneath the salt with older seismic data. The modern data
processed through pre-stack depth migration has allowed us to image reflectors below the
salt for the first time. These reflectors provide the first real evidence for organic-rich lacustrine
shales that are world-class source rocks.
Salt ridges
Previously unseen shales
Figure 5.12 2D seismic showing salt ridges and the previously unidentified sediment below
(taken from TGS-NOPEC).
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Sediments pinching out
Increased
Thickness
away from
Basin margin margin
Figure 5.13 2D seismic showing a sedimentary basin edge and subsequent deposition
increasing in thickness towards the basin centre (taken from TGS-NOPEC).
Figure 5.14, is a 3D seismic survey of a section in the Mississippi Canyon, Gulf of Mexico.
The combination of such surveys provides a seamless regional 3D program covering over
2 2
7,700 mi (20,000 km ). The data covers the very prolific areas of Mississippi Canyon,
Desoto Canyon and Lloyd Ridge.
Figure 5.14 3D seismic covering the Mississippi Canyon, Gulf of Mexico (taken from TGS-
NOPEC).
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5.3.6 Borehole Seismic
Borehole data is very precisely calibrated to depths when compared to surface seismic data.
By integrating surface seismic data with seismic data acquired in the borehole, accuracy may
be improved in the interpretation of the data overall. This can lead to improved information
about the reservoir by combining borehole and seismic images. In addition, the well location
can be determined in 3D volume and the seismic data processing and calibration can be
improved. Borehole seismic are useful because they tend to reduce risk in the seismic
project overall. There are several different borehole techniques that are considered borehole
seismic, or borehole geophysical techniques.
Checkshot Surveys
A Checkshot Survey, or Velocity Survey, is a survey that is run as part of the Wireline testing
phase of a well. Check shots survey is the simplest measurement of borehole seismic. It
consists in recording the transit time of the sound wave propagating directly from the source
on surface to the downhole tool position (Figure 5.15).
The tool is anchored at a certain depth and the source is fired on surface. The first arriving
time break corresponds to the required sound wave: a reflected wave arrives later since its
path is longer. The transit time is measured from the first break of the hydrophone (surface) to
the first break of the tool geophone (downhole) plus a delay between source firing and
hydrophone detection.
The time that it takes the shot to be recorded at a particular depth is used to obtain very
accurate velocity information. The velocity information allows the well markers to be tied to
intersecting seismic lines for accurate interpretation of the marker locations on seismic.
Figure 5.15 Checkshot Survey (Seismic Peptec Module, Schlumberger)
110
Vertical Seismic Profiling
A VSP, Vertical Seismic Profiling, is conducted by measuring the responses of a geophone at

various depths in a borehole to sources on the surface (Figure 5.16). Where the source is an
appreciable distance from the borehole, the VSP is called an offset VSP.
Figure 5.16 Vertical Seismic Profile (Seismic Peptec Module, Schlumberger)
There are several benefits of using VSP, including:
1. The ability to record a real seismic trace in the borehole rather than relying on a
synthetic seismogram.
2. Provide a precise correlation between the surface seismic section and well
logs.
3. Record reflector signals that are not received at surface.
4. Improvement in vertical resolution resulting in better horizontal resolution:

detection of porosity barriers, faults, etc.
5. The main product of the VSP is the corridor stack, which gives a quick-look of
the major reflectors and can be immediately compared to the surface seismic.
5.3.7 Sequence Stratigraphy
Sequence stratigraphy is a field of study in which basin-filling sedimentary deposits, called

sequences, are interpreted in a framework of uplift, sedimentation and subsidence through
time in order to correlate strata and predict the stratigraphy of relatively unknown areas.
Sequences tend to show cyclicity of changes in relative sea level and widespread
unconformities, processes of sedimentation and sources of sediments, climate and tectonic
activity over time. Sequence stratigraphic study promotes through understanding of the
evolution of basins, but also allows for interpretations of potential source rocks and reservoir
rocks in both frontier areas (having seismic data but little well data) and in more mature
hydrocarbon provinces. Prediction of reservoir continuity is currently a key question in mature
hydrocarbon provinces where sequence stratigraphy is being applied.
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The field originated in the 1960’s with the study of the stratigraphy of the continental USA,
where numerous unconformities could be correlated widely, and led to the proposal that major
unconformities might mark synchronous global-scale events. Through sequence stratigraphy,
widely separated sediments that occur between correlatable unconformities could be
compared with each other. Studies of seismic lines and outcrops proved these concepts.
Further study of seismic lines led to the interpretation of the geometry or architecture of
seismic events as representing particular styles of depositional environments, and the
integration of these interpretations with well log and core data (Figure 5.17).
Deposition Well Logs Seismic

Cross section GR or SP Resistivity Reflection pattern
Figure 5.17 Sequence stratigraphy involves integration of log, core and seismic data to
interpret deposition and architecture of sediments (Schlumberger).
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5.4 Petroleum Geology
5.4.1 Introduction
Petroleum is a mixture of chemical compounds called hydrocarbons; chains of carbon atoms

with hydrogen atoms attached. These substances range from gas molecules that have one to
four carbon atoms, to liquids and solids with fifty or more carbon atoms.
Most petroleum was formed in beds of shale that were deposited in shallow oceans with
abundant marine life. Sheltered coastal waters, especially in tropical and subtropical regions,
usually provide refuge for communities of life forms ranging from microscopic plants and
animals that constitute the bulk of the organic matter. Waste drifts down and accumulates on
the seafloor along with dead organisms. Rivers contribute organic detritus and sediments
from the continent.
5.4.2 The Organic Process

3
Some 82% of the Earth’s entire carbon is locked up as CO in limestones and dolomites.
About 18% occurs as organic carbon in coal, oil, and gas. The key reaction is the conversion
of inorganic carbon into hydrocarbons by photosynthesis. In this reaction, water and
atmospheric carbon dioxide are converted by algae and plants into water and glucose.
Glucose is the starting point for the organic manufacture of complex carbon compounds. This
complex carbon production may occur with plants or animals that eat plants. When these
plants and animals die, their organic matter is oxidised to carbon dioxide and water. Thus the
cycle is completed (see Figure 5.18). In certain exceptional circumstances, the organic
matter may be buried in the sediments and preserved in a modified state as coal, oil, or gas.
Gas chromatography can be used to ‘fingerprint’ petroleum and to correlate it with the source
rock from which it was derived, and to determine the type of organism and depositional
environment in which it lived.
ATMOSPHERE
CO2 Plant Eaten by

Photosynthesis Animals
BIOSPHERE
H2O
Death
Bacterial LITHOSPHERE
decay
Oxidation or
combustion Rare rapid burial
and preservation
Weathering
Evolution to
Uplift hydrocarbon
Figure 5.18 The cycle of organic carbon within the Earth’s crust. The primary source for the
carbon is from the weathering of crustal rocks, together with mantle-derived carbon dioxide
and methane.
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5.4.3 Petroleum Migration
There is much evidence that oil and gas do not generally originate in the rock in which they
are found, but that they must have migrated into it from elsewhere. This is supported by the
following observations:
1. Oil and gas often occur in pores and fractures that must have formed after
the burial and lithification of the host rock.
2. Oil and gas are trapped in the highest point (i.e. anticline or pinchout) of a
permeable rock, implies upward and lateral migration.
3. Oil, gas, and water occur in porous, permeable reservoir rock stratified
according to their relative distances. This stratification implies that they were
free to migrate vertically and laterally within the reservoir.
These observations all point to the conclusion that hydrocarbons migrate into reservoir rocks
at a considerable depth below the surface and some time after burial.
An important distinction is made between primary and secondary migration. Primary

migration is the migration of hydrocarbons from the source rock (clay or shale) into permeable
carrier beds (generally sands or limestones). Secondary migration refers to subsequent
movement of oil and gas within permeable reservoirs.
The study of primary migration contains a major problem. Oil and gas are trapped in porous,
permeable reservoirs and the source rocks from which they migrated from can be identified.
Yet these same source rocks are impermeable shales. How then did the fluids migrate? The
most popular theory is that the pressure that results in the creation of hydrocarbons forces
fluids out of shale, which is easily compacted, and into rocks (i.e. sandstone) that retain more
of their original porosity under pressure. Most porous rocks, including shale, are saturated
with fluids, particularly salt water trapped during the lithification of marine sediments. This
connate (or bound) water carries oil and gas in suspension out of compacted shale and
eventually into the reservoir (Figure 5.19).
There is also evidence that the flushing of water from compacting clays as the clays
dehydrate plays an important role in primary migration. There is much evidence to suggest
that the repeated flushing of water from overpressured shales by hydraulic fracturing is an
important process in allowing petroleum to migrate from source rocks.
Primary migration is the movement within the fine-grained portion of the

mature source rock.
114
Figure 5.19 Primary hydrocarbon migration (taken from Petroleum Geology and Reservoirs,
University of Texas publication).
Figure 5.20 Secondary hydrocarbon migration (taken from Petroleum Geology and
This movement of hydrocarbons from one location to another within a reservoir bed,
secondary migration, may involve distances up to many miles (Figure 5.20).
Petroleum may continue to move updip until it reaches an outcrop or escapes through breaks
in the overlying impermeable layers. If oil and gas reach the surface, they form a seep
(Figure 5.21). The gas dissipates in the atmosphere and the oil quickly decomposes, leaving
behind only a tarry residue of the heaviest least-volatile hydrocarbons. A large percentage of
oil and gas is lost this way.
Some of the migrating oil and gas may reach a location beneath the surface where the
configuration or physical properties of the rock make further upward movement impossible.
Since the hydrocarbons can move into such a location but not out of it, they tend to
accumulate. A location such as this is called a trap.
Secondary migration is any movement in the carrier or reservoir rocks outside

