Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MCTP 12-10A
(Formerly MCWP 3-35.1)
USMC
DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY
Headquarters United States Marine Corps
Washington, D.C. 20350-3000
4 April 2018
1. This publication has been edited to ensure gender neutrality of all applicable and appropriate
terms, except those terms governed by higher authority. No other content has been affected.
ROBERT S. WALSH
Lieutenant General, U.S. Marine Corps
Deputy Commandant for Combat Development and Integration
2 May 2016
ERRATUM
to
MCWP 3-35.1
1. Change all instances of MCWP 3-35.1, Mountain Warfare Operations, to MCTP 12-10A,
Mountain Warfare Operations.
K. J. GLUECK, JR.
Lieutenant General, U.S. Marine Corps
Deputy Commandant for Combat Development and Integration
Publication Control Number: 143 000174 00
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
__________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1. Overview
Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Present Imperative for Mountain Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
The World’s Mountainous Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Mountainous Terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4
Glaciers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Mountain Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Weather. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
Climate Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7
Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7
Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
Fog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Chapter 2. Operations
Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
Command and Control Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Command Posts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Offensive Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Types of Offensive Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
Forms of Offensive Maneuver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Defensive Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Mobile Defense. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Position Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Retrograde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Stability Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Civil Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
District Stability Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Operational Advantages and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
Planning and Intelligence Preparation of the Battlespace . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
Chapter 3. Intelligence
Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Human Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Irregular Warfare Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Reconnaissance and Surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Operational Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Reconnaissance in Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
iv MCWP 3-35.1
Chapter 5. Engineering
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
Task Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
Joint Engineer Support Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
Mobility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Gap Crossing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Counter-Improvised Explosive Device/Mine Operations. . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
Engineer Reconnaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4
Countermobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
Obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
Mines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
Avalanches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
Survivability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
Elevation of Forward Operating Bases/Combat Outposts in
Relation to Surrounding Terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
Overhead Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
Forward Operating Base Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
Snow Removal/Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
General Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
Horizontal Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
Vertical Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8
Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9
___________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations v
Chapter 7. Aviation
Antiair Warfare. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
Unique Capabilities and Limitations of Marine Corps Low
Altitude Air Defense. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses and Air-to-Air
Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
Training Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
vi MCWP 3-35.1
Chapter 8. Fires
Organization for Artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
Movement and Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
Reconnaissance, Selection, and Occupation of a Position . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
Air Movement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
Position Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
Multiple Launch Rocket System M270A1 and High Mobility
Artillery Rocket System M142 Position Considerations . . . . . . . 8-3
Acquisition and Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
Radar Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
Observer Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4
Use of Laser Range Finders and Laser Designators for
Laser-Guided Munitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5
Survey and Meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6
Survey in Mountains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6
Global Positioning System Limitations and Considerations . . . . . . . . 8-6
Meteorological Message Space and Time Validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6
Targeting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6
Munitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7
High Explosive Munitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7
Smoke and Obscurants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7
High-Angle Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8
Thermobaric Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8
Mortars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8
Air Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9
Naval Surface Fires. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10
Nonlethal Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10
Information Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10
Deception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11
Fire Support Coordination Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11
Artillery Logistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11
Chapter 9. Communications
Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
Requirements Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
Communications Systems Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
Single-Channel Radio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
High Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2
Very High Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2
Ultra High Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2
Tactical Satellite Radio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-4
Commercial Satellite Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-4
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
viii MCWP 3-35.1
Appendices
A Altitude and Environmental Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1
B Mountain Weather Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1
C Unmanned Aircraft System Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1
Glossary
was secured on Riva Ridge, opening the way for expeditionary operations in mountainous environ-
the rest of the division to accomplish its mission. ments. While a mountainous environment is chal-
lenging, expeditionary forces can operate
Even though US forces achieved successes in effectively with proper training, equipment, and
mountainous areas during World War II, they organization. Marines must learn the tactics, tech-
were woefully unprepared to tackle the extreme niques, and procedures (TTP) required to con-
conditions they faced in the mountains during the duct mountain operations in mountainous terrain
Korean War. Many of the Marines who suc- to be best prepared.
cumbed to the extreme conditions of Korea were
hardened combat veterans of World War II, yet According to the Marine Corps Intelligence
the lack of extreme cold weather equipment and Activity’s Mid-Range Threat Estimate for 2005–
specialized training exacted a heavy toll on US 2015, there are 38 states of concern in the world.
forces. For example, although the Marines’ Of these, 20 are called states of interest and all
breakout from encirclement at the Chosin Reser- 20 are located within the Arc of Instability (see
voir is heroic, more than half of its 6,818 nonbat- fig. 1-1). Sixteen of the 20 states of interest have
tle casualties resulted from frostbite and other regions with elevations equal to or greater than
preventable cold weather injuries. 2,438 meters (8,000 feet) and average tempera-
tures of 40 °F and below. The current and
projected threats in many of these countries cen-
Present Imperative for Mountain Doctrine ter on small, irregular forces operating in rugged,
compartmentalized terrain. The Marine Corps
Both past and modern history illustrates the need Intelligence Activity expects these forces to use
for the Marine Corps to focus on mountain doc- the inherent advantages that mountainous terrain
trine and training when preparing to conduct and weather offer in order to negate US
60°N 60°N
30°N 30°N
Arc of Instability
0 0
30°S 30°S
60°S 60°S
technological advantages in intelligence, surveil- 3,048 meters (10,000 feet). Its climate varies
lance, reconnaissance (ISR), and firepower. from arctic cold to tropical heat, with the full
Therefore, the ability to fight both large- and range of seasonal and local extremes.
small-scale contingencies against conventional
and irregular, nonstate actors is paramount. The Andes stretch as a continuous narrow band
along the western region of South America.
Narrower than its counterpart in the north, this
range is less than 805 kilometers (500 miles)
The World’s Mountainous Regions wide; however, it continuously exceeds an ele-
vation of 3,048 meters (10,000 feet) for a distance
The principal mountain ranges of the world lie of 3,218 kilometers (2,000 miles).
along the broad belts shown in figure 1-2. Called
cordillera (after the Spanish word for rope), these The Eurasian mountain belt includes the Pyre-
ranges encircle the Pacific basin and then lead nees, Alps, Balkans, and Carpathian ranges of
westward across Eurasia into North Africa. Sec- Europe. These loosely linked systems are sepa-
ondary, though no less rugged, chains of moun- rated by broad, low basins and are cut by numer-
tains lie along the Atlantic margins of the ous valleys. The Atlas Mountains of North Africa
Americas and Europe. are also a part of this belt.
The Rocky Mountain Range, a broad mountain- Moving eastward into Asia, this system becomes
ous region approximately 1,609 kilometers more complex as it reaches the extreme heights
(1,000 miles) wide, dominates northwestern of the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas. The Hima-
North America. It occupies much of Alaska, more layas stretch over more than 2,414 kilometers
than a quarter of Canada and the United States, (1,500 miles) and contain 9 of the 10 tallest peaks
and all but a small portion of Mexico and Central in the world. Just beyond the Pamir Knot on the
America. It includes extensive high plains and Russian-Afghan frontier, this range begins to fan
basins. Numerous peaks in this belt rise above out across all parts of eastern Asia. Branches of
60°N 60°N
30°N 30°N
0 0
30°S 30°S
60°S 60°S
this belt continue south along the rugged island firm earth or grass. Grassy slopes may include
chains to New Zealand and northeast through the grassy clumps known as tussocks; short alpine
Bering Sea to Alaska. grasses; or tundra, which is more common at
higher elevations and latitudes. Many slopes will
Different mountain chains can have different be scattered with rocky debris deposited from the
types of climates. Some chains are located in dry higher peaks and ridges. Extensive rock or boul-
desert regions with temperatures ranging from der fields are known as talus; slopes covered with
extreme heat in the summer to extreme cold in smaller rocks, usually fist-sized or smaller, are
the winter. In tropical regions, small to medium called scree fields. Slopes covered in talus often
mountains are covered in lush jungles with deep prove to be a relatively easy ascent route. On the
ravines that flood during the rainy season. Tem- other hand, climbing a scree slope can be
peratures in these areas typically remain warm extremely difficult because the small rocks tend
and humid year-round. Many of the mountains in to loosen easily and give way; however, this char-
Central America and many mountainous regions acteristic often makes scree fields excellent
in Africa and South America that are located descent routes. Before attempting to descend
close to the equator have these types of character- scree slopes, commanders should carefully ana-
istics. Conversely, high mountains in temperate lyze the potential for creating dangerous rockfall
climates have sparse vegetation at elevations and take necessary avoidance measures.
above 3,505 meters (11,500 feet) and tempera-
tures can drop below freezing in winter. Some In winter and at higher elevations throughout the
mountainous regions have a variety of environ- year, snow may blanket slopes, creating an envi-
ments, such as in Afghanistan where units have ronment with its own distinct effects. Some snow
encountered several different mountainous envi- conditions can aid travel by covering rough ter-
ronments within the same area of operations. rain with a consistent surface. Deep snow, how-
ever, greatly impedes movement and requires
Mountainous Terrain Marines to be well trained in using snowshoes,
skis, and over-the-snow vehicles. Steep, snow-
Mountains may rise abruptly from the plains to covered terrain presents the risk of snow ava-
form a giant barrier or ascend gradually as a lanches as well. Snow can seriously threaten per-
series of parallel ridges extending unbroken for sonnel not properly trained and equipped for
great distances. They may consist of varying movement under such conditions. Avalanches
combinations of isolated peaks, rounded crests, have taken the lives of more personnel engaged
eroded ridges, and high plains and may be cut by in mountain warfare than all other terrain haz-
valleys, gorges, and deep ravines. High, rocky ards combined.
crags with glaciated peaks and year-round snow
cover exist in mountain ranges at most latitudes Commanders operating in the arctic and subarc-
along the western portion of the Americas and in tic mountain regions, as well as the upper eleva-
Asia. Regardless of their appearance, rugged ter- tions of the world’s high mountains, may be
rain is common among all types of mountains. confronted with vast glaciated areas. Valleys in
these areas are frequently buried under massive
Mountain slopes generally vary between 15 and glaciers and present additional hazards, such as
45 degrees. Cliffs and other rocky precipices may hidden crevices and ice and snow avalanches.
be near vertical or even overhanging. Aside from The mountain slopes of these peaks are often gla-
obvious rock formations and other local vegeta- ciated, with their surfaces generally composed of
tion characteristics, slope surfaces are usually varying combinations of rock, snow, and ice.
