1.12.

2020

Structural Geology

6. Structural Geology
6.1. Physical Properties of Solid Earth Materials
• Every material has certain physical properties that
controls its behavior when it is subjected to an
external force
• Since the rocks are composed of grains or crystals
of one or more minerals, the physical and
mechanical properties of the solid earth materials
will be controlled by both the properties of the
individual grains or crystals (constituent properties)
and properties of the entire mass (bulk properties)

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6.1.1 Constituent Properties
The constituent properties of any solid earth material
include;
- Density,
- Grain size,
- Grain shape,
- Crystal size and shape, and
- Composition

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• Density is the mass of a substance per volume of
substance
• The unit is gr/cm3
• The term unit weight means the same as density;
the difference between mass and weight
• Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the
substance to the density of water at 4°C

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• Grain size is the measure of the diameter of a
spherical grain
• There are several classifications of the grain size
among which the most commonly used one is of
Wentworth

https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/119
5/htmldocs/images/chart.pdf

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• Grain shape is a term used to describe the shape of
the particles
• In sedimentary rocks, which are composed of grains
that have been transported and deposited grain
shape is a valuable indication of the amount of
transport
• Rounded grains have been transported over longer
distances than the angular particles

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• Crystal size and shape are established during the crystallization of a
molten mass as it cools
• The size of the crystal, as mentioned earlier, as controlled by the rate of
cooling; slow cooling yields large crystals while rapid cooling yields fine
crystals
• On the other hand, is established by the arrangement of the atoms that
make up the crystal and the space available for the crystals to grow
• Free-growing ( or first crystallized) crystals can take one of the common
forms shown in Figure
• In the later stages of crystallization, because of the space problem the
shape of the crystal will not be the ideal shape for this mineral
• If the mineral has gained its ideal shape it is called to be euhedral if not
anhedral
• The shape of crystal in-between these two is called subhedral

https://www.jstor.org/stable/30068557?seq=1&cid=pdf-
reference#references_tab_contents

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• Composition is one of the most important
constituent properties of any solid earth material
because the bulk properties of material are
effected by its composition

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• 6.1.2 Bulk properties
• The engineering geologist is more concerned with
the physical and mechanical properties of the
entire bulk (mass) of earth material than with the
characteristics of a single grain or crystal

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• Bulk density (total unit weight) is the average of the
densities (unit weights) of the constituent
components and void spaces
• For example, a rock composed of grains with a
density of 3.0 gr/cm3 may have a bulk density of
2.75 gr/cm3 because of large void spaces between
the grains

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• Grain packing is the arrangement of the grains in a
solid material
• Two types of packing are cubic and rhombohedral
• Packing affects porosity which, in turn, decreases
bulk density
• Increases permeability and decreases strength of
material

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https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Unit-cells-and-groups-of-uniform-spheres-for-
cubic-and-rhombohedral-packing_fig1_321038126

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• Grain-size distribution is the measure of the variation of the
grain size in a solid material
• The term sorting is used by geologists to describe the
distribution of the size
• A rock composed of grains of the same size is well-sorted
and one composed of a greater mixture of sizes is poorly
sorted
• The engineers, on the other hand, used the term grading (or
gradation) to describe distribution of grain size
• A rock that has a mixture of all sizes is a well-graded while
one that has all particles of the same size is poorly graded
• Grain-size distribution affects the bulk density of the
materials

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6.2. Deformation of Earth Materials
6.2.1. Stress and Strain
• The solid earth materials deform when they are
subjected to an external load or force
• A rock is in a state of stress if a force is applied to it
• Force is a vector quantity, defined in terms of two
values; the magnitude and direction
• The forces within the Earth act over surfaces or
through volumes of material, and they generate
stresses and strains

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• Stress can produce one of three basic conditions acting
on a unit cube of earth material;
- Compressive,
- Tensile, and
- Shear stresses
• Compressive stress develop when external stresses are
directed toward each other
• When the external stresses are offset paralel and
directed in the opposite direction shear stress develops
creating a force couple there
• Tensile stress is a pulling agent or the opposite of
compressive stress

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• The deformation of a material, however, occurs in
two directions
• For example, if a cylinder is subjected to a stress,
the diameter of cylinder becomes smaller and the
height becomes longer
• Therefore, two strains are involved during this
deformation
• Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of the transverse strain to
axial strain, and is defined as;

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• Poisson’s ratio of 0.25 is considered to be an
average for the rocks
• Young’s Modulus ( also called modulus of elasticity)
is defined as;
• Therefore, Young’s modulus is a measure of the
property of the rock to resist deformation

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a) Tangent Young's modulus E tan

b) Average Young's modulus E av
c) Secant Young's modulus E sec

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• If a solid material is subjected to force, usually it
passes three stages of deformation :
- Elastic deformation,
- Plastic deformation, and
- Rupture

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• Elastic deformation; this is the first stage of
deformation
• If stress is withdrawn , the shape of the body,
returns to its original shape and size
• For all materials there is such a limiting stress
known as elastic limit

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• Plastic deformation; this is the second stage of
deformation
• If the stress exceeds the elastic limit the
deformation is plastic , that is , the body does not
return to its original shape even if the stress is
removed

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• Rupture; if there is a continuous increase in the
stress, after elastic deformations, the material will
fail by rupture
• Strength is the value of stress at which the rupture
occurs

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• Brittle substances are those that rupture before any
significant plastic deformation takes place
• Ductile substances, on the other hand, are those
that undergo a large plastic deformation before
rupture