the source rock or movement through fractures within the source rock.
115
Figure 5.21 Hydrocarbon seeps (taken from Petroleum Geology and Reservoirs, University of
Texas publication).
The distance which petroleum has migrated is difficult to measure. Traditionally, it is done by
physically measuring the distance between the petroleum accumulation and the nearest
mature source rock. Where oil is trapped in sand lenses surrounded by shale, the migration
distance must have been short. Where oil occurs in traps with no obvious adjacent source
rock, extensive lateral migration must have occurred. Fingerprinting using gas
chromatography can carry out correlation between source rock and reservoir oil.
The longest distance for oil migration is held by the West Canadian basin, where the
migration distance was calculated to be more than 620 miles (1000km).
5.4.4 The Petroleum System and Basin Modelling
It is obviously useful to be able to assess the amount of petroleum that has been generated in
a sedimentary basin. Such an assessment is obviously very difficult in a virgin area with no
data. In a mature petroleum province where large quantities of data are available, it is
considerably easier. Knowledge of the quantity of reserves yet to be discovered is important
in deciding whether continuing exploration is worth the expense if only small reserves remain
to be found. The volume of oil generated in an area may be calculated using the geochemical
material balance method. The basic equation may be expressed as follows:
Volume of oil generated =

Basin area × Average total thickness of source rock × Transformation ratio
The volume of source rock can be calculated from isopach maps. The average amount of
organic matter must be estimated from the geochemical analysis of cores and cuttings,
extrapolating from logs where possible. The transformation ratio is the ratio of petroleum
actually formed to the genetic potential. The genetic potential of a formation is the amount of
petroleum that the kerogen can generate. The transformation ratio needs to exceed 0.1 for
significant oil generation and is usually between 0.3 and 0.7 in major petroleum provinces.
The petroleum system integrates the sedimentary and structural history of a basin with its
petroleum characteristics, in terms of richness, volume, and maturity of source rocks (Figure
5.22).
Increasing economic importance
Sedimentary Basin Petroleum System Play Prospect
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 5.22 The Petroleum System, (a) World distribution of sedimentary basins – green is
onshore, lavender is offshore basins, (b) Petroleum system of Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela,
(c) Play; Gulf of Mexico salt structures, including salt domes and reservoirs below the salt,
and (d) Cross-section of a prospect with the essential elements of a prospect: reservoir, seal,
source rock and trap (Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary).
117
The concept of the petroleum system can be usefully applied to the computer modelling of
sedimentary basins. The object of this discipline is to try to discover how much petroleum a
sedimentary basin may have generated and where it may be located. Basin modelling may
be done in one, two, or three dimensions.
5.5 The Reservoir
Theoretically, any rock may act as a reservoir for oil and gas. In practice, the sandstones and
carbonates contain the major reserves, although fields do occur in shales and diverse
igneous and metamorphic rocks. For a rock to act as a reservoir it must possess two
essential properties: it must have pores to contain the oil or gas, and there must be good
permeability. Remember that porous rock is not necessary permeable. To be permeable,
rock must have pores that interconnect, allowing fluids to flow from one pore to another
(Figure 5.23). Even though most shale is porous, it is relatively impermeable, because its
pores are not connected very well.
Figure 5.23 Primary pores (blue) in a sandstone partially filled with quartz diagenesis. The
remaining primary porosity has not been altered by diagenesis. Width of the view is
approximately 0.65 mm (Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary).
5.5.1 Porosity
Pore spaces, or voids, within a rock are generally filled with connate water, but contain oil or
gas within a reservoir. Porosity is either expressed as the void ratio, which is the ratio of
voids to solid rock, or, more frequently, as a percentage:
volume of voids
Porosity (%) = ×100
total volume of rock
Porosity is conventionally given the symbol for phi (φ). Pores are of three types; catenary,
cul-de-sac, and closed (Figure 5.24).
Catenary pore
Effective porosity
Cul-de-sac pore
Total porosity
Ineffective porosity Closed pore
Figure 5.24 Catenary, Cul-de-sac, and closed pores (Selley, 1998).
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Catenary pores are those that have open links to other pores. Cul-de-sac, or dead end, pores
have only one passage connecting with another pore. Closed pores have no openings to
other pores.
Catenary and cul-de-sac pores constitute effective porosity, in that hydrocarbons can emerge
from them. In catenary pores hydrocarbons can be flushed out by a natural or artificial water
drive. Cul-de-sac pores are unaffected by flushing, but may yield some oil or gas by
expansion as reservoir pressure drops. Closed pores are unable to yield hydrocarbons, such
as hydrocarbon having invaded an open pore that closed by compaction or cementation. The
ratio of total to effective porosity is extremely important, being directly related to the
permeability of a rock.
Primary Porosity
Primary porosity may be divided into two types: interparticle and intraparticle. Interparticle
porosity is initially present in all sediments. They are often quickly lost in clays and carbonate
sands due to the effects of compaction and cementation. Much of the porosity found in
sandstone reservoirs is preserved primary interparticle porosity (Figure 5.25a). Intraparticle
pores are generally found within the skeletal grains of carbonate sands (Figure 5.25b) and are
often cul-de-sac pores.
Pore space Pore space
Quartz Fossils
(a) (b)
Figure 5.25. Thin sections (0.1mm thick) illustrating the different types of primary porosity.
(a) Sandstone showing interparticle porosity. (b) Limestone showing intraparticle porosity
(Selley, 1998).
Secondary Porosity
Secondary pores are often caused by solution. Many minerals may be leached out of a rock,
but carbonate solution is the most significant. Thus solution-induced porosity is more
common in carbonate reservoirs than in sandstone reservoirs (Figure 5.26). Vugs are a type
of secondary porosity where the pores cross cut grains, matrix, and cement. Vugs tend to be
larger than most other types of pores. With increasing size vuggy porosity changes into
cavernous porosity. Cavernous pores are those large enough to cause the drill string to drop
by half a meter. Examples of cavernous porosity are known from the Arab D Jurassic
limestone of the Abqaiq field of Saudi Arabia and from the Fusselman limestone of the
Dollarhide field of Texas, both having cavernous pores up to 5m high.
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Figure 5.26 Secondary pores (blue) in a sandstone where the grains have dissolved. Width of
the view is approximately 2 mm (Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary).
The main force driving secondary migration is the buoyancy of hydrocarbons. There is a
tendency for oil and gas to segregate from aqueous phase liquids because of density
differences. In most cases, the action of gravity leads to a column of gas over oil water. In a
few cases, this does not happen and capillary forces restrict gravity migration. Capillary
pressure is the excess pressure required for oil or gas to displace water from pores. If
capillary and buoyancy forces are matched, hydrocarbon can be trapped within a particular
lithology. Hydrodynamic traps of this kind are found in Western Canada when gas is found
downdip and below water saturated rocks.
Fracture Porosity
Fracture porosity is extremely important not just because it increases the storage capacity of
a reservoir but because of the degree to which it may enhance permeability (Figure 5.27). A
few microfractures can increase permeability by many orders of magnitude. Fractures are
rare in unconsolidated, loosely cemented sediments, which respond to stress by plastic flow.
They may occur in any brittle rock, not only sandstones and limestones but also shales and
igneous and metamorphic rocks. Fractures may also be recognized from logs, seismic data
and production history of a well. Cycle skip on sonic logs can be caused by fractures, as can
random bag o’ nails motif on a dipmeter (and other phenomena).
Borehole imaging tools can also see fractures. Images showing fractures are discussed in
detail in Chapter 4.
Figure 5.27 (a) and (b) Fractures (blue in the right picture) in two source rocks
dramatically increase the permeability. The width of the picture on the right is 2mm
Brittle rocks tend to fracture in three geological settings. Fracture systems may dilate where
strata are subjected to tension on the crests of anticlines and the lows of synclines. Fractures
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often occur adjacent to faults, and in some cases a field may be directly related to a major
fault and its associated fractures. However, in some cases, faults may also act as
permeability barriers where clay fault gouge or other low permeability infill is produced by
shearing (Figure 5.27).
Tension
Fractures
Compression
(a)
Fractures
(b)
Fractures
(c)
Figure 5.27 Illustrations of the various ways in which fracture porosity is commonly found. (a)
Fractures may develop on the crests of anticlines and the nadir (low point) of synclines. (b)
Fractures may develop adjacent to faults. (c) Fractures may occur beneath unconformities
(Selley, 1998).
5.5.2 Permeability
The second essential requirement for a reservoir rock is permeability. Permeability is the
ability of fluids to pass through a porous material. The unit of permeability is the Darcy, but
because most reservoirs have permeabilities of less than one Darcy, the millidarcy (md) is
used. Average permeabilities in reservoirs are commonly in the range of 5 to 500 md.
Permeability is generally referred to by the letter K.
Permeability is generally measured from rock cores, and one Darcy is defined as allowing a
fluid of 1 centipoise (cP) viscosity to flow at a velocity of 1 cm/s for a pressure drop of 1
atm/cm.
K ( P1 − P2 ) A
Darcys’s Law: Q =
µL
where:
Q = rate of flow
K = permeability
(P1 – P2) = pressure drop across sample
A = cross-sectional area of sample
L = length of sample
µ = viscosity of the fluid
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Permeability is measured in three ways. The first is to be measured by means of a drill stem
or production test. In this test, a well is drilled through a reservoir. Casing is set and
perforated, tubing is run within the casing, the interval to be tested is sealed off with packers,
and the interval is allowed to flow. The rate of flow and the drop in pressure at the
commencement and conclusion of the test can be measured, and reservoir fluid can be
recovered at the surface. Thus all the parameters are known to enable permeability to be
calculated from Darcy’s law.
The second way is to measure permeability straight from LWD and Wireline logs. It has long
been possible to identify permeable zones in a qualitative way from SP and calliper logs. It
has only recently been possible to quantify permeability from logs with a degree of reliability
from density – porosity logs.
The third way is by means of a permeameter (Figure 5.29). Gas is forced through a cut core
sample. This method is more time consuming and expensive, but it is essential for rocks with
fractures or vuggy reservoirs.
P1 P2
Core plug
Fluid of
viscosity, µ
A
L
Figure 5.29. Basic arrangement for the measurement of permeability. This diagram
illustrates a set up suitable for measuring a core plug (Selley, 1998).
5.5.3 Interpretation of Permeability Data
Darcy’s law is only valid when there is no chemical reaction between the fluid and the rock
and when only one fluid completely fills the pores. The situation is far more complex for
mixed oil and gas. Darcy’s law is also only valid for a uniform type of pore system. Another
problem is due to the fact that cores are commonly contaminated with petroleum and detritus
from the drilling mud. Thus they need to be cleaned before measurement can take place, but
this may modify the original petrophysical characteristics of the specimen.
Flow rate depends on the ratio of permeability to viscosity. Thus gas reservoirs may be able
to flow at commercial rates with permeabilities of only a few millidarcies, whereas oil
reservoirs need minimal permeabilities of the order of tens of millidarcies.
Permeability is seldom the same in all directions within a rock. Vertical permeability is
generally far lower than permeability horizontal to the bedding. Therefore, permeability is
commonly measured from core plugs cut in both directions from the core.
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(a) (b)
Figures 5.30 (a) Medium porosity with high permeability and (b) high porosity with low
permeability (taken from Petroleum Geology and Reservoirs, University of Texas publication).
5.5.4 Relationships between Porosity, Permeability and Texture
The texture (shape, size, sorting and fabric) of sediment is closely correlated with its porosity
and permeability (Figure 5.30). The texture of a reservoir rock is related to the original
depositional fabric (packing, grain orientation) of the sediment, which is modified by
diagenesis (compaction, cementation). This diagenesis may be negligible in sandstones, but
in carbonates it may be sufficient to destroy all traces of the original depositional features.
The texture parameters include:
1. Grain shape (roundness, sphericity)