_________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 1-5
Mountain operations are generally carried out at to attack LOCs, logistic bases, air defense sites,
three different operational terrain levels (see and command infrastructures.
table 1-1). Level I terrain is located at the bottom
of valleys and along the main lines of communi- Dismounted Mobility Classification
cations (LOCs). At this level, heavy forces can
operate, but maneuver space is often restricted. When conducting mountain operations, command-
Light and heavy forces are normally combined, ers must clearly understand the effect the opera-
since vital LOCs usually follow the valley high- tional terrain level has on dismounted movement.
ways, roads, and trails. Therefore, in addition to the general mobility clas-
sifications contained in MCRP 2-3A, Intelligence
Table 1-1. Operational Terrain Classifications. Preparation of Battlefield/Battlespace—unre-
Level Description stricted, restricted, severely restricted—mountain-
I Bottoms of valleys and main LOCs ous terrain may be categorized into five classes
II Ridges, slopes, and passes that overlook valleys based on the type of individual movement skill
III Dominant terrain of the summit region required (see table 1-2). Operations conducted in
the first two classes require little to no mountain-
eering skills, but operations in the other three
Level II terrain lies between valleys and shoul- require a higher level of mountaineering skills for
ders of mountains and generally consists of nar- safe and efficient movement. Commanders should
row roads and trails, which serve as secondary base plans and preparations for mountain opera-
LOCs, that cross this ridge system. Therefore, tions on this type of terrain analysis, particularly
enemy positions on level III terrain dominate and noting that class 4 terrain kills more people than
influence the lower level II terrain. Similarly, any other class because the risk the terrain poses is
units will expend the energy to occupy level II less obvious than class 5 terrain.
terrain because it dominates level I terrain and
influences operations dramatically.
Weather
Level III terrain includes the dominant terrain of
summit regions. Mobility in level III terrain is In general, mountain climates tend to be cooler,
usually the most difficult to achieve and main- wetter versions of the climates of the surrounding
tain even though summit regions may contain rel- lowlands. Most mountainous regions exhibit at
atively gentle terrain. Level III terrain, however, least two different climatic zones—a zone at low
can provide opportunities for well-trained units to elevations and another at elevations nearer the
attack the enemy from the flanks and rear. At this summit regions. In some areas, an almost endless
terrain level, acclimatized personnel with variety of local climates may exist within a given
advanced mountaineering training can infiltrate mountainous region. Conditions change markedly
with elevation, latitude, and exposure to atmo- Their relatively mild winters produce heavy
spheric winds and air masses. The climatic pat- snowfalls, while their summer temperatures
terns of two ranges located at the same latitude and rarely get excessively hot.
in the same proximity may differ radically due to
all of these individual factors. These different pat- Mountains farther inland usually display a more
terns of weather are known as microclimatization. continental climate. Winters in this type of cli-
mate are often bitterly cold, while summers can
Major mountain ranges force air masses and be extremely hot. Annual rainfall and snowfall in
storm systems to drop significant amounts of rain these inland areas are far less than in a maritime
and snow on the windward side of the range. As climate and may be quite scarce for long periods.
air masses pass over mountains, the leeward Relatively shallow snowpacks are normal during
slopes receive far less precipitation than the a continental climate’s winter season.
windward slopes. It is not uncommon for the cli-
mate on the windward side of a mountain range Temperature
to be humid and the climate on the leeward side
arid. This phenomenon affects both coastal and Normally, personnel encounter a temperature
inland mountains. The deepest winter snowpacks drop of 3 to 5 °F per 305-meter (1,000-foot) gain
will almost always be found on the windward in elevation. At high elevations, there may be dif-
side of mountain ranges. As a result, vegetation ferences of 40 to 50 °F between the temperature
and forest characteristics may be markedly differ- in the sun and that in the shade, which is similar
ent between these two areas. Prevailing winds in magnitude to the day-to-night temperature
and storm patterns normally determine the sever- fluctuations experienced in some deserts. Besides
ity of these effects. permitting rapid heating, the clear air at high alti-
tudes also results in rapid cooling at night. Conse-
Mountain weather can be erratic, varying from quently, temperatures rise swiftly after sunrise
calm to strong winds and from relative warmth to and drop quickly after sunset. Much of the chilled
extreme cold within a short time or a minor shift air drains downward so that the differences
in locality. The severity and variance of the between day and night temperatures are greater in
weather require personnel to be prepared for alter- valleys than on slopes. Refer to MCRP 3-35.1D,
nating periods of heat and cold, as well as condi- Cold Region Operations, for more considerations
tions ranging from dry to extremely wet. At higher for cold temperatures and weather phenomena.
elevations, noticeable temperature differences may
exist between sunny and shady areas or between Wind
areas exposed to wind and those protected from it.
This greatly increases every Marine’s clothing Wind in a mountainous environment has the fol-
load and a unit’s overall logistical requirements. lowing characteristics:
For a more detailed listing of mountain weather
In high mountains, the ridges and passes are
considerations, see appendix B.
seldom calm, while strong winds in protected
Climate Influences valleys are rare.
Normally, wind velocity increases with altitude
Like most other landforms, oceans influence and is intensified by mountainous terrain.
mountain climates. Mountain ranges in close Valley breezes moving up-slope are more com-
proximity to oceans and other large bodies of mon in the morning, while descending moun-
water usually exhibit a maritime climate. Mari- tain breezes are more common in the evening.
time climates generally produce milder tempera- Wind speed increases when winds are forced
tures and much larger amounts of rain and snow. over ridges and peaks (orographic uplift), or
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1-8 MCWP 3-35.1
encounter a traveling storm in alpine zones dur- topography, fog occurs more frequently in the
ing winter, they should expect low temperatures, mountains. The high incidence of fog makes it a
high winds, and blinding snow. These conditions significant planning consideration because it
may persist longer than in the surrounding low restricts visibility and observation, which compli-
lying areas. cates reconnaissance and surveillance. Fog, how-
ever, may help facilitate clandestine operations,
Fog such as infiltration. Routes in areas with a high
occurrence of fog may need to be marked and
The effects of fog in mountains are much the charted to facilitate passage.
same as in other terrain; however, because of the
1-10 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-35.1
Forces must plan for and be able to operate for While this technique is useful in a compartmen-
extended periods of time as independent, small talized mountainous environment, this unortho-
units. For this reason, commanders and planners dox approach of breaking down existing units
should use the information in this chapter in con- into smaller units to compensate for environmen-
junction with Army Tactics, Techniques, and tal challenges requires units to be previously
Procedures (ATTP) 3-21.50, Infantry Small-Unit trained on this method of task organization. It
Mountain Operations, and MCRP 3-35.1A, Small also requires more detailed planning and rehears-
Unit Leader’s Guide to Mountain Warfare Oper- als. Maneuver commanders and planners must be
ations. Due to the challenging human and physi- aware of potential equipment constraints, reduc-
cal environment and an elusive, adaptive, and tion in unit cohesion, and command and control
complex enemy, operating forces must— issues. Equipment issues will arise since existing
units will be fragmented to create additional
Operate independent of forward operating units. Unit cohesion may suffer as personnel from
bases (FOBs). existing units are split and reintegrated to create
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
2-2 MCWP 3-35.1
new units. Command and control may suffer sig- Command relationships that are clearly under-
nificant impact due to the increased complica- stood and facilitate the exercise of initiative by
tions of having more moving pieces in the area of subordinates (unity of command where possi-
operations and relying on junior officers and non- ble, unity of effort where it is not).
commissioned officers (NCOs) to lead new units. Standing operating procedures that are under-
stood and applied across the command to
The principles of patrolling do not change in a
assure TTP excellence.
mountainous environment (see Marine Corps
Mobile reserves or reaction forces that are
Warfigh ting Publicat ion [MCWP] 3-11.3,
Normally, the commander will position himself/ A well-trained force using mobility skills that
herself with the forward command element to mitigate the effects of the mountainous environ-
have the best situational awareness of the battle- ment can achieve surprise by infiltrating and
field. During displacement, the commander will attacking the enemy’s rear or attacking during
normally pass control to the main command post periods of limited visibility, such as night, rain, or
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
2-4 MCWP 3-35.1
snow. Marines can use helicopters and their tech- space may not always be available and several
nical mountaineering skills to conduct decisive units may be required to move along the same
operations throughout the area of operations. avenue of approach. It may even be necessary to
conduct shaping operations to seize terrain that
The mountainous terrain increases the threat to dominates movement routes.
concentrated formations. Usually, it is difficult to
coordinate all forces by time and location so they Types of Offensive Operations
can rapidly support each other and achieve
massed effects. The compartmented terrain sepa- The types of offensive operations are movement to
rates adjacent units, which precludes mutual sup- contact, attack, and exploitation and pursuit. They
po rt and m ay adversely af fect support ing are addressed in the following subparagraphs.
distances. Therefore, it is critical to anticipate the
concentration of forces and fires before the battle Movement to Contact
begins to achieve effective synchronization.