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6.2.2. Stress – Strain Diagrams
• The relationship between stress and strain is
commonly expressed in graphs known as stress –
strain diagrams
• The stress is plotted on the ordinate (vertical axis)
whereas the strain is plotted on the abscissa
(horizontal axis)

https://homepage.smc.edu/grippo_alessandro/structural.html

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• Curve A in the figure is the stress – strain diagram of a
brittle material; it deforms elastically, and than
ruptures at the stress of A1
• Curve B is an ideal plastic curve; it behaves elastically at
first; at stress, B1; it reaches the elastic limit which is
the point at which the curve departs from the straight
line; after this point, the rock deforms continuously
without any added stress
• Curve C represents a more normal type of plastic
behavior; at the stress of C1 the rock reaches the
elastic limit and begins to deform plastically; but after
this point for every increment of strain an increase in
stress is necessary

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6.3. Geological Structures
• The Earth is undergoing great deformations
• Because of the plate movements, the rocks are
subjected to forces (stresses) which change their
original geometry for example, sedimentary rocks
although are horizontal when they are deposited
• Because of post-depositional tectonic movements they
are tilted and fractured
• In order words, the rocks loose their original attitude
(three dimensional orientation), and own a new
orientation
• The attitude of planar geological features is defined by
their strike and dip values

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• Strike of planar features such as layers and faults is
the trend of that plane measured on a horizontal
surface
• It is the direction of a line formed by the
intersection of the bedding plane and horizontal
plane
• This direction is conventionally measured from the
north

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• Dip of the bed on the other hand, is the angle
between bedding plane and horizontal plane
• It is measured on a vertical plane at right angle to
the strike of bedding
• The important geological features which will be
mentioned here are;
- Folds,
- Faults, and
- Unconformities

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• 6.3.1. Folds
• Folds are produced in the earlier stages of
deformation
• Rocks are compressed and folded when they are
subjected to horizontal stresses

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• The terminology of a fold is shown in figure
• The upper and the lower maximum curvatures of a fold are called crest
and trough
• The part of a fold between crest and trough is limb (or flank)
• Every fold has two limbs
• If the dips of two limbs are in opposite direction the fold is an anticline
• If in the same direction, the fold is a syncline
• The axial-plane of a fold is the surface passing through the maximum
curvatures
• It maybe vertical or inclined depending on the attitudes of the limbs
• If both limbs have the same dip amount, the fold is symmetric and the
axial plane is vertical
• If the dips are different on both limbs the fold is asymmetric and the
axial plane is inclined.

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• Fold-axis is the intersection of axial plane with the
crust or trough
• If the fold axis is horizontal the fold is non-plunging,
but if it makes an angle with horizontal plane the
fold is a plunging fold
• Therefore, a full description of a fold can be, for
example, as “non-plunging asymmetric anticline”

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6.3.2. Faults
• Faults are the fractures or ruptures at the surface of the
Earth
• A fault has two blocks, located on both sides of the
trace of the fault
• Which move relatively in the different directions
• Faults occur in the later stages of deformation
• This rupture takes place at such a level of stress that
the energy accumulating on the rocks can not be
released anymore by folding
• Therefore the rupture of rocks usually follows the
folding

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• Although there are several classifications of the faults, here only
the most commonly used one will be mentioned
• In this classification, known as genetic classification, the
dominant stress directions are involved
• Three principal stresses are called maximum, intermediate, and
minimum stresses which are at right angle to each other
• Different combination of these stresses will produce different
faults
• Three major faults formed by the various orientation of these
stresses are;
- Normal fault,
- Reverse fault, and
- Strike-slip fault

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• Figure illustrates the common stress directions and
related fault types
• The fault plane, like other planar features, is
defined by a strike and dip value
• The block below the fault plane is called foot wall
and the one above the plane is hanging wall
• The arrows in the figure indicate the relative
direction of the movements

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• Normal fault is the fault along which the hanging
wall is downthrown or slides down
• The maximum principle stress is vertical
• It is produced by the tensional forces perpendicular
to its strike
• They are also known as gravity faults

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• In reverse fault the hanging wall moves upward
• Minimum principle stress is vertical
• They are also called compressional faults
• If the dip amount of a reverse fault is quite small, it
is called thrust fault

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• In strike-slip fault, two blocks slide laterally in
opposite directions in which no vertical movements
is involved
• The intermediate principle stress is vertical

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/FAULT-STYLE-SKETCHES-SHOWING-THE-
PRINCIPAL-STRESS-AXES-AND-SLIP-CLASSIFICATIONS-OF_fig1_324601471

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• The term joint is used to define the ruptures at the
surface of earth along which no displacement
(movement) occurs
• The joints are very important from engineering point of
view, because weathering, which changes the
mechanical properties of the rocks, is more effective
along joints
• The important features of joints are;
- Smoothness,
- Aperture, and
- Spacing

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• Smoothness is the measure of irregularities of the
surface of the joint
• A joint can be smooth, wavy or rough
• As the surface becomes more irregular the strength
of the rock increases

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• Aperture is the distance between two walls of the
joint
• A wider separation contributes to the weathering
which decreases the strength

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• Spacing is the distance between two adjacent joints
• The frequency of the joints in a unit length is an
important parameter of that rock in its engineering
classification
• Closely spaced joints decreases the strength of the
rock

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6.3.3. Unconformities
• Unconformity is a surface of erosion or non-deposition that separates
two rock sequences of different ages
• The formation of an unconformity involves several stages which can be
simplified as follows;
⁻ A rock sequence is deposited within a basin; the layers are assumed to
be horizontal at the time of deposition
⁻ This sequence will be uplifted and exposed to the surface to be a land
through later tectonic processes; during this uplift the layers will be
tilted and subjected to erosion
⁻ This land in the later geological times will subside to form a new basin in
the region; the older rocks constitute the base of this basin; therefore, a
new sequence of rocks will deposit over older ones; the surface that
separates these two sequences defines an unconformity
⁻ Both younger and older rocks are uplifted together, and the area
becomes a site of erosion

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