2. Grain size
3. Sorting
4. Fabric (packing, grain orientation)
Grain Shape
The two aspects of grain shape to consider are roundness and sphericity. Roundness
describes the degree of angularity of the particle, while sphericity describes the degree to
which the particle approaches a spherical shape. It is thought that porosity decreases with
sphericity because spherical grains may be more tightly packed than sub-spherical ones.
Grain Size
Theoretically, porosity is independent of grain size for uniformly packed and graded sands. In
practice, coarser sands sometimes have higher porosities than do finer sands, and this may
be to do with sorting and/or cementation.
Permeability declines with decreasing grain size because pore diameter decreases and so
capillary pressure increases. Thus a sand and a shale may both have porosities of 10%;
whereas the sand may be a permeable reservoir, the latter may be an impermeable rock.
Grain Sorting
Porosity increases with improved sorting. As sorting decreases, the pores between the larger
framework-forming grains are infilled by the smaller particles.
Grain Packing
The two important characteristics of the fabric of a sediment are how the grains are packed
and how they are orientated. Studies have been performed on sediment packing, showing
that spheres of uniform size have six theoretical packing geometries. These range from the
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loosest cubic style with a porosity of 48% down to the tightest rhombohedral style with 26%
porosity (Figure 4.31). Porosities of around 43% are the highest seen in actual reservoir
rocks. Packing is a major influence on the porosity of sediments, but like sphericity and
roundness, packing cannot be easily studied.
(a) (b)
Cubic packing (48% porosity) Rhombohedral (26% porosity)
Figures 5.31 The loosest and tightest theoretical packings for spheres of uniform diameter.
(Selley, 1998).
Grain Orientation
The previous section on packing assumed that the grains were uniformly spherical, which is
generally untrue of all sediments except oolites. Most quartz grains are actually slightly
elongated. Sands also contain flaky grains of mica, clay, shell fragments, and other
constituents. Skeletal carbonates have still more eccentric grain shapes. The orientation of
grains has little effect on porosity but a major effect on permeability.
Most sediments are stratified, the layering being caused by flaky grains, such as mica, shells,
and plant fragments, as well as by clay laminae. Because of this stratification the vertical
permeability is generally considered to be lower than the horizontal permeability (Figure 5.32).
Variation in permeability also occurs parallel to bedding. In most sands the grains generally
show preferential alignment within the horizontal plane. Grain-size differences cause
permeability variations far greater than caused by grain orientation.
Current Y
Figures 5.32 Block diagram of sand showing layered fabric with grains orientated parallel to
the current (Selley, 1998).
5.5.5 Reservoir Continuity
Once an oil or gas field has been discovered, its reserves and the optimum method for
recovering them must be established. A detailed knowledge of reservoir continuity is a
prerequisite for solving both these problems. Few traps contain reservoirs that are uniform in
thickness, porosity, and permeability; most are different to varying degrees. Thus, a reservoir
is commonly divided into the gross pay and the net pay intervals. The gross pay is the total
vertical interval from the top of the reservoir down to the petroleum/water contact. The net
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pay is the cumulative vertical thickness from which the petroleum may actually be produced.
In many fields the net pay is less than the gross pay. The difference between the two is due
to two factors: the primary porosity with which the reservoir was deposited and the diagenetic
processes that has destroyed the original porosity by cementation or enhanced it by solution.
There are three main processes that control reservoir continuity: depositional, diagenetic, and
tectonic barriers.
Depositional Barriers
There are two major groups of sand that may be recognized according to their lateral
continuity: sheets and elongate bodies. Sheet sands occur in many environments, ranging
from turbidite fans to channel sands in braided alluvial fans. Sheets may be discontinuous
because of non-deposition or later erosion, with the sands being locally replaced by shales.
Of the elongate sands with length/width ratios greater than 3:1, the best known are ribbons, or
shoestrings, which are generally deposited in barrier bar environments. Dendroids are
shoestrings that split into two and include both fluvial tributary channel sands and deltaic and
submarine fan channels (Figure 5.33). Pods are isolated sands, which include some tidal
currents and some eolian dunes.
Figures 5.33 Illustrations showing differing shapes of sand bodies (Selley, 1998).
Vertically, sands may be differentiated into isolated and stacked reservoirs (Figure 5.33).
Stacked sands are those that are in continuity with one another either laterally or vertically.
(a) (b) (c)
Figures 5.34 Descriptive terms for vertical sand bodies. (a) Vertically stacked. (b) Laterally
stacked. (c) Isolated (Selley, 1998).
Structural Barriers
Faults are common structural barriers within petroleum reservoirs. Faults are sometimes
permeable and allow fluid movement; sometimes they are sealed and inhibit it. Open faults
125
are beneficial if they allow petroleum to migrate from a source rock into a reservoir, and are
beneficial if they are impermeable and prevent the escape of petroleum into a trap. Many
studies have been undertaken to determine if the faults are open or closed.
The determination of whether a fault is open or closed depends on many variables, including
the physical properties of the rocks, the fluid pressures, and the position of permeable sands
and impermeable shales.
5.5.6 Reservoir Characterization
Once an accumulation of petroleum has been discovered it is essential to characterize the

reservoir as accurately as possible in order to calculate the reserves and to determine the
most effective way of recovering as much of the petroleum as economically as possible.
Reservoir characterization first involves the integration of a vast amount of data from
seismic surveys, from geophysical well logs, and from geological samples.
The aim of the characterization is to produce a geological model that makes use of the
available data and can be used to predict the distribution of porosity, permeability, and fluids
throughout the field. The objective is to produce a three-dimensional grid (model) of the field,
and to place a value for the porosity, permeability, and petroleum saturation within each cell
of the grid.
Once this has been done the reserves may be calculated and the most effective method of
producing them may be simulated on a computer. Computer simulation enables the
production characteristics of the field to be tested for different well spacing, production rates,
enhanced recovery schemes, and so on. As the field is drilled up and goes on stream, the
information and models are updated and revised, and this enables progressively more
accurate production scenarios to be tested.
Reserve Calculations
Estimates of possible reserves in a new oil or gas field can be made before a trap is even
drilled. The figures used are only approximations, but they may give some indication of the
economic viability of the prospect. As a proven field is developed and produced, its reserves
are known with greater and greater accuracy until they are finally depleted.
A rough estimate of reserves prior to drilling a trap can be calculated as follows:
7758Vφ e (1 − S w ) R
Recoverable oil (bbl) =
FVF
Pr 520 1
Recoverable gas (cu ft) = 43560φ e (1 − S w )V R
14.7 (460 + Tr ) Z
where:
V = volume (area x thickness)

h = is the reservoir thickness in TVD
Pr = the reservoir pressure (psi)
Tr = the reservoir temperature (°F)
Z = the compressibility factor
R = the estimated recovery factor
FVF = the formation volume factor for oil
Sw = water saturation (of zone)
φe = effective porosity (of zone)
7758 = conversion factor from acre-feet to barrels
126
5.6 Traps and Seals
A trap is defined as the place where oil and gas are prevented from further movement.
Potential hydrocarbon traps are specifically searched for in petroleum exploration. Only after
drilling and testing is it known whether the trap contains oil or gas.
5.6.1 Traps
The highest point of the trap is the crest (or culmination), while the lowest point at which the
hydrocarbons may be contained in the trap is the spill point; this lies on the horizontal
contour, the spill plane. The vertical distance from the crest to the spill point is the closure
of the trap (Figure 5.35a). A trap does not necessarily have to be full to the spill point. Within
the trap the productive reservoir is termed the pay. The vertical distance from the top of the
reservoir to the petroleum/water contact is termed the gross pay. This thickness may very
from 3 to 6 feet in Texas to several hundred feet in the North Sea and the Middle East.
GAS Gas cap