Movement to contact operations in the moun-
The length of the preparatory phase is typically tains are more vulnerable to attack and ambush.
longer in a mountainous environment. Offen- Limited mobility and dependence on restrictive
sive action against a well-defended enemy must LOCs limit deployment of the force from move-
be based on thorough reconnaissance and or- ment formations. Plans and movement formations
derly preparation. When planning, commanders should be based on maintaining flexibility and
must take advantage of the weaknesses found in providing continuous security.
the enemy’s defenses. A large number of recon- During a movement to contact, the advance
naissance assets and additional time may be guard advances in column, moving continuously
needed to determine the strength of enemy posi- or by bounds until it makes contact. While
tions and to identify favorable routes to and requiring less physical exertion, movement along
beyond the objective. the topographical crest of a ridgeline increases
the possibility of enemy observation and should
Difficult approach routes should be marked and
normally be avoided. Given adequate conceal-
prepared for safe passage. Easily traversed ment, this exposure may be reduced by moving
slopes, broad hills, plateaus, and valley floors as along the military crest. Ridgelines and crests can
well as mountainous terrain with well-developed often provide a tactical advantage to the force
road and transportation nets create opportunities that controls them by allowing rapid movement
for the force to deploy in breadth. High ranges from one terrain compartment to another and
with ridges and crests leading to the objective affording excellent observation. In all cases,
require organization in depth with extended commanders must address the control or clear-
LOCs. Units should always attempt to have over- ance of ridgelines that dominate their planned
watch when moving in the mountains. Traveling avenues of approach.
overwatch is the preferred technique when pre-
paring for the offense. The main body should never be committed to
canalizing terrain before forward elements have
In trackless, mountainous terrain, company-sized advanced far enough to ensure that the main
units usually conduct attacks. If the area assigned body will not become encircled—a critical fac-
to a battalion permits, companies should approach tor when employing mixed heavy and light
the objective separately on multiple routes, never forces that have sharp differences in operational
moving without overwatch on adjacent high tempo. Combat service support (CSS) units must
ground. In restrictive terrain, adequate maneuver be decentralized and readily available to sustain
_________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 2-5
the combat elements. Major terrain compart- that the enemy will generally seek to control the
ments may physically separate maneuver units valleys and trail networks, including adjacent
moving as part of a larger force. Continuous slopes and high ground. The enemy will attempt
reconnaissance to the front and flank security is to engage the attacker in the valleys and low
essential to prevent the enemy from infiltrating ground with flanking fires and artillery, often in a
the gaps between units. direct fire mode. Commanders must analyze the
terrain to determine not only how the enemy will
As the enemy situation becomes better known,
organize their defensive positions, but also how
commanders may shorten the distance between
the terrain might contribute to the enemy’s abil-
elements to decrease reaction time or they may
begin to deploy in preparation for the attack. Lat- ity to counterattack. As friendly forces attempt to
eral movement between adjacent columns is fre- deploy for the attack, the enemy, using their
quently difficult or impossible; however, every advance knowledge of the terrain and prepared
attempt should be made to maintain at least visual routes, may maneuver forces to counterattack
contact. Connecting files or mountain pickets are from the flank or rear.
effective for lateral connection. Commanders Terrain. All terrain features that can be occupied
must emphasize the use of checkpoint reporting,
by even a small enemy force should be secured.
contact patrols, and phased operations to coordi-
In many instances, overwatch positions may not
nate and control the movement of the overall
be readily available within the range or capability
force. Control measures should not be so numer-
of organic weapons. Infiltration, technical climb-
ous as to impede operations and stifle initiative.
Proper control ensures that units and fires are ing, and extensive breaching may be required to
mutually supporting, objectives are correctly position weapons to support the assault. On many
identified, and units are in position to attack. Per- occasions, artillery support, especially in high
manent occupation of key terrain is unrealistic; mountains, may not be available. Commanders
therefore, engagements occur repeatedly on the must identify fire support requirements and allo-
same pieces of terrain. Commanders should plan cate fires based on the ability to support and
to control those historic points whenever operat- available ammunition. Because resupply may be
ing within their vicinity. Fixing and finishing the limited and extremely difficult, they may need to
enemy is often accomplished by direct and indi- place restrictions on the amount of ammunition
rect fire, respectively, in mountainous terrain. expended on specific targets. Dominating terrain
may give a commander great situational aware-
Attack ness, while being beyond the range of fires, such
as the enemy used during Operation Anaconda in
Speed, flexibility, and surprise, normally advan-
the Arma Mountains of Afghanistan.
tages enjoyed by the attacker, are limited by
restrictive terrain and the defender’s increased Obstacles. Breaching obstacles and preparing
ability to see and acquire targets at greater dis- bypass routes that allow the assault force to move
tances. These limitations make it difficult for units into the defensive position must be an integral
above the company team level to conduct hasty part of the commander’s plan. In rugged terrain,
attacks against prepared positions. Additional time manmade obstacles that are covered by fire create
should be allocated to conduct deliberate planning a particularly dangerous and formidable barrier.
for fire support coordination, route selection, and
Command and control of breaching operations
command and control coordination.
are more difficult than in open terrain and mobil-
Planning an Attack. When planning and con- ity support is extensive if the obstacle cannot be
ducting attacks, commanders should recognize reduced. Assaults in mountainous terrain almost
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
2-6 MCWP 3-35.1
always involve preparing routes that allow the The exploiting commander must compensate for
assault force to rapidly move over difficult natu- the ground mobility restrictions imposed by ter-
ral obstacles and into the objectives. rain and weather. Speed can be achieved best by
isolating enemy positions with the smallest force
Raid and Ambush. The restrictive terrain of
possible. Engineer support should be well for-
mountainous areas also affords increased oppor-
ward with the necessary equipment to enable
tunities to conduct raids and ambushes. These
combat personnel to maintain momentum and
operations should take advantage of limited visi-
avoid delay by enemy obstacles. The commander
bility and terrain that the enemy may consider
must be careful to prevent overextending either
impassable. In steep terrain, movement time
the exploiting force or its sustaining logistics. A
increases significantly and only light equipment
withdrawing force can establish numerous delay-
can be taken. The force should use special climb-
ing and firing positions on heights, quickly dissi-
ing techniques to negotiate the difficult routes
pating the combat power of the exploiting force.
during limited visibility. Commanders must care-
fully consider the routes and methods used for Forms of Offensive Maneuver
extraction to ensure that the combat force does
not become isolated after executing the mission. The forms of offensive maneuver are common to
They can ensure a successful operation by avoid- all environments, including mountainous terrain,
ing detection through proper movement tech- and only such considerations for mountain opera-
niques and by skillfully using natural cover and tions are addressed in the following subpara-
concealment. It may be necessary to reposition graphs. While frequently used in combination,
some indirect fire support assets to cover dead each form of maneuver attacks the enemy in a dif-
space or use attack helicopters and close air sup- ferent way and some pose different challenges to
port (CAS). The ambush or raid commander must the commander when attacking in the mountains.
know in advance if supporting fires cannot cover
his/her routes to and from the objective. Frontal Attack
Demonstrations and Feints. Because maneuver The frontal attack is an offensive maneuver in
space is usually limited or confined and restricts which the main action is directed against the front
the number of avenues of approach for heavier of the enemy forces. It is used to rapidly overrun
forces, deception plays an important part in the or destroy a weak enemy force or fix a force in
mountain battle. To mislead the enemy regard- place to support a flanking attack or envelop-
ing friendly intentions, capabilities, and objec- ment. Aviation forces and supporting arms should
tives, commanders should plan systematic be used to create gaps in the enemy’s front or to
measures of deception. prevent or delay enemy reinforcements from
reaching the front lines. The frontal attack is gen-
Exploitation and Pursuit erally the least preferred form of maneuver
In a mountainous environment, exploitation and because it strikes the enemy where they are the
pursuit operations must be conducted discrimi- strongest. Frontal attacks in hilly or mountainous
nately and the commander must always prepare areas, even when supported by heavy direct and
for success. A battalion may exploit its own suc- indirect fires, have a limited chance of success.
cess to a limited extent, but it normally partici- Mountainous terrain adds to the relative combat
pates in the exploitation as part of a larger force. power of the defender, requiring that the ratio of
Air assault and attack helicopter units can be used attacking forces exceeds three to one, such as in
to augment exploitation and pursuit operations. military operations on urban terrain.