Gas-oil
contact
OIL Oil zone
Closure
Oil-water
contact
Water zone
Spill Point
WATER
(a) WATER
Figures 5.35 (a) Cross-section through a simple anticlinal trap, and (b) Cross-section through
a field containing two reservoirs with different oil/water contacts. In the upper reservoir the
net pay is much less than the gross pay because of the non-productive shale layers. In the
lower reservoir the net pay is equal to the gross pay (Selley, 1998).
Limits of
the field
Shale
layers
Gross Pay = Net
Pay
OWC
Gross
OWC Pay
(b)
127
All of the gross pay does not necessarily consist of productive reservoir, however, gross pay
is usually differentiated from net pay (Figure 5.35b, above). The net pay is the cumulative
vertical thickness of a reservoir from which petroleum may be produced. Development of a
reservoir needs mapping of the gross-to-net pay ratio across the field.
Within the field there may be one or more pools, each with its own fluid contact. Each
individual pool may contain one or more pay zones.
Petroleum Distribution within a Trap
A trap may contain oil, gas, or both. The oil/water contact (referred to as the OWC) is the
deepest level of producible oil. Similarly, the gas/oil contact (GOC) or gas/water contact
(GWC), is the lower limit of producible gas. The accurate evaluation of these surfaces is
essential before the reserves of the field can be calculated, and establishing these contacts is
one of the main reasons for logging and testing.
Where oil and gas occur together in the same trap, the gas overlies the oil because the gas
has a lower density. Whether a trap contains oil and/or gas depends both on the chemistry
and level of maturation of the source rock and on the pressure and temperature of the
reservoir itself. Boundaries between oil, gas, and water may be sharp or transitional. Abrupt
fluid contacts indicate a permeable reservoir; gradational ones indicate a low permeability
with a high capillary pressure. Particular interest focuses on vertical variations of the water
saturation, since this obviously affects the producibility of the petroleum, and on establishing
whether the water is free or bound, using measurements such as nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR).
5.6.2 Seals and Cap Rocks
For a trap to be functional an effective seal must overlie it. Any rock may act as a seal as
long as it is impermeable. Seals will commonly be porous, and may in fact contain petroleum,
but they cannot allow vertical migration of the petroleum from the trap. Shales are the most
common seals, but evaporites are the most effective. Shales are commonly porous but
because of their fine grain size, have very low permeability.
5.6.3 Classification of Traps
Hydrocarbons may be trapped in many different ways. There are two major types of traps:
structural and stratigraphic. If the principal trapping factor is the folding or faulting of the
reservoir formation, the trap is said to be structural. If it is a lateral permeability change
within the formation (i.e. cementation by minerals dissolving in groundwater) or the thinning
out or disappearance of the reservoir formation updip, the trap is stratigraphic. A third style
of trap is where oil and gas accumulate in a given location because of the flow of formation
water, the trap is termed hydrodynamic. Most traps have a mixture of structural and
stratigraphic features.
Structural traps are those traps whose geometry was formed by tectonic processes after the
deposition of the beds involved. Basically, folding and faulting cause structural traps. A
second group of traps is caused by diapers, where salt or mud have moved upward and
domed the overlying strata, causing individual types of trap. Diapirs are a variety of structural
trap; but since local lithostratic movement causes them, not regional tectonic forces they are
differentiated.
Stratigraphic traps are those traps whose geometry is formed by changes in lithology. The
lithological variations may be depositional (i.e. channels, reefs, and bars) or post-depositional
(i.e. truncations and diagenetic changes).
Hydrodynamic traps occur where the downward movement of water prevents the upward
movement of oil, thus trapping the oil without normal structural or stratigraphic closure. The
128
final group, combination traps, are formed by a combination of two or more of the previously
defined traps (Table 5.1).
Table 5.1 Basic classifications of hydrocarbon traps.
5.6.4 Structural Traps
Fold Traps
Anticlines are the most common structural traps (Figure 5.35). An anticline usually consists of
many rock layers of various porosities and permeabilities. Some of the layers may contain
accumulations of oil and gas (reservoirs), while others form impermeable barriers (cap rock or
seal). Wells drilled into such structures are often completed at several depths to produce
from each reservoir formation.
Some anticlinal, or fold, traps are caused by compression where there is a net shortening of
the Earth’s crust, usually found near subduction zones. One of the best-known oil provinces
with production from anticlines occurs in Iran. In the foothills of the Zagros Mountains, many
such fields occur, with sixteen of these fields classed in the “giant” category, with reserves of
more than 500 million barrels of recoverable oil and 3.5 trillion cubic feet of recoverable gas.
The main producing horizon is a limestone (Asmari), a reservoir with extensive fracture
porosity and an evaporite cap rock.
Folds are often involved in thrusting within the mountain chains and hydrocarbons may be
trapped in anticlines above the thrust planes and in the reservoirs sealed beneath the thrust.
A major play of this type occurs in the Rocky Mountains, including the Turner Valley field of
Alberta and the Painter Valley reservoir of Wyoming. These fields are extremely difficult to
find and develop because of the problems of seismic interpretation due to complex faulting
and steeply dipping beds.
A second major group of anticlinal traps is formed by crustal tension (pull-apart). Where
crustal tension causes a sedimentary basin to form, the floor is commonly split into a series of
horsts and grabens. Early deposition infills this irregular topography, but eventually, anticlines
may form in the sediment cover of above the horst and graben structures (Figure 5.36).
Closure may be enhanced by compaction and sedimentation.
129
Drape anticline
Figures 5.36 Cross-section showing how basement block faulting causes anticlinal structures
in sediments; closure decreases upwards. These drape anticlines are caused by tension
rather than compression (Selley, 1998).
Fault Traps
Generally, petroleum migrating updip toward the fault is trapped by a layer of less-permeable
rock that has been moved adjacent to the reservoir formation, or by fault gouge, within the
fault itself. Sometimes, a fault can act as a path for hydrocarbons to escape to surface from
the reservoir. Folding and faulting often occur together and anticlinal reservoirs often contain
fault traps (Figure 5.37). A growth fault, in which deposition is greater on the downthrown
side, can trap oil both along the fault and in its associated rollover anticline (Figure 5.38).
Faulting plays an indirect but essential part in the entrapment of many fields. Relatively few
discovered fields are caused only by faulting. A very important question in both exploration
and development is whether a fault acts as a barrier to fluid movement or whether it is
permeable. The problem is that some faults seal, others do not.
There are a few guidelines to predict the nature of the fault. Where the throw (amount of
movement along the fault plane) of the fault is less than the thickness of the reservoir, it is
unlikely to seal. Faults in brittle rocks are less likely to seal than those in plastic rocks. In
Figure 5.37 Faulted anticline trap showing displaced separate hydrocarbons (taken from
Petroleum Geology and Reservoirs, University of Texas publication).
130
permeable. In unconsolidated sands and shales faults tend to seal. This is usually due to the
fault gouge, impermeable rock that has been crushed and smeared along the fault plane
between the formations.
Figure 5.38 Rollover anticline and growth fault traps (taken from Petroleum Geology and
Diapiric Traps
Diapiric traps are produced by the upward movement of sediments that are less dense than
those overlying them. In this situation sediments tend to move upward and in doing so, may
form diverse hydrocarbon traps. Such traps are not true structural traps, since tectonic forces
are not required to initiate them. Diapiric traps are not initiated by stratigraphic processes
either, although they can be caused by depositional changes across the structure. Diapiric
traps are generally caused by the upward movement of salt or, less frequently, overpressured
clay.
3
Salt has a density of about 2.03 g/cm . Recently deposited clay and sand have densities less
than that of salt. As the clay and sand are buried, however, they compact, losing porosity and
gaining density. Ultimately, a burial depth will be reached where sediments have are denser
than salt. This occurs somewhere around 2600 to 3900 feet. When this point is reached, the
salt will tend to flow up through the denser overburden.
Figure 5.39 Cross-section illustrating the various types of trap that may be associated with
salt movement: (A) domal trap, (B and C) fault traps, (D) pinchout trap, (E) sedimentary
anticlinal trap, and (F) truncation trap (taken from Petroleum Geology and Reservoirs,
131
This movement be triggered tectonically, in other instances, movement is apparently random.

Many salt domes are pear or mushroom shaped in cross-section, and petroleum is trapped
beneath the peripheral overhanging zone (Figure 5.39 and 5.40).
Salt movement plays an important role in the entrapment of oil and gas in the Gulf of Mexico,
Iran, the North Sea, and the Arabian Gulf.
Diapiric mud structures can exist where there is overpressure and overpressured shales.
Overpressured shale has a higher porosity and therefore a lower density than does normally
compacted clay.
Sometimes diapirs of overpressured clay intrude the younger, denser cover sediments, and
like salt domes, these mud lumps may even reach the surface. Mud diapirs are known from
the Mississippi and Niger deltas. Many mud diapirs have hydrocarbons trapped in exactly the
same way as salt domes.
Trapped
hydrocarbons
on the flanks
Diapir
Upward
movement of
Salt or Mud
Figure 5.40 Hydrocarbon traps around a salt diapir (taken from Petroleum Geology and
5.6.5 Stratigraphic Traps
Another major group of traps to be considered are the stratigraphic traps, whose geometry is
due to changes in the lithology. Such changes can be caused by the original deposition of
the rock, as with a reef or channel. Alternatively, the change in lithology may be post-
depositional, as with a truncation or diagenetic trap. The major distinction can be made
between stratigraphic traps associated with unconformities and those that are not (Table 5.2).
Stratigraphic traps are less well known and harder to locate than structural traps and their
formation processes are even more complex.
Traps Unrelated to Unconformities
Many oil and gas fields are trapped within different types of channels. A channel is an
environment for the transportation of sand, which may or may not include sand deposition.
132
Where a barrier island will always be made of sand, channels are frequently clay plugged.
This situation may not be bad, because the channel fill can act as a permeability barrier and
thus trap hydrocarbons in adjacent porous beds. Therefore, finding a channel is not a
guarantee of finding a reservoir. Another problem complicating the finding a reservoir is the
actual path that the channel takes.
Table 5.2 Classification of Stratigraphic Traps
A lens is a relatively small body of sedimentary rock that pinches out in all directions between
other formations (Figure 5.41). Sand lenses are often formed in fluvial depositional
environments (river systems) and are referred to as channel sands.
Many good examples of channel stratigraphic traps occur in basins along the eastern flanks
of the Rocky Mountains, from Alberta down through Montana, Wyoming, Colorado and New
Mexico.
Sand lenses
Figure 5.41 Example of lense traps (taken from Petroleum Geology and Reservoirs,
Marine barrier sands often make excellent reservoirs because of their clean, well-sorted
texture. Combined barrier sands may form blanket sands within which oil may be structurally
trapped. Sometimes, however, isolated barrier bars may be totally enclosed in marine or
lagoonal shales. These barrier bars may then form shoestring stratigraphic traps (Figure
5.42).
133
Shale
Barrier Sands
forming a
shoestring
reservoir
Figure 5.42 Shoestring sand reservoirs (taken from Petroleum Geology and Reservoirs,
One common type of stratigraphic trap is the pinchout (Figure 5.43a), where the formation
thins toward the edges. Hydrocarbons migrating toward the edge of a permeable reservoir
formation may eventually be trapped where the formation “pinches out” between less-
permeable rocks. A lateral decrease in permeability has much the same effect (even if the
formation is thick), the effective cross-sectional area of interconnected pores that
hydrocarbons migrate is reduced or eliminated (Figure 5.43b).
Pinchout
Decrease in
porosity
Figure 5.43 Stratigraphic traps: A, pinchout, B, lateral updip decrease in permeability (taken
from Petroleum Geology and Reservoirs, University of Texas publication).
Most reservoir traps include both structural and stratigraphic features.
134
Reefs have long been recognized as one of the most important types of stratigraphic traps.
Reefs develop as dome (pinnacle) and elongated (barrier) structures (Figure 5.44). They
grow a rigid stony framework with high primary porosity, and marine shales, which may act as
hydrocarbon source rocks, frequently cover them.
Draped anticline
Buried reef
Reef
Figure 5.44 Traps associated with a limestone reef (taken from Petroleum Geology and
Diagenesis plays an important role in controlling the quality of the reservoir within a trap. As
discussed in the sections on Porosity, solution can enhance reservoir quality by generating
secondary porosity, whereas cementation can completely destroy it. In some situations
diagenesis can actually generate a hydrocarbon trap. Oil or gas moving up a permeable bed
may reach a cemented zone, which stops further migration. Conversely, oil may be trapped
in zones where solution porosity has been created in a cemented rock.
Diagenetic traps are not only formed by the solution or precipitation of mineral cements. As
oil migrates to the surface, it may be degraded and oxidized by bacterial action if it reaches a
shallow zone of water. Cases are known where this tarry residue acts as a seal, stopping
further movement (Figure 5.45).
Traps Related to Unconformities
The channel, bar, reef, and diagenetic traps just described can occur both in conformable
sequences and adjacent to unconformities. The first three types often overlie unconformities,
whereas diagenetically assisted traps underlie them.
Unconformities enable porous reservoirs and impermeable shales that may act as a source or
seal to be put together. A large percentage of the known global petroleum reserves are
trapped adjacent to unconformities and source rocks of late Jurassic to mid-Cretaceous age.
Many of these reserves are held in structural and combination traps, as well as pure
stratigraphic traps. As shown in Table 6, unconformity-related traps can be divided into those
that occur above the unconformity and those that occur below it.
135
OWC
(a)
Cemented
limestone
Cemented
sandstone
Porous
limestone
(b)
Shallow oil
degradation
(c)
Figure 5.45 Configurations for diagenetic traps caused by (a) cementation, (b) solution –
leaching, and shallow-oil degradation, where degraded oil acts as a seal inhibiting further
migration (Selley, 1998).
Stratigraphic traps that overlie unconformities include reefs and various types of terrestrial
sands. These traps may be divided into three classes according to their geometry: sheet,
channel, and strike valley. Shallow marine or fluvial sands may onlap (cover) a planar
unconformity. A stratigraphic trap may occur where these sands are overlain by shale and
where the rocks beneath the unconformity are impermeable. In many ways, these onlap
traps are similar to pinchout traps; in particular, both need stratigraphic permeability changes
or structural closure in all directions for the trap to be valid.
Figure 5.46 Cross-section showing the occurrence of strike valley sands (Selley, 1998).
Where alternating beds of hard and soft rocks are weathered and eroded, the soft strata form
strike valleys between resistant ridges of harder rock. Marine shales may blanket fluvial, and
occasionally marine, sands within strike valleys (Figure 5.46).
136
Where an unconformity is irregular, sand often infills valleys cut into the old land surface. The
location and trend of these valleys may be related to the resistance to weathering of the
various strata in the old land surface. This process gives rise to two groups of traps: channel
and strike valley. Rivers may cut valleys into the land surface and these valleys may then be
infilled with sediments (both porous sand and impermeable shale).
Stratigraphic traps also occur beneath unconformities where porous permeable beds have
been truncated and overlain by impermeable clay. In many cases impermeable strata
beneath the reservoir also provide a lower seal. As with pinchouts and onlaps, some closure
is need in all directions. This closure may be structural or stratigraphic, but for many
truncation traps it will be provided by the irregular topography of the unconformity.
5.6.6 Hydrodynamic Traps
The third group of traps to consider are hydrodynamic traps. In a stratigraphic or structural
trap under hydrostatic conditions (with fluid at rest) has a horizontal interface between the oil
and water. Hydrodynamic trapping, in contrast, is the result of the slow flow of water through
the reservoir formation in either a stratigraphic or structural situation. The dynamic pressure
of the flowing water traps oil and gas. In this type of trap the oil-water contact is tilted (Figure
5.47).
Where water is moving hydrodynamically down permeable beds, it may encounter upward-
moving oil. When the hydrodynamic force of the water is greater than the force due to the
buoyancy of the oil droplets, the oil will be restrained from upward movement and will be
trapped within the bed without any permeability barrier.
An obvious tilted oil/water contact points to the role of hydrodynamic flow. If there was no
flow and pressures were hydrostatic, oil could not be trapped because the trap lacks four-way
structural closure.
Figure 5.47 Hydrodynamically tilted oil-water contact (taken from Petroleum Geology and
5.6.7 Combination Traps
Many oil and gas fields around the world are not solely to structure or stratigraphy or
hydrodynamic flow, but to a combination of two or more of these forces. Such fields may
properly be termed combination traps. Most of these traps are caused by a combination of
structural and stratigraphical processes.
137
5.7 Questions.
1) Secondary migration of hydrocarbons

a) Can involve distances up to many miles.
b) Is caused by temperatures over 400°°F.
c) Is movement from permeable into impermeable rock.
d) Always ends in a trap.
2) Hydrocarbons are generated from

a) Porous sandstone.
b) Living organisms.
c) Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
d) Nitrogen and water.
3) The source material for most petroleum is thought to accumulate in

a) Warm, shallow seawater.
b) Dry grasslands.
c) Deep marine basins.
d) Lakes and rivers.
4) Which of the following geologic exploration techniques provides the most detailed
information about rock types?
a) Gravity surveying.
b) Magnetic surveying.
c) Seismic surveying.
d) Wireline logging.
5) Explain the differences between 2D, 3D, and 4D seismic surveying.
6) Explain the difference between Primary and Secondary migration of hydrocarbons.
7) Define permeability.
8) Explain the difference between Primary, Secondary and Fracture porosities.
9) Explain the difference between Net and Gross pay.
11) Explain the difference between Stratigraphic and Structural traps.
138
5.8 Answers
1) Secondary migration of hydrocarbons

e) Can involve distances up to many miles.
2) Hydrocarbons are generated from

b) Living organisms.
3) The source material for most petroleum is thought to accumulate in

a) Warm, shallow seawater.
4) Which of the following geologic exploration techniques provides the most detailed
information about rock types?
d) Wireline logging.
5) Explain the differences between 2D, 3D, and 4D seismic surveying.