_________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 2-7
Flanking Attacks, members of the force use the best route. Small
Envelopments, and Turning Movements groups are harder to detect, are easier to control,
Flanking attacks, envelopments, and turning and do not compromise the total force if detected.
movements are used extensively in mountain This technique is time consuming, requires an
operations. These techniques are a superior form increased number of guides and lead climbing
of offensive maneuver used by the attacker to teams, and requires an assembly area or linkup
bypass the enemy’s principal defensive posi- point prior to conducting the decisive action. The
tions. These forms of maneuver seek to avoid the risk of enemy detection and of follow on groups
enemy’s strength and attack where the enemy is being ambushed is greater.
weakest or unprepared. The enemy’s defensive Movement in One Group Along One Axis. The
positions may be bypassed using ground, air, or
enemy can more easily detect movement of one
vertical envelopment. When conducting dis-
large group along a single axis of advance. If the
mounted movements, the corridors through which
force is detected, the overall mission may be
the maneuver elements travel are key consider-
endangered. This technique, however, does not
ations. Commanders should place considerable
require reassembling the force prior to going into
emphasis on the use of mountain pickets to act as
the attack. Since everyone uses the same route,
connecting files and overwatch as maneuver
navigation is easier and the requirement for
forces move across the valley floor in order to
achieve surprise. The ability of forces to success- guides and lead climbing teams is reduced. A
fully execute flanking attacks, envelopments, and large force can fight out of a dangerous situation
turning movements is enhanced by employing more easily than a small one. This technique also
organizational mountaineers, airborne insertions, minimizes coordination problems among infiltrat-
and air assaults. ing units.
Movement in Small Groups Along Multiple
Infiltration Axes. Movement in small groups along several
Infiltration is frequently used in the mountains. axes avoids putting the total force in danger and
The difficult terrain and recurring periods of lim- makes them less likely to be seen. It forces the
ited visibility allow for undetected movement. enemy to react in many locations and makes it
Infiltration in a mountainous environment is used harder for them to determine the size of the
to shape the battlefield by attacking enemy posi- force or its mission. The challenges associated
tions from the flank or the rear, securing key ter- with this technique include reassembly of the
rain i n su ppor t of deci sive operati ons, or force, command and control, sustainment, and
disrupting enemy sustainment operations. Infil- the need for more specialized training,
tration is normally conducted using one of three equipment, and personnel.
techniques—movement in small groups along
one axis, movement in one group, or movement Penetration
in small groups along several routes at the same
Mountainous terrain normally makes penetra-
time. Regardless of the technique used, units con-
tions extremely dangerous due to the difficulty of
duct tactical movement and employ noise and
light discipline while leveraging existing/avail- concentrating overwhelming combat power at the
able natural concealment to reduce the chance of area of penetration. Due to mobility restrictions,
enemy contact. it is also difficult to develop and maintain the
momentum required to move through the point of
Movement in Small Groups Along One Axis. penetration. The area of penetration is vulnerable
When moving in small groups along one axis, all to flank attack, especially in mountainous terrain.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
2-8 MCWP 3-35.1
A penetration may be useful when attacking an Size of the expected enemy force.
enemy that is widely dispersed or overextended Amount of early warning and reaction time
in their defense. Flank defensive positions must needed.
be eliminated before the initial breach of enemy
positions. Successful penetrations require sur- A screening force provides early warning to the
prise, security, and covered and concealed terrain protected force and is usually an economy-of-
at selected breach points. force measure. The compartmented nature of
mountainous terrain can lead to gaps and exposed
flanks. The rugged terrain also restricts move-
Defensive Operations ment of both friendly and enemy forces. In these
instances, commanders may choose to use mini-
The immediate objective of a mountainous mum combat power to observe, identify, and
defense is to deny the enemy access to key terrain report enemy actions at these locations and
that helps them conduct further operations. There- engage and destroy enemy reconnaissance within
fore, it is necessary to defend in terrain that the screening force’s capability. The screening
restricts and contains the enemy as well as to con- force can avoid being decisively engaged by
trol the high ground that dominates this terrain. withdrawing into restrictive terrain.
The terrain provides the defender with cover, con-
cealment, and camouflage that can deceive the In mountainous terrain, the screening force
enemy regarding the strength and dispositions of should adjust to the enemy advance and continue
friendly forces. The defender should know the ter- to screen as far forward as possible, even though
rain, control the heights, fortify positions, site elements of the force may have to withdraw.
weapons in advance, stockpile supplies, and pre- Retention of selected forward positions may
pare lateral trail networks to allow for mobility. allow surveillance and targeting forward of the
area of operations, upsetting the enemy’s coordi-
Restrictive terrain inherent to mountainous areas
nation. By allowing the enemy to bypass advance
is one of the primary advantages of the defender
positions, the screening force can facilitate a
because it interferes with the attacker’s synchroni-
counterattack since it can observe and access the
zation, canalizes the attacker’s movement, and
impedes the attacker’s ability to maneuver. To flanks and rear of the attacking forces.
capitalize on this advantage, commanders should If a significant enemy force is expected or a sig-
carefully analyze the vertical and horizontal com- nificant amount of time and space is required,
ponents of terrain from both friendly and enemy commanders may employ a guard or covering
viewpoints. force. Security forces that can maintain a mobil-
While a screening force is usually considered to ity advantage over the enemy can effectively
be the preferred form of security in rugged ter- delay and counterattack the enemy force. The
rain, all forms of security operations (screen, appropriate use of a guard or covering force pro-
guard, and cover) may be employed. The follow- vides greater depth in the security area.
ing points should be considered when conducting
Defending forces must prevent enemy infiltra-
security operations:
tion by carefully positioning observation posts
Forces available for security operations. and conducting continuous patrols and ambushes.
Ability to maintain a mobility advantage. Reconnaissance patrols may rely heavily on tech-
Size of the security area and the number of nical climbing skills. Ground surveillance radar
avenues of approach. and ground sensors can be used to add greater
Likelihood of enemy action. depth to the defense.
_________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 2-9
Motti Tactics
Motti tactics demonstrate how forces can exploit superior mobility skills and knowledge of both snow-covered and
mountainous terrain and the environment to defeat an enemy that is road bound. The Motti is a double envelopment
maneuver, using the ability of light troops to travel over rough ground to encircle and cut off road-bound enemy forces.
Forces with superior mobility can easily immobilize a larger enemy force. Motti tactics were used extensively by Fin-
land’s forces in the Russo-Finnish War of 1939–1940. This tactic was extremely effective against many of the mecha-
nized units of the Soviet Army that were restricted to the long and narrow forest roads. Due to their poor training and
limited mobility, the Russian forces remained road bound and vulnerable to the more mobile and highly trained Finnish
units. Unlike the mechanized Russian units, the Finnish troops moved quickly through the forests on skis to break the
armored columns into small chunks, such as by felling trees along the road. Once a large column was split up into
smaller units, the Finns attacked the isolated Soviet units. By cutting Soviet columns into smaller groups and then
encircling them with light, mobile forces, the Finnish army was able to overwhelm a much larger force.
Generally, a force using Motti tactics avoids becoming decisively engaged. It disrupts the enemy’s supply lines, denies
them warmth and shelter, infiltrates their bivouacs, and destroys their rear areas to the point where they must remain
in a high state of alert. These attacks, in combination with the environment, help to destroy the enemy’s will to fight.
Commanders should not only develop a thorough understanding of how to apply these tactics, but also understand the
conditions that may leave their own forces vulnerable to their use. Motti tactics generally follow the sequence of—
Locating and fixing the enemy.
Isolating the enemy.
Attacking to defeat or destroy the enemy.
Reconnaissance is conducted to locate an enemy force moving in or toward an area that will restrict their movements
to roads, trails, or linear terrain. Once identified, the force must be fixed so that it presents a linear target along the axis
of advance to which it is bound by using obstacles and a series of squad- and platoon-sized ambushes and raids.
Obstacles may be natural (snow, crevices, deep mud, steep terrain, and water obstacles) or manmade (mines, land-
slides, avalanches, or destroyed bridges).
The ambushes and raids not only fix the enemy, ambushes and raids also disturb the enemy’s composure, create an air
of uncertainty, and prevent uninterrupted sleep and rest. Attacking units attack the enemy from the high ground. They
make maximum use of night vision devices as well as the difficult restrictive terrain. They avoid enemy security and
interdict the enemy’s operations. As a further result of these actions, the enemy is compelled to use more forces on
security tasks. Unless the enemy can be easily defeated or destroyed, the attacking force rapidly withdraws after forcing
the enemy to deploy. In general, this series of attacks confuses the enemy as to the attacking unit’s exact location and
intent and slows the enemy’s decisionmaking cycle so that the enemy reacts ineffectively to subsequent operations.
The attacking force then isolates the enemy into smaller groups. Once isolated, the attacking force maneuvers to
envelop and attacks to defeat or destroy the isolated elements. As the enemy becomes exhausted in an effort to break
out, the attacking force may regroup and repeat the sequence. It is imperative that the attacking force seal off the enemy,
keep avenues of approach closed, and not ignore the threat to its flanks, which may increase as the attack progresses.
Overall, Motti tactics wear the enemy down to a point where the enemy is vulnerable to more direct attacks or to the
point where it is no longer beneficial or feasible to continue operations in the area. Motti tactics employed alone only
prove decisive over a long period of time, depending on the enemy’s capabilities, strength, and resolve. Based on
METT-T, friendly forces must normally increase the operation’s tempo to gain a quick, decisive outcome. Still, this tac-
tic may complement other more direct offensive operations in support of the overall plan.
In sum, forces can use Motti tactics when they—
Have superior technical mobility skills necessary to negotiate Class 4 and 5 terrain.
Are able to operate effectively in a noncontiguous area of operations with limited support and despite temperature
extremes and inclement mountain weather.
Are able to navigate in high, mountainous terrain, dense vegetation, darkness, storms, and fog while making good
use of available cover and concealment.
Maintain the element of surprise.
Forces are vulnerable to Motti tactics when they—
Operate within noncontiguous areas of operations.
Have limited mobility skills, restricting their movements to roads, trails, and Class 1 and 2 terrain.
Have inadequate reconnaissance and security.
2-10 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-35.1
Defensive positions along ridges or on dominat- Sharply compartmented terrain may require the
ing heights should include both forward and creation of more than one reserve.
reverse slopes to add greater depth and security.
Fighting positions and observation posts should To minimize the vulnerability of sustaining
be echeloned vertically as well as in depth. When operations, sustainment resources must be dis-
defending a mountain valley, forces should estab- persed, redundant, and as far from enemy
lish fighting positions that are located on adja- approaches as possible. Because of limited space
cent heights and in depth to permit covering the available in rear areas, the commander must care-
valley with interlocking fires. Defensive positions fully select and locate positions for CSS/sus-
must be anchored to restrictive terrain or adja- tainment unit activities. These positions are likely
cent defensive forces to prevent enemy infiltra- to be confined to small valleys. A perimeter
tion or envelopment. In wooded terrain, defensive defense is planned for each operating base within
positions may be organized on the forward edge the defensive area. Defensive positions should be
of the woods, as well as on commanding heights. selected on the dominating high ground. Sensors,
Obstacles should be widely employed to slow or observation posts, and radars are used to cover
stop enemy movement. avenues of approach and gaps between positions.
More information on perimeter defense i s
Mountain warfare demands that forces defend available in ATTP 3-21.50; MCRP 3-35.1A; and
aggressively. Defending units must infiltrate FM 3-90, Tactics.
enemy units and attack headquarters, supply
lines, and rear areas. Small patrols and observa- There are three fundamental types of defense:
tion posts should be deployed well forward to mobile, position, and retrograde.
direct artillery fire and attack aircraft on targets
of opportunity and to conduct personnel and anti- Mobile Defense
armor ambushes. Operations should be con-
In a mobile defense, the defender withholds a
ducted to force the enemy to deploy additional
large portion of available forces for use as a strik-
assets and to disrupt preparations.
ing force in a counterattack. Mobile de-fenses
Commanders may need to rely on their reserve as require enough depth to let enemy forces advance
the principal means of restoring a defense’s integ- into a position that exposes them to counterat-
rity or exploiting opportunities through offensive tack. The defense separates attacking forces from
action. Because of the difficulties of movement, their support and disrupts the enemy’s command
small reserves may be located near primary defen- and control. As enemy forces extend themselves
sive positions, ready for immediate counterattack. in the defended area and lose momentum and
This type of small, responsive counterattack may organization, the defender surprises and over-
be much more effective than a large-scale, major whelms them with a powerful counterattack. The
counterattack. Large, centrally-placed counterat- counterattack focuses on destroying the attacking
tack forces are normally unable to intervene in force by permitting the enemy to advance into a
time unless the terrain permits mounted movement position that exposes them to counterattack and
or sufficient helicopter lift assets are committed to envelopment. The commander commits the mini-
the reserve force or made rapidly available. mum possible combat power to his/her fixing
Reserves should be mobile enough to react to force that conducts shaping operations in order to
enemy action in any portion of the perimeter. Less control the depth and breadth of the enemy’s
mobile reserves are positioned to block the most advance. The fixing force also retains the terrain
dangerous avenues of approach and are assigned required to facilitate the striking force’s decisive
on-order positions on other critical avenues. counterattack.
________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 2-11
A mobile defense relies heavily on the defender’s mountainous terrain offers tremendous advan-
ability to maintain a mobility advantage. This tages in the defense.
mobi lity advantage may result from or be
enhanced by countermobility actions directed In a position defense, the commander positions the
against the enemy force. In his/her mobile bulk of his/her combat power in static defensive
positions with small mobile reserves. He/She
defense plan, the commander seeks to ensure that
depends on his/her static forces to defend their
his/her force—including reserves and the strik-
positions and on his/her reserves to blunt and con-
ing force—can move freely around the battle-
tain penetrations, to counterattack, and to exploit
field, while restricting the enemy’s mobility,
opportunities presented by the enemy. Helicopters
slowing their momentum, and guiding or forcing
may be used to deploy reserves, but their use
them into areas favorable for engagement. Moun-
depends on the availability of suitable, secure
tainous terrain favors the defender because of its
landing zones (LZs) and favorable weather condi-
many chokepoints and fire sacks. Chokepoints
tions. Commanders must prevent the enemy from
have limiting terrain on two sides and fire sacks concentrating overwhelming combat power
have limiting terrain on three sides. against isolated sections of their defense.
Position Defense Reverse slope defenses (see fig. 2-1) are well-
suited to mountain operations. Reverse slope
A position defense focuses on retaining terrain by defenses seek to reduce the effects of massed
absorbing the enemy into a series of interlocked, indirect fire from mortar, artillery, and CAS and
mutually supporting positions. Mobility restric- draw the battle into the small arms range of infan-
tions and the requirement to control key terrain try weapons. The overall goal of the reverse slope
favor position/area defenses. Defending forces defense is to make the enemy commit their forces
are relied upon to maintain their positions and to against the forward slope of the defense, causing
control the terrain between them. This defense them to attack in an uncoordinated fashion across
uses battle positions, strongpoints, obstacles, and the exposed topographical crest.
barriers to slow, canalize, and defeat the enemy
attack. Position defenses rely on security forces, All or parts of the defending force may use re-
continuous reconnaissance and combat patrols, verse slope techniques. In many instances, moun-
and numerous observation posts for depth and tainous terrain favors a defense that employs both
early warning. The natural canalization effect of forward and reverse slope positions to permit fires
Topographical crest
Forward Counterslope*
military crest Reverse
military crest
Forward
slope Reverse slope
Enemy
*Also known as the reverse forward slope
resources to enlist civilian sympathy and support, The DSF consistently maintains focus on the
they must still adjust their operations to minimize local populace. Organizations using the tactical
damage and loss of life to innocent civilians. conflict assessment and planning framework fol-
Homogeneous mountain communities are suscep- low a continuous cycle of see-understand-act-
tible to greater influence from external forces/fac- measure. The DSF includes four distinct, but
tors than the more heterogeneous communities interrelated, activities—
found in less compartmented terrain.
Situational awareness.
Due to the restrictive nature of the terrain, moun- Analysis.
tain communities may quickly become safe Design.
havens for enemy activity and bases of support. Monitoring and evaluation.
Where combat typically focuses on the defeat or
destruction of an enemy force, the focus of stabil- Situational Awareness
ity operations is the populace.
Situational awareness of the causes of instability
District Stability Framework within an operational area is a four-step process—
Identify stability and instability.
Successful stability operations are predicated on
Understand the cultural environment.
identifying and reducing the causes of instability
Apply instability and stability dynamics.
and re-establishing or building community and
Understand perception dynamics.
state capacity to diminish, manage, or prevent
lage?
identify, prioritize, and target the causes of insta-
Who do you believe can resolve problems?
bility in a measurable and immediately accessi-
ble way. Since it makes maximum use of assets What should be done first to help the village?
in the field and measures the effectiveness of
activities over time and across multiple unit rota- Targeted interviews should be conducted with
tions, it is an important tool for conducting stabi- key local stakeholders, such as traditional leaders,
lization operations. The DSF is based on the government officials, business leaders, and prom-
following four tenets: inent citizens.
and private sector entities. All this input is used to While evaluation is critical to measuring the
create a prioritized list of the causes of instability effectiveness of activities in fostering stability, it
and sources of resiliency that guide the conduct of also helps to ensure that the views of the popula-
stability operations. tion are tracked, compared, measured, and dis-
played over t im e. S i nce t hese r esu lt s ar e
Design objective, they cannot be altered by interviewer
The design effort is informed by analysis. The or analyst bias, creating a continuous narrative
results of which are used to create a tactical sta- that significantly increases situational awareness.
bility matrix for each of the causes of instability. For more information on stability operations see
After identifying the causes of instability and FM 3-07, Stability Operations; United States
sources of resiliency, a program of activities is Agency for International Development; and
designed to address them. Three key factors MCWP 3-33.5, Counterinsurgency.
guide program design to ensure program activi-
ties accomplish the following:
Operational Advantages and Disadvantages
Increase support for the host-nation government.
Decrease support for antigovernment or insur- The forms of maneuver and types of offensive
gent elements. operations will not change for mountainous envi-
Build host-nation capacity and capability ronments; however, there are unique elements that
across each of the stability sectors. must be considered before conducting offensive
operations. Like all other environments, one of the
The tactical stability matrix and program activi- primary advantages of conducting offensive oper-
ties form the basis for planning within an opera- ations is that the attacker can choose when and
tional area. The plan targets the least stable areas how to attack. This point is emphasized even fur-
and ensures instability is contained. It is nested ther in the mountains due to the many avenues of
within the higher headquarters plan and details approach to a tactical objective, limited ground
how specific stability tasks will be integrated and LOCs the defender has to rely upon for sustain-
synchronized at the tactical level. The DSF data ment, and the difficulty the defender faces in con-
is collated at each echelon to develop or validate structing defensive positions.
assessments performed by subordinate elements.