Seismic surveys utilize the seismic reflection method, which gives an accurate
representation of the subsurface structure, by measuring the time it takes for a seismic
wave generated at or near the surface to bounce off of rock interfaces and return to the
surface.
2D seismic is the term for a line of seismic data between two points. 3D seismic is shot
over a grid so that a three-dimensional matrix of data is acquired that enables seismic
displays to be produced, not only along the survey lines shot, but also in any direction.
This is 3D seismic, and is very appealing because horizontal displays, or time slices, can
be produced.
4D seismic data is same as 3D, with time. 3D data acquired at different time over the
same are to assess changes in a producing hydrocarbon reservoir with time. Changes
may be observed in fluid location and saturation, pressure and temperature. 4D seismic
data is one of several forms of time-lapse seismic data that can be acquired on the
surface or in a borehole
6) Explain the difference between Primary and Secondary migration of hydrocarbons.

Primary migration is the migration of hydrocarbons from the source rock (clay or shale)
into permeable carrier beds (generally sands or limestones). Secondary migration refers
to subsequent movement of oil and gas within permeable reservoirs.
7) Define permeability.
Permeability is the ability of fluids to pass through a porous material. The unit of
permeability is the Darcy, but because most reservoirs have permeabilities of less than
one Darcy, the millidarcy (md) is used.
Average permeabilities in reservoirs are commonly in the range of 5 to 500 md.

Permeability is generally referred to by the letter K.
8) Explain the difference between Primary, Secondary and Fracture porosities.

Primary porosity is the natural porosity in petroleum reservoir rock, i.e., the porosity
developed during the original sedimentation process.
Secondary porosity is caused by solution. Many minerals may be leached out of a rock
causing new pores to be opened. Vugs are a type of secondary porosity where the pores
cross cut grains, matrix, and cement and tend to be larger than most other types of pores.
Fracture porosity is extremely important not just because it increases the storage
capacity of a reservoir but because of the degree to which it may enhance permeability.
Fractures are rare in unconsolidated, loosely cemented sediments, which respond to
stress by plastic flow. They may occur in any brittle rock, not only sandstones and
limestones but also shales and igneous and metamorphic rocks.
139
9) Explain the difference between Net and Gross pay.

Within the trap the productive reservoir is termed the pay. The vertical distance from the
top of the reservoir to the petroleum/water contact is termed the gross pay. All of the
gross pay does not necessarily consist of productive reservoir, however, gross pay is
usually differentiated from net pay. The net pay is the cumulative vertical thickness of a
reservoir from which petroleum may be produced. Development of a reservoir needs
mapping of the gross-to-net pay ratio across the field.
10) Explain the difference between Stratigraphic and Structural traps.

Structural traps are those traps whose geometry was formed by tectonic processes after
the deposition of the beds involved. Basically, folding and faulting cause structural traps.
A second group of traps is caused by diapers, where salt or mud have moved upward and
domed the overlying strata, causing individual types of trap.
Stratigraphic traps are those traps whose geometry is formed by changes in lithology.
The lithological variations may be depositional (i.e. channels, reefs, and bars) or post-
depositional (i.e. truncations and diagenetic changes).
140
Geology Fundamentals Glossary
Glossary of Terms
Aa lava: A lava flow with a rough, jagged surface.
Angular unconformity: an unconformity in which formations above and below are not
parallel. See unconformity.
Anticline: a fold with a core of progressively older rocks; usually its convex side is upward.
Anticlines can trap oil and gas. Compare syncline.
Apparent Dip: The angle that a plane makes with the horizontal measured in any randomly
oriented section rather than perpendicular to strike.
Asthenosphere: A semi-molten zone of mantle just below the lithosphere whose depth
extends from about 60 to 125 miles and is characterized by diminished seismic wave
velocities.
Axial plane: an imaginary planar surface that divides a fold symmetrically.
Bar (Barrier) sand: reservoir rock formed from a mass of sand, gravel, or alluvium deposited
on the bed of a stream, sea, or lake by waves and currents.
Basalt: A dark, fine-grained igneous rock.
Batholith: An igneous intrusion with a large mass, a surface area greater than 60mi2, and no
known floor.
Body waves: an acoustic wave that moves radially from a source.
Breccia: A detrital rock consisting of angular pebble-size or larger rock fragments commonly
set in a matrix of silt or sand. Compare Conglomerate.
Bright spot: the term for a downward increase in velocity that generates a strong deflection
of the seismic trace, the flat spot appears as a black high amplitude reflector.
Brittle response: The fracturing of a rock in response to stress with little or no permanent
deformation prior to its rupture.
Burial metamorphism: The metamorphism that results in response to the pressure exerted
by the weight of the overlying rock.
Caldera: A volcanic crater larger than ½ mile in diameter, usually formed by explosion or
collapse.
Catagensis: is a term used in petroleum geology to describe the cracking process which
results in the conversion of organic material into hydrocarbons.
Catenary pore: An open pore that has access to other pores on both sides. See Cul-de-sac
and closed pores.
Cementation: The process by which precipitates bind together the grains of sediment,
converting it into rock.
Checkshot Survey: check shot surveys are the simplest measurement of borehole seismic.
It consists in recording the transit time of the sound wave propagating directly from the source
on surface to the downhole tool position.
Clasts: A particle of rock or single crystal that has been derived by weathering and erosion. It
is the basic building block of a clastic rock.
141
Closed pore: A pore that cannot be accessed and are unable to yield hydrocarbons. See
catenary and closed pores.
Closure: the vertical distance between the highest point in a petroleum reservoir and its spill
point, an indication of the amount of production that may be expected.
Columnar joints: Cracks that form as the result of contraction during the cooling of lava
flows, dividing the lava into six-sided columns.
Combination traps: this term describes a trap that is caused by a combination of structural
and stratigraphical processes.
Compressive stress: The stress generated by forces directed toward one another on
opposite sides of a real or imaginary plane.
Conglomerates: A detrital rock consisting of rounded pebble-sized or larger rock fragments

commonly set in a matrix of silt or sand. Compare Breccia.
Contact metamorphism: The transformation of rocks caused by heat escaping from an

igneous intrusion.
Convection currents: The flow resulting from the rise of warmer, less dense material and the
descent of cooler, denser material.
Convergent boundaries: The border between plates that are colliding with one another.
Crustal material is subducted back into the mantle at these boundaries.
Crater: A circular depression; a volcanic crater contains vent or vents of the volcano.
Crest: The peak of an anticline.
Crust: The outermost layer of the Earth, about 1 to 30 miles thick, consisting of continental
and oceanic components of distinctly different density and composition.
Crystalline texture: The degree of crystallinity and arrangement and character of a rock,
shown by its component particles in terms of grain size and shape.
Cul-de-sac pore: Pores that have access on one side only. See catenary and closed pores.
Dendroids: sands that have a branching structure.
Detrital sediments: Fragments derived from the weathering of rocks, transported by water,
wind or ice and deposited in loose layers on the Earth’s surface.
Diapir (Piercement Dome): a dome or anticlinal fold in which a mobile plastic core (usually
salt) has ruptured the more brittle overlying rock.
Diapiric traps: A style of trap that is both structural and stratigraphic. Generally caused by
upward movement of salt.
Dip: The angle formed by the intersection of a bedding or fault plane and the horizontal plane:
measured in a vertical plane perpendicular to the strike. Geological dip is referenced to the
horizontal = 0° dip, and should not to be confused with “Tool Dip” as measured by D&I
packages where the vertical = 0° dip.
Disconformity: an interruption in an otherwise continuous succession of sedimentary layers,

due to a lack of deposition or to erosion, above and below which the strata are parallel to
each other (although not necessarily to the disconformity). See unconformity and angular
unconformity
142
Divergent boundaries: The border between plates that are moving away from each other as
new crust is formed.
Dolomite: (CaMg(CO3)2) A carbonate mineral found in Dolomitic Limestone, formed by

dolomitization.
Ductile response: The permanent deformation of a body, without fracture, in the shape of a
solid.
Elastic limit: The maximum amount of stress a material can withstand before it deforms
permanently.
Elastic response: The deformation of a body in proportion to the applied stress and its
recovery once the stress is removed.
Eolian: Pertaining to the environment of deposition of sediments by wind, such as the sand
dunes in a desert. Because fine-grained sediments such as clays are removed easily from
wind-blown deposits, eolian sandstones are typically clean and well sorted. Also spelt
Aeolian.
Facies: The characteristics and appearance of a sedimentary rock unit whose conditions of
origin differentiate it from neighbouring units.
Fault: a break in the earth’s crust along which rocks on side of the fault plane have moved
(downward, upward or laterally) relative to those on the opposite side.
Fault breccia: a metamorphic rock consisting of angular fragments that are the result of the
grinding and shattering action that occurs along active fault zones.
Fault gouge: The ground up rock caused by movement along the fault plane.
Fault plane: a surface along which faulting has occurred.
Flat spot: a single horizontal reflector is encountered cross-cutting many parallel dipping
reflectors. Flat spots are commonly discovered to be reflectors generated from
petroleum/water contacts.
Fold: Permanent wavelike deformation in layered rock, sediment or strata.
Fold axis: a line formed by the intersection of the axial plane with the fold crest.
Foliation: The arrangement of a rock in parallel planes or layers; in metamorphic rocks,