Despite these offensive advantages, the aggressor
is usually at a disadvantage in the mountains
Monitoring and Evaluation
because the mountainous terrain favors defensive
The DSF provides a comprehensive means of operations. The primary advantage to the defender
evaluating success in addressing the sources of in mountainous terrain is the ability to choose
instability. Through monitoring measures of defensive positions that will canalize offensive
effectiveness, analysts gauge progress toward forces, denying the attacking force the ability to
improving stability while diminishing the sources maneuver effectively. If the defender controls the
of instability. Monitoring measures of effective- heights, observation will preclude the attacking
ness and overall stability—the key component of force from achieving surprise. Both observation
the DSF process—are vital to evaluating the suc- and canalization will give the defender the
cess of program activities in changing the state of opportunity to mass fires in order to defeat or
the operational environment envisioned during destroy the enemy; however, if the attacking force
the design effort. is highly trained and able to negotiate the
________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 2-15
The Marine Corps uses the generic term ISR Planning is conducted to identify intelligence
assets for all units, personnel, and equipment that requirements, plan intelligence operations, and
conduct ISR activities. Therefore, in order to support the formulation of the commander’s esti-
maintain ease of reading and limit redundancy mate of the situation. In this phase, intelligence
throughout the rest of this publication, the term gaps are identified and collection is planned to
ISR assets will be used. satisfy those intelligence gaps. The effects of
harsh weather and compartmented terrain make
accuracy and efficiency in the planning and
Planning direction phase critical to intelligence operations
in mountainous environments. Planners must
also note that caves will be used extensively in
Generating intelligence knowledge begins before
mountainous environments and should refer to
the mission is received and provides the relevant
ATTP 3-21.50 and MCRP 3-35.1C.
knowledge required regarding the operational
environment for the conduct of operations. It is The ISR plan faces numerous challenges and can
the foundation for performing IPB and problem take much longer to execute because of poor traf-
framing. Its primary products are the initial data ficability, severe weather conditions, and the rug-
files and the intelligence survey. To generate ged nature of the topography. Caves, overhangs,
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
3-2 MCWP 3-35.1
crevices, gorges, boulders, and crags all afford may be arrayed in multiple tiers along the slopes
excellent cover and concealment for the enemy. of key terrain, such as a critical mountain pass,
These unique terrain conditions pose multiple dominating height, gorge, or trail. Since the
problems for ground commanders and their staffs restrictive terrain often does not support massing
in maneuver and security. High altitudes and combat power against decisive points, command-
extreme weather conditions impact negatively on ers and their staffs need to use the ISR plan to pre-
the ability of aerial platforms and all types of cisely focus the maneuver assets and fire support.
imaging systems. As a result, commanders and
their staffs must allow significantly more time for
reconnaissance and surveillance in this unforgiv- Collection
ing environment. Emphasis must be placed on
confirming data collected from sensors and ter- Collection, complicated by a mountainous envi-
rain analysis tools. These tools provide intelli- ronment, consists of the activities of organic,
gence personnel with valuable data, but that data attached, and supporting ISR assets to gather new
can lack sufficient detail. Mountain weather phe- data and deliver it to the appropriate processing
nomena are localized, which increases the or production agency. Though all ISR assets can
requirement for meteorological (MET) teams. be hindered by weather/terrain, troops can consult
Due to the decentralized nature of mountain oper- intelligence personnel for ISR capabilities and
ations, MET teams need to be pushed down to the limitations, if necessary. An example of such data
battalion level if assets are available. Intelligence is presented in appendix C. Usually, however,
personnel cannot rely on regional forecasts when intelligence personnel will conduct ISR synchro-
conducting planning. nization to assist the operations personnel with
the production of the ISR annex for the opera-
The relative inaccessibility of most mountainous
tions order. The ISR plan outlines the collection
terrain places severe demands on the maneuver-
effort in response to the commander’s critical
ability of troops. In this environment, the use of information requirements.
ISR assets to verify trafficability, identify routes
that support the movement of dismounted and
mounted elements, and maintain friendly situa- Human Environment
tional understanding for commanders and their
staffs can be critical to the success of an opera-
tion. Constant surveillance of the limited routes Mountain populations exhibit certain traits that
and avenues may contribute greatly to situational will significantly impact operations. While there
awareness. While the ideal solution is to main- will be variations depending on the location of
tain constant surveillance in a mountainous envi- the operation, case studies have revealed some
ronment, leaders must realize that doing so will generalizations that distinguish mountain popula-
consume significant resources, which could tions from other populations. These variations
impact the number of available named areas of include the following traits:
interest that can be monitored. Even if no intelli- Independent.
gence is gathered while surveying an area of Enhanced loyalty to their group.
interest, there is a greater chance of operational Homogeneous.
success if maneuver forces know that enemy
Tribal/clannish.
forces have not been operating in the battlespace.
Increased emphasis on religion.
Combat in mountainous environments also pres- Less economically developed than more acces-
ents commanders and their staffs with the chal- sible areas.
lenges of locating and defeating an enemy who Lacking formal education.
_________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 3-3
that information at their command level. For blocks the radar beam, so radar coverage may not
example, they integrate information collected by extend across the reverse slope of a steep ridge or
civil affairs officers, provincial reconstruction a valley floor. Attempts to reposition the over-
teams, liaison officers (LNOs), female engage- head platform to a point where it can “see” the
ment teams, military information support opera- masked area may result in masking occurring
tions teams, human terrain teams, and infantry elsewhere. This limitation does not preclude
battalions into a shared database. using such systems; however, commanders and
their staffs should employ air reconnaissance
Leaders and planners must put time and energy with overhead reconnaissance platforms, such as
into selecting the best, most extroverted, and most balloons and satellites, when available to mini-
eager analysts to serve in the fusion cells. The mize these occurrences.
highly complex mountainous environment
requires an adaptive way of thinking and operat- The subsequent use of ground reconnaissance
ing, such as vetting a single source from one tribal assets to verify the data that can be gathered by
valley compartment against the adjacent terrain/ overhead and electro-optical platforms will
tribal compartment. These efforts also facilitate ensure that commanders do not fall prey to delib-
stability operations by allowing the commander to erate enemy deception efforts that capitalize on
better respond to the needs of the populace. the limited capabilities of some types of over-
head platforms in this environment. In mountain-
ous areas of operations, it may often be necessary
Reconnaissance and Surveillance to commit ground reconnaissance assets to sup-
port strategic and operational information
requirements. Conversely, strategic and opera-
At the beginning of a campaign in a mountainous tional reconnaissance systems may be employed
environment, requirements will usually be to identify or confirm the feasibility of employing
answered by aerial or overhead platforms using ground reconnaissance assets. Surveillance teams
radar systems to detect manmade objects. Ter- may be inserted to gather information that cannot
rain may significantly impact the employment of be collected by overhead systems or to verify
overhead reconnaissance platforms. These sys- data that has already been collected. In this
tems may be adversely impacted by the masking instance, satellite imagery is used to analyze a
effect that occurs when mountainous terrain specific area for inserting the team. The potential
hide positions for the teams are identified using Level of mountaineering skill required to nego-
imagery and, terrain and weather permitting, veri- tiate routes (dismounted mobility classifica-
fied by unmanned aircraft systems (UASs). tion) and sections of the route that require
specific mountaineering equipment, tools, or
On harsh mountainous terrain, ground recon-
facilities (e.g., bivouac sites, tents, and huts) as
naissance operations are often conducted dis-
well as mountaineering installations (e.g., fixed
mounted. Commanders and their staffs must
ropes or raising/lowering systems).
assess the slower rate of ground reconnaissance
elements to determine its impact on the entire Trafficability of existing trails and routes to
reconnaissance and collection process. They support sustained military movement require-
must develop plans that account for this slower ments and an engineer estimate of the effort
rate and initiate reconnaissance as early as possi- required to improve/maintain this capacity.
ble to provide additional time for movement (see Location of enemy obstacles/barriers, including
chap. 4 for movement planning tools). Com- minefields, and feasibility of breach or bypass.
manders may also need to allocate more forces, Bypass routes.
including combat forces, to conduct reconnais- Potential airborne and air assault drop zones
sance, surveillance, or limited objective attacks to and/or pickup zones (PZs) and aircraft land-
gain needed intelligence. Based upon METT-T, ing areas.
commanders may need to prioritize collection Location of locally available engineer re-
assets, accept risk, and continue with less infor- sources, such as construction materials, borrow
mation than from their initial reconnaissance pits, water, and construction equipment.
efforts. In these cases, they must use formations
and schemes of maneuver that provide maxi-
mum security and flexibility, to include robust Operational Considerations
security formations, and allow for the develop-
Snow can pose a serious threat to Marine Corps
ment of the situation once in contact.
units not properly trained and equipped for
Although reconnaissance patrols should nor- movement under such conditions: avalanches
mally use the heights to observe the enemy, they have taken the lives of more troops engaged in
may need to send small reconnaissance teams mountain warfare than all other terrain hazards
into valleys or along the low ground to gain suit- combined. Reconnaissance units must do a thor-
able vantage points, conduct countersurveillance ough reconnaissance of the battlespace to deter-
(as mountain villages often serve as a network of mine areas where avalanches and rockslides are
informants on friendly movements), or physi- most prevalent and most likely to hinder mobil-
cally examine routes that will be used by mecha- ity. This information should be included in their
nized or motorized forces. In mountainous reconnaissance overlays in order to generate a
environments, reconnaissance elements are often full picture for the commander (see chap. 5 for
tasked to determine— mitigation procedures).
The enemy’s primary and alternate LOCs.
Reconnaissance in Force
Locations and directions from which the
enemy can attack or counterattack. The compartmented geography and inherent
Heights that allow the enemy to observe the mobility restrictions of mountainous terrain pose
various sectors of terrain. significant risk for reconnaissance in force opera-
Suitable observation posts for forward observers. tions. Since the terrain normally allows enemy
Portions of the route that provide covert units to defend along a much broader front with
movement. fewer forces, a reconnaissance in force may be
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
3-6 MCWP 3-35.1
conducted as a series of smaller attacks to deter- mountainous terrain makes ground reconnaissance
mine the enemy situation at selected points. Com- time consuming and dangerous, a combination of
manders and their staffs should carefully consider ground and aerial or overhead platforms should be
mobility restrictions that may affect plans for used for engineer reconnaissance. Data on the ter-
withdrawal or exploitation. They should also rain, vegetation, and soil composition, combined
position small reconnaissance elements or em- with aerial photographs and multispectral imag-
ploy surveillance systems throughout the threat ery, enable engineer terrain intelligence teams to
area of operations to gauge the enemy’s reaction provide detailed information that may be unavail-
to friendly reconnaissance in force operations and able from other sources.
alert the force to possible enemy counterattacks.
In the mountains, the risk of having at least a por- Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear,
tion of the force cut off and isolated is extremely and High-Yield Explosives Reconnaissance
high. Mobile reserves and preplanned fires must
be available to reduce the risk, decrease the vul- The mountainous environment presents unique
nerability of the force, and exploit any success as challenges when conducting CBRNE [chemical,
it develops. biological, radiological, nuclear, and high-yield
explosives] reconnaissance. See MCWP 3-37.4,
Engineer Reconnaissance Multi-Service Tactics, Techniques, and Proce-
dures for Chemical, Biological, Radiological,
Engineer reconnaissance assumes greater signifi- and Nuclear Reconnaissance and Surveillance,
cance in a mountainous environment to ensure and MCRP 4-11.1F, Multiservice Tactics, Tech-
that supporting engineers are properly task-orga- niques, and Procedures for Health Service Sup-
nized and have specialized equipment to quickly port in a Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and
overcome natural and reinforcing obstacles. En- Nuclear Environment, for information that can be
gineer reconnaissance teams conduct the follow- useful in conducting such reconnaissance.
ing functions:
Air and Overhead Reconnaissance
Assessing the resources required for clearing
obstacles on precipitous slopes. During all but the most adverse weather condi-
Constructing crossing sites at fast-moving tions, air or overhead reconnaissance may be the
streams and rivers. best means to gather information and cover large
Improving and repairing roads, erecting fortifi- areas that are difficult for ground units to traverse
cations, and establishing barriers during the or observe. Airborne standoff intelligence-collec-
conduct of defensive operations. tion devices, such as side-looking radar, provide
excellent terrain and target isolation imagery. Mis-
Integrating themselves into all mountain recon-
sions must be planned to ensure that critical areas
naissance operations, since the restrictive ter-
are not masked by terrain or other environmental
rain promotes the widespread employment of conditions. Additionally, air or overhead photo-
point obstacles. graphs may compensate for inadequate maps and
provide the level of detail needed to plan opera-
Additional information on engineer reconnais- tions. Infrared imagery and camouflage detection
sance can be found in MCWP 3-17.4, Engineer film can be used to determine precise locations of
Reconnaissance. In some regions, maps may be enemy positions, even at night. Furthermore, heli-
unsuitable for tactical planning due to inaccura- copters, such as the AH-64 and OH-58D, can pro-
cies, limited detail, and inadequate coverage. In vide commanders and their staffs with critical day
these areas, engineer reconnaissance should pre- or night video reconnaissance using television or
cede, but not delay, operations. Because rugged forward-looking infrared.
_________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 3-7
The UAS flight patterns may be adversely affected operations, a balance must be struck between the
by mountainous terrain. Line of sight (LOS) com- adversary’s location and communications capa-
mand links may limit UASs from flying into val- bilities and that of the SIGINT collection team.
leys, which also limits signals collection or electro- Effective and accurate IPB is critical to ensuring
optical resolution. They may require much higher optimal SIGINT collection. For more elaboration
operating elevations to maintain positive command on SIGINT impacts, see MCWP 2-2.
and control, use satellite-based command links, or
operate in autonomous mode more often. Human Intelligence
Radar shadowing is a phenomenon in which a Terrain and weather will slow the mobility of all
distortion occurs in a radar return image when the personnel on the ground, including human intelli-
angle of an observed object, such as a mountain gence (HUMINT) collectors. Also, disparate pop-
side, is steeper than the sensor depression angle. ulations and their sometimes long-term isolation
This occurrence may cause ghost images or dis- may result in language barriers. A limited supply
torted images in mountainous terrain. Command- of interpreters and linguists will likely limit the
ers and intelligence officers should consider HUMINT collection efforts; moreover, in many
employing manned or unmanned systems that areas of the world, different groups of mountain
employ nonradar sensors to minimize such inhabitants speak languages or dialects different
images. Overhead systems that employ electro- from the rest of the country and even the rest of
optical or infrared sensors may realize greater the area. This variety of languages and dialects,
success than radar systems when weather condi- coupled with a likely distrust of outsiders can
tions facilitate their use. The subsequent employ- make HUMINT collection extremely challenging.
ment of ISR assets to verify data provided by
overhead sensors helps ensure that the com- Ground reconnaissance assets will be a key
mander does not fall victim to deception targeted source to enable HUMINT operations. Any infor-
against specific overhead sensors. mation or activity that ground reconnaissance
units observe must be reported up through the
Signals Intelligence chain of command. Only trained and certified
HUMINT collectors are authorized to collect
Weather and compartmented terrain reduces the information. Frequent periods of low visibility,
effectiveness of signals intelligence (SIGINT) severe weather, and compartmented terrain will
assets, but mountainous terrain presents a special impact the range and observation capabilities of
challenge to SIGINT collection. Mountain min- these assets. See FM 2-22.3, Human Intelligence
eral deposits can create dead zones for frequency Collector Operations, for further details.
modulation communications, making the use of
SIGINT collection pointless. Extreme changes in Geospatial Intelligence
elevation create radio frequency blind spots,
known as terrain masking. This terrain masking Weather and terrain also limit the collection of
of radio frequency signals will, in many imagery. Terrain masking will preclude imagery
instances, become the determining factor for the collection from national collection assets at some
employment and placement of SIGINT collec- angles. Precipitation, icing, and winds will limit/
tion assets. Higher elevations provide better area preclude the employment of UASs and manned
coverage for radio frequency signals; however, reconnaissance aircraft. Such operations may
weather conditions rapidly deteriorate as eleva- also be impacted by rapidly changing weather.
tion increases, limiting effective deployment of Long-endurance UAS operations will require
SIGINT collection teams to higher ground. In careful planning for dramatic changes in weather
order to maintain effective SIGINT collection over the course of a mission. Additionally,
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
3-8 MCWP 3-35.1
mountainous regions often experience extremely Long-range surveillance units and snipers trained
high wind velocities. Smaller UAS platforms in mountain operations also contribute to surveil-
may be unable to fly or may be lost due to vio- lance missions and benefit from the restrictive
lent winds experienced at higher altitudes. Fog, terrain and excellent LOS. Overhead platforms
cloud cover, and precipitation also limit the and attack reconnaissance helicopters may also
effectiveness of electro-optical and infrared sen- be used for surveillance missions of limited dura-
sors and degrade the quality of imagery col- tion (see MCWP 3-26, Air Reconnaissance);
lected. Careful calculation of weather and terrain however, weather may impede air operations,
effects and a focused and efficient collection plan decrease visibility for both air and ground ele-
help to mitigate these limitations. ments, and reduce the ability of ground surveil-
Geospatial information and services consider- lance elements to remain hidden for prolonged
ations can be found in MCWP 2-26, Geospatial periods without adequate logistical support. Ter-
Information and Intelligence. Such consider- rain may mask overhead surveillance platforms.
ations are useful for examining unique natural
aspects of the terrain that affect all types of oper- Mountain Pickets
ations in a mountainous environment. For exam-
The Marine Corps has historically used mountain
ple, geospatial information and services can
model rock types and analyze the amount of pickets in mountainous environments. Mountain
water a given rock type can provide, which will pickets are usually dismounted, but may consist
impact sustainment and stability operations. of either mounted or dismounted elements.