caused by parallel alignment of the minerals
Footwall: the rock surface forming the underside of a fault when the fault plane is horizontal
or dipping. Compare hanging wall.
Fracture porosity: A type of secondary porosity produced by the tectonic fracturing of rock.
Fractures themselves typically do not have much volume, but by joining pre-existing pores,
they enhance permeability significantly. In exceedingly rare cases, non-reservoir rocks such
as granite can become reservoir rocks if sufficient fracturing occurs.
Gneiss: is a foliated rock in which bands of granular minerals alternate with bands of flaky
minerals
Gondwana succession: A succession of rock that can be found and correlated, in South
America, Australia, Africa, and Antarctica, showing that once millions of years ago these
landmasses were joined.
143
Graded bedding: Stratification in which each layer shows a distinct and gradual change in
particle size.
Granite: A coarse-grained intrusive rock.
Gravity Survey: measure minute variations in the pull of gravity from rocks within the first few
miles of the earth's surface.
Gross pay: The vertical distance from the top of the reservoir to the Oil-Water Contact
(OWC), or to the Gas-Water Contact (GWC).
Ground roll: the surface disturbance caused by body waves.
Growth or Rollover Fault: an active fault that continues to slip while sediments are being
deposited, causing strata on the downthrust side to be thicker than those on the other side.
Hanging Wall: the rock surface forming the upper side of a fault when the fault plane is not
vertical (dip is less than 90°). Compare footwall.
Hydrocarbons: organic compounds of hydrogen and carbon whose densities, boiling points,
and freezing points increase as their molecular weight increase. Petroleum is a mixture of
many different hydrocarbons.
Hydrodynamic Trap: a petroleum trap in which the major trapping mechanism is the force of
moving water.
Inner core: The solid spherical center of the Earth, about 1640 miles in diameter.
Intraparticle porosity: A type of primary porosity within individual grains, generally found
within the skeletal grains of carbonate sands and are often cul-de-sac pores
Interparticle porosity: A type of primary porosity that is initially present in all sediments.
They are often quickly lost in clays and carbonate sands due to the effects of compaction and
cementation.
Joint: a fracture on a rock, without noticeable movement.
Kerogen: The naturally occurring, solid, insoluble organic matter that occurs in source rocks
and can yield oil upon heating. Typical organic constituents of kerogen are algae and woody
plant material. Kerogen has a high molecular weight relative to bitumen, or soluble organic
matter. Bitumen forms from kerogen during petroleum generation. Kerogen is described as
Type I, consisting of mainly algal and amorphous (but presumably algal) kerogen and highly
likely to generate oil; Type II, mixed terrestrial and marine source material that can generate
waxy oil; and Type III, woody terrestrial source material that typically generates gas.
Laccolith: A mushroom-shaped, igneous intrusion that has domed the overlying crustal rock.
Lahar: A mudflow of volcanic material.
Lateral, or Strike-slip: a fault where the opposite sides of which move horizontally past each
other along a plane that may be vertical, i.e. San Andreas Fault.
Lava: Magma that flows out onto the surface of the Earth; also refers to rock body formed
after the magma cools.
Lava dome: A convex structure of solidified lava, extruded from the vent of a volcano.
Lava plateau: An elevated, flat-topped region composed of a thick succession of horizontal

lava flows.
144
Limestone: A rock comprising > 50% Calcium Carbonate, partly or wholly of biogenic origin.
Lithic: Formed of rock.
Lithification: The process by which sediment is converted into sedimentary rock through
compaction, cementation, or crystallization.
Lithosphere: A rigid zone of the Earth that includes the crust and a sliver of upper mantle
that rest directly on the Asthenosphere.
Lithostatic stress: The uniform stress in the Earth’s crust, caused by the weight of the
overlying rocks.
Magma: Molten (hot-liquid) rock material, generated within the Earth, which forms igneous
rocks when solidified.
Magnetic reversals: A switch in the direction of the Earth’s magnetic field such that a
compass that today points north would, at the time of reversal, have pointed south.
Magnetic Survey: uses the amount of magnetic field strength in a particular location to
identify the type of rock beneath the surface.
Mantle: The layer of the Earth located between the crust and the outer core whose depth
extends about 12 to 1800 miles.
Marble: a metamorphic rock composed mainly of recrystallized calcite and/or dolomite.
Matrix: The fine-grained material surrounding larger grains in a sedimentary rock.
Mineral: A naturally occurring homogeneous solid with a defined chemical composition and
highly ordered atomic arrangement.
Net pay: Is the cumulative vertical thickness of a reservoir from which petroleum may be
produced.
Nonconformity: an unconformity in which the formations above rest on eroded metamorphic

or igneous formations.
Normal fault: a dip-slip fault along which the hanging wall has subsided relative to the
footwall.
Obsidian: A volcanic glass, either black or dark-coloured.
Onlap: The termination of shallowly dipping, younger strata against more steeply dipping,
older strata, or the termination of low-angle reflections in seismic data against steeper
reflections. Onlap is a particular pattern of reflections in seismic data that, according to
principles of sequence stratigraphy, occurs during periods of transgression.
Oolitic: A rock composed of Ooids - a type of small (< 2mm) carbonate or iron coated grain
with a cortex of concentric fine laminae, lacking biogenic features, and a nucleus, often a shell
fragment or sand grain.
Outer core: The upper layer of the Earth’s core whose depth extends from about 1800 to
3190 miles. It is presumed to be molten.
OWT: One-way travel time: the time taken to travel to a horizon at depth.
P-waves: waves that impart a radial movement to the wave front.
Pahoehoe lava: A lava flow with a smooth, ropy surface.
145
Pay: A reservoir or portion of a reservoir that contains economically producible hydrocarbons.

The term derives from the fact that it is capable of "paying" an income. Pay is also called pay
sand or pay zone. The overall interval in which pay sections occur is the gross pay; the
smaller portions of the gross pay that meet local criteria for pay (such as minimum porosity,
permeability and hydrocarbon saturation) are net pay.
Petroleum system: Geologic components and processes necessary to generate and store
hydrocarbons, including a mature source rock, migration pathway, reservoir rock, trap and
seal. Appropriate relative timing of formation of these elements and the processes of
generation, migration and accumulation are necessary for hydrocarbons to accumulate and
be preserved. The components and critical timing relationships of a petroleum system can be
displayed in a chart that shows geologic time along the horizontal axis and the petroleum
system elements along the vertical axis. Exploration plays and prospects are typically
developed in basins or regions in which a complete petroleum system has some likelihood of
existing.
Pinchout: an oil-bearing layer or formation that forms a trap for hydrocarbons by narrowing
and tapering off within an impervious formation.
Pillow lava: A term applied to lavas of ovoid or pillow shape.
Plate tectonics: The theory that proposes that the lithosphere is divided into plates that
interact with one another at their boundaries, producing tectonic activity.
Play: An area in which hydrocarbon accumulations or prospects of a given type occur.
Plutons: An intrusive rock body.
Primary migration: movement of hydrocarbons out of the source rock into reservoir rock.
The further movement of the hydrocarbons into reservoir rock in a hydrocarbon trap or other
area of accumulation is secondary migration. Compare secondary migration.
Prospect: An area of exploration in which hydrocarbons have been predicted to exist in

economic quantity. A prospect is commonly an anomaly, such as a geologic structure or a
seismic amplitude anomaly, that is recommended by exploration for drilling a well.
Justification for drilling a prospect is made by assembling evidence for an active petroleum
system, or reasonable probability of encountering reservoir-quality rock, a trap of sufficient
size, adequate sealing rock, and appropriate conditions for generation and migration of
hydrocarbons to fill the trap. A single drilling location is also called a prospect, but the term is
more properly used in the context of exploration. A group of prospects of a similar nature
constitutes a play.
Pumice: A very light, cellular, glassy rock; often floats on water and is commonly used as an
abrasive.
Pyroclastic flow (Nuée ardente): A turbulent, ground-hugging, gaseous cloud erupted from
a volcano.
Pyroclastic rocks: A rock of any size formed from the cementation or welding of volcanic
fragments.
Quartzite: A metamorphic rock composed mainly of quartz, formed by the recrystallization of
sandstone.
Recrystallization: The formation of new crystalline mineral grains in a rock.
Regional metamorphism: Metamorphism of an extensive area of the crust, generally

associated with intensive compression and mountain building.
146
Reservoir characterization: A model of a reservoir that incorporates all the characteristics of

the reservoir that is pertinent to its ability to store hydrocarbons and also to produce them.
Reservoir characterization models are used to simulate the behaviour of the fluids within the
reservoir under different sets of circumstances and to find the optimal production techniques
that will maximize the production.
Reverse Fault: a dip-slip fault along which the hanging wall has moved upward relative to the
footwall.
Rock cycle: A model that that describes the formation, breakdown, and re-formation of a rock
as a result of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic processes.
Rollover anticline: an anticline formed when the dip of a growth fault approaches the
horizontal at depth and deposition is faster on the downthrown side, which tends to “roll over”
or curl downwards.
S-waves: waves that impart a tangential movement.
Sabkha: is Arabic for a salt-flat ordinarily found nearby sand dunes. These relatively flat and
very saline areas of sand or silt form just above the water table where the sand is cemented
together by evaporite salts from seasonal ponds.
Salina: A place where crystalline salt deposits are formed or found, such as a salt flat or pan
having a high concentration of salts.
Schist: A foliated, coarse-textured metamorphic rock; most of the minerals display a

pronounced parallelism.
Sea-floor spreading: The theory that new oceanic crust is created at the mid-ocean ridges,
spreads laterally, and descends back into the mantle at the deep-sea trenches.
Seal: A relatively impermeable rock, commonly shale, anhydrite or salt, that forms a barrier or
cap above and around reservoir rock such that fluids cannot migrate beyond the reservoir. A
seal is a critical component of a complete petroleum system. The permeability of a seal
capable of retaining fluids through geologic time is ~ 10-6 to 10-8 darcies.
Secondary migration: The movement of hydrocarbons that have originated elsewhere

through porous, permeable reservoir rock to a location where further migration is impossible
(i.e. a trap). Compare primary migration.
Seep: the surface appearance of oil or gas that results naturally when a reservoir rock
becomes exposed to the surface, allowing oil and gas to flow out of fissures in the rock.
Shale: An argillaceous rock with closely spaced, well-defined laminae.
Shear metamorphism: The transformation of rocks within the shear zone associated with
active fault movement; mainly involves grinding, pulverizing, and recrystallization of the rocks.
Shear stress: Stress (force per unit) that acts parallel to a (fault) plane and tends to cause
the rocks on either side of the plane to slide by one another.
Shoestring sand: a narrow, often sinuous, sand deposit, usually a buried sandbar or filled
channel.
Sill: A tabular, igneous intrusion.
Siltstone: A rock with sediment with particles in the size range of 4- 62.5 µm (1/16 – 1/256
mm)
147
Slate: A fine-grained, low-grade metamorphic rock, with well-developed cleavage that allows
the layers to be split into platy sheets.
Sorting: The process by which the agents of transportation (principally, running water)
separate sediments according to shape, size or density.
Spill Point (Plane): the level at which trapped hydrocarbons can begin “spilling” upward and
out of the trap.
Strain: The result of stress applied to a body, causing the deformation of its shape and/or a
change of volume.
Stratigraphic Trap: a petroleum trap formed principally by a lateral updip discontinuity (such
as an unconformity) or decrease in permeability of a reservoir formation. Examples are
lenses, reefs, and bar sands. Compare structural trap.
Strike: The direction of the line formed by the intersection of a horizontal plane with a
bedding or fault plane.
Structural Trap: a petroleum trap that is principally the result of deformation (such as folding
or faulting) of the reservoir formation. Compare stratigraphic trap.
Surface wave (longitudinal): an acoustic wave that travels along the surface of a body.
Syncline: a fold with a core of progressively younger rocks; usually its concave side is
upward. Compare anticline.
Tensile stress: The stress generated by forces directed away from one another on opposite
sides of a real or imaginary plane.
Tephra: A general term that refers to all airborne pyroclastic debris.
Thrust Fault: a low-dip angle (nearly horizontal) reverse fault along which a large
displacement has occurred.
Transform boundary: the border between two plates that are sliding by one another
horizontally without either creating or destroying oceanic crust.
Trap: A configuration of rocks suitable for containing hydrocarbons and sealed by a relatively
impermeable formation through which hydrocarbons will not migrate. Traps are described as
structural traps (in deformed strata such as folds and faults) or stratigraphic traps (in areas
where rock types change, such as unconformities, pinch-outs and reefs). A trap is an
essential component of a petroleum system. See Diapiric, Hydrodynamic, Stratigraphic
and Structural traps.
Turbidite: Sedimentary deposits formed by turbidity currents in deep water at the base of the
continental slope and on the abyssal plain. Turbidites commonly show predictable changes in
bedding from coarse layers at the bottom to finer laminations at the top, known as Bouma
sequences that result from different settling velocities of the particle sizes present. The high
energy associated with turbidite deposition can result in destruction of earlier deposited layers
by subsequent turbidity currents.
TWTT: Two-way travel time: the time a wave takes to travel to a horizon, plus the time taken
to travel back to the sensor after being reflected.
Unconformity: A surface that separates younger strata from eroded, dipping, older strata
and represents a gap in the geologic record. The surface of contact between rock beds in
which there is a discontinuity in the ages of the rocks. See angular unconformity,
disconformity, and nonconformity.
148
Vertical Seismic Profile: A class of borehole seismic measurements used for correlation with
surface seismic data, for obtaining images of higher resolution than surface seismic images
and for looking ahead of the drill bit; also called a VSP. Purely defined, VSP refers to
measurements made in a vertical wellbore using geophones inside the wellbore and a source
at the surface near the well. In the more general context, VSP's vary in the well configuration,
the number and location of sources and geophones, and how they are deployed.
Most VSPs use a surface seismic source, which is commonly a vibrator on land and an air
gun in offshore or marine environments. VSPs include the zero-offset VSP, offset VSP,
walkaway VSP, walk-above VSP, salt-proximity VSP, shear-wave VSP, and drill-noise or
seismic-while-drilling VSP. A VSP is a much more detailed survey than a check-shot survey
because the geophones are more closely spaced, typically on the order of 25 m [82 ft],
whereas a check-shot survey might include measurements of intervals hundreds of meters
apart. Also, a VSP uses the reflected energy contained in the recorded trace at each receiver
position as well as the first direct path from source to receiver.
The check-shot survey uses only the direct path travel time . In addition to tying well data to
seismic data, the vertical seismic profile also enables converting seismic data to zero-phase
data and distinguishing primary reflections from multiples.
Weathering: The physical and chemical alteration of rocks exposed to atmospheric

influences on the Earth’s surface.
149
Geology Fundamentals Bibliography and References
Bibliography and References

Bibliography:
rd
Boggs, S., 2000. Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy, 3 Ed., Pearson Higher
Education.
st
Dolgoff, A., 1996. Physical Geology, 1 Ed., D.C. Heath and Company.
nd
Selley, R., 1998. Elements of Petroleum Geology, 2 . Ed., Academic Press.
nd
University of Texas publication, Petroleum Geology and Reservoirs, 2 Ed., Petroleum Extension
Service
Schlumberger:
Deviated Borehole Presentation, 2001
Dip Computation Methods Presentation, 2001
Faults Presentation, 2001
FMI vs. GVR Presentation, 1998
Fractures Presentation, 1998
Image Library (http://rock.ridgefield.sdr.slb.com/GeologyImageLibrary/gallery.aspx )
Images Presentation, 1998
InTouch
Vugs Presentation, 1998
MLAT and Dip Imaging Presentation, 1999
Netherwood's Geology Primer (http://www.hub.slb.com/index.cfm?id=id35392 )
Seismic Peptec Module TBT
Strike and Dip Presentation, 1998
Structural Dip presentation, 1998
Thin Beds Presentation, 1999
Unconformities Presentation, 1999
Vugs Presentation, 1998
Photographs courtesy of:

Karl Leyrer, Schlumberger Dhahran Carbonate Research Centre
Francis Advent, Schlumberger DCS Perth
About.com, Inc.
Andrew Alden, licensed to About.com, Inc.
TGS-NOPEC
USGS Photo Gallery
W.K. Fletcher, Earth Sciences Department, University of British Columbia
References:
Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary:

http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/mainsearch.cfm
Online Geology Dictionaries:

http://www.webref.org/geology/geology.htm
http://www.glossarist.com/glossaries/science/earth-sciences/geology.asp
http://www.geotech.org
150

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Revision Date: 01-Jan-2009

Chapter 1: Basic Concepts of Geology

2.5.4 Tectonic Settings of Volcanism……………………………………………. 42

Chapter 3: Structural Geology

Chapter 4: Structural Interpretation

4.6 Stratigraphic Features……………………….………………………………………. 85

4.7 Sedimentary Features…..…………………………………………………………... 90

Chapter 5: Petroleum Geology

Depositional Barriers……………………………………………………. 125

Chapter 3: Structural Geology

3.2 Lithostatic stress…………………………………….……………………………… 54

Chapter 4: Structural Interpretation

Chapter 5: Petroleum Geology

Chapter 5: Petroleum Geology

Chapter 1: Basic Concepts of Geology

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Explain the key concept behind Uniformitarianism.

1.3 Hutton and Uniformitarianism

Hutton’s first principle is called Uniformitarianism. It is summarized by the phrase “the

Uniformitarianism Theory – “The present is the key to the past”

(c) Strata 1 eroded (d) Strata 2 deposited on top of eroded

(e) Both strata sequences tilted and

1.4 Geologic Time

1.4.1 Terminology of the Timescale

1.4.2 The Precambrian

1.5 The Earth’s Interior and Plate Tectonics

1.5.1 The Rock Cycle

The rock cycle is not a smooth-functioning loop. Sediment is transformed to metamorphic

1.5.2 The Earth’s Interior

1.5.3 Sea-floor Spreading

Spreading away from

1.5.4 Plate Tectonics

Deep-sea trenches, volcanic arcs, and fold-mountain belts characterize convergent

Indian Ocean Tethys Sea Trench Volcanic

Continental crust Continental crust

Australian – Indian Plate Subduction Eurasian Plate

Indian Ocean Tibetan

1.5.5 The Causes of Plate Motion

1) What is the concept of Uniformitarianism and how is it applied in geology?

2) Why does an unconformity represent a time gap in the geological record?

3) Explain how geological time is different to absolute time.

7) Explain the difference between the plate tectonic types of boundaries.

1) What is the concept of Uniformitarianism and how is it applied in geology?

2) Why does an unconformity represent a time gap in the geological record?

One useful analogy when thinking about unconformities is as follows:

3) Explain how geological time is different to absolute time.

7) Explain the difference between the plate tectonic types of boundaries.

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

2.3 Sedimentary Rocks

2.3.2 Weathering, Transport, Deposition and Lithification

Weathering causes both mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rock. In

Transport and Deposition

Quartz Feldspar Silica Quartz

Chemical cement Pore

2.3.3 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Table 2.1 Classification of common Sedimentary rocks.

2.3.4 Detrital (Clastic) Rocks

Table 2.2 The Wentworth Scale for classifying sediments by size.

Angular Subangular Subrounded Rounded Well rounded

Coarse Detrital Rocks

Alluvial Delta; flood Beach