However, commands that direct a thorough engi- Mounted maneuver elements should use scouts as
neer reconnaissance/engineer battlefield assess- forward reconnaissance elements. These elements
ment will significantly increase the fidelity of should be small, light, mobile units that conduct
information available within GIS media. route reconnaissance for the main body. In addi-
tion to a route reconnaissance, these elements
Ground/Long-Range Surveillance should establish security at danger areas by secur-
ing the high ground and establishing mountain
In the mountains, surveillance of vulnerable pickets. The use of pickets will decrease the
flanks and gaps between units is accomplished speed at which a unit can move due to the diffi-
primarily through well-positioned observation culty of moving along the top of ridgelines. Char-
posts. These observation posts are normally acteristics of mountain pickets are to—
inserted by helicopter and manned by small
elements equipped with sensors, enhanced Provide flank security for the main body.
electro-optical devices, and appropriate com- Provide surveillance of adjacent compartments.
munications. Commanders and their staffs must Provide observed fires into and across adja-
develop adequate plans that address not only cent compartments.
their insertion, but also their sustainment and
Serve as a relay for voice communications.
ultimate extraction. The considerations of
METT-T may dictate that commanders provide Serve as connecting files in offensive operations.
more personnel and assets than they would to Be either static or mobile along tops of ridge-
operations in other types of terrain to adequately lines.
conduct surveillance missions. Commanders and Patrol for periods of 3 to 14 days.
their staffs must also ensure that surveillance Be acclimatized and in a high state of physical
operations are fully integrated with recon- fitness and have any specialized equipment
naissance efforts in order to provide adequate needed to move across the specific ridge com-
coverage of the area of operations. plex, such as crampons, ice axes, and ropes.
CHAPTER 4
MANEUVER AND MOVEMENT
Maneuver in mountainous terrain is inherently
difficult. The complex and compartmentalized Mounted Movement
terrain, time of year, weather, and adversary
influence maneuver/movement and maneuver in Mechanized and motorized operations in com-
the mountains. Detailed planning, specialized plex and compartmentalized terrain are severely
equipment and training, and strong leadership are hampered by terrain, infrastructure, and weather.
required for successful operations. Low tempera- Narrow roads and movement corridors will limit
tures, reduced visibility, snow and ice, avalanche vehicle traffic to predictable patterns. While sim-
hazards, rock fall hazards, and an adversary who plifying traffic control, maneuvering and recover-
is familiar with fighting in the mountains all com- ing vehicles will be problematic.
bine to make the mountains one of the most chal-
Terrain and weather may limit the type of vehi-
lenging environments for military operations.
cles that can travel on certain roads, especially
Further maneuver considerations that are unique
during inclement weather conditions. Roads that
to the different types of operations can be found
are wide enough for high mobility multi-purpose
in chapter 3.
wheeled vehicle (HMMWVs) may not support
larger wheeled vehicles (e.g., MRAP [mine resis-
tant ambush protected]) or mechanized vehicles
Air Movement
(e.g., tanks, armored personnel carriers, or
amphibious assault vehicles). Where practicable,
Aviation is well suited for conducting operations movement planners should ensure turnaround
in a mountainous environment. Assault support points are constructed in support of ground
aircraft are essential to rapid movement of forces LOCs. Fuel consumption for vehicles also
and equipment in the mountains; however, com- increases due to the effects of road slope/grade.
manders must be continuously mindful of the
effects of weather and elevation on the employ- Precipitation (snow and rain) will hamper the
ment of assault support aircraft. Assault support mobility of both mechanized and motorized
aircraft can provide the commander with tremen- assets. For example, roads close to rivers can
dous maneuver capabilities, enabling him/her to flood during spring when snowpacks start to melt
concentrate combat power quickly and decisively. at higher elevations. The seasonal impact on
However, any operation that depends primarily on vehicle movement must always be considered
continuous aviation support to succeed is ex- when planning convoys in complex terrain.
tremely risky. High elevations and rapidly chang- Generally, mountainous terrain above the valley
ing weather, common to mountainous regions, are floor will severely limit movement of wheeled
restrictive to aviation operations and make avail- vehicles and is too restricted for tracked vehicles.
ability of aviation support unpredictable. Higher Trafficable terrain, such as roads and trails, tend to
altitudes restrict helicopter lift capabilities and contour along rugged terrain features, which
decrease aircraft payloads. Commanders must be makes mounted movement vulnerable to am-
familiar with the conditions that limit the effective- bushes and attack aircraft. Recovery vehicles must
ness of aviation during mountain operations. A always accompany mounted forces in moun-
more detailed discussion can be found in chapter 7. tainous terrain to rapidly remove disabled vehicles
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
4-2 MCWP 3-35.1
from the limited and narrow road networks. See must be rehearsed as roads tend to have very
chapter 6 for vehicle recovery information. steep dropoffs. During predeployment training,
drivers should conduct rough terrain driving to
Tanks and other armored vehicles, such as infan- prepare them for the rigors of driving in complex,
try fighting vehicles, are generally limited to compartmentalized terrain. Drivers must become
movement in valleys and existing trail networks skilled at driving in reverse on narrow mountain
at lower elevations. Even at lower elevations, passes: if the road only allows for one way traf-
roads and trails may require extensive engineer fic and drivers encounter oncoming traffic, then
work to allow tracked vehicle usage. In mountain one of the parties will have to back up to a spot
operations, there is an operational need for an up-
that will allow passage.
armored, over-the-snow vehicle similar to the
small unit support vehicle (SUSV). Convoy Planning
Due to terrain limitations, tracked vehicles will
To facilitate convoy planning, planners should
rarely accompany dismounted infantry in the
conduct a physical network analysis. The physi-
assault. Tanks, infantry fighting vehicles, and
cal network analysis should encompass roads,
cavalry fighting vehicles can assist forces con-
ducting dismounted movement by occupying bridges, obstacles, population centers, and poten-
support by fire positions and by using their fire- tial danger areas. Due to the complex nature of
power to isolate objectives. If employed above mountainous terrain, assets other than maps and
Level I terrain, mechanized vehicles can decen- dated imagery should be used. Roads that appear
tralize and operate as smaller units, but they viable on maps may be impassable during certain
should always be complemented by dismounted times of the year. Additional convoy planning
forces. Mechanized vehicles are more vulnerable considerations include—
in mountainous terrain because they are suscepti-
Type and maximum number of vehicles that
ble to attack from higher elevations and unable to
the road network can support, including each
elevate their weapon systems sufficiently to re-
route’s throughput.
turn fire.
Requirement for new road construction or road
The lower atmospheric pressure at higher ele- improvements.
vations considerably increases the evaporation of Classification of bridges.
water in batteries and vehicle cooling systems Likely locations for vehicle rollovers.
and impairs cylinder breathing. Consequently, Rapid analysis of existing roads for bottle-
vehicles expend more fuel and lubricant and ex- necks, deployment areas, passing places, and
perience engine power reductions by 4 to 6 per- turnarounds for various vehicles. There is a
cent for every 1,000-meter increase in elevation requirement for early location and marking of
above sea level. As a result, mileage and load bottlenecks, deployment areas, passing places,
carrying capacity is reduced during operations. and turnarounds for various types of transport.
Consequently, the need for fuel and oil increases
Alternative routes must be identified and allo-
approximately 30 to 40 percent. Additional
cated as soon as possible.
movement considerations are discussed in
Selection, whenever possible, of at least two
MCRP 3-35.1D.
Classification of routes as one- or two-way and Mines and Improvised Explosive Devices
development of schedules for the use of one-
way routes. Limited ingress and egress routes in mountain
Placement of signs, if the tactical situation per- valleys and villages aid in the enemy’s ability to
mits, for both day and night moves on difficult ambush and attack mounted convoys. The
and dangerous routes. complexity of the terrain surrounding navigable
roads coupled with the ability of the enemy to use
Good communications, especially between
this terrain to employ mines or improvised ex-
start and finish points, on congested portions of
plosive devices (IEDs) can have a devastating
the route and at any passing points.
effect on ground forces. When conducting convoy
Dedicated organization to rapidly clear obsta- and route clearance operations, a detailed assess-
cles caused by enemy action, the elements, or ment of the road, terrain, and enemy threat must
broken-down vehicles. take place to determine potential mine/IED loca-
Plans for integrated route clearance operations tions. Likely locations of mines/IEDs include
to be executed prior to convoy movement along chokepoints, compartmented terrain, and restricted
designated routes. roads. Using host-nation route clearance units is
recommended, if available. Additionally, com-
Most mountainous areas of the world have unim- manders can mitigate enemy obstacle emplace-
proved roads that are not suitable for heavy tacti- ment (reseeding mines) by providing overwatch
cal vehicles. In such areas, existing roads and (pickets) to the MSR/alternate supply route or
trails are few and primitive and cross-country critical ground LOCs areas, such as bridges or
movement is particularly challenging. Highways tunnels. More information pertaining to route
usually run along features that have steep slopes clearance and obstacle reduction is found in
on either side, making them vulnerable to attack. MC WP 3- 17. 8, Combi ne d A rms M ob i l i t y
Rivers may become major obstacles because of Operations, and MCRP 3-17.2D, Explosive
rapid currents, broken banks, rocky bottoms, and Hazards Operations.
the lack of bridges. Landslides and avalanches,
natural as well as manmade, may also pose seri-
ous obstacles to vehicle movement. In late winter
Dismounted Movement
or early spring, mud becomes a big issue and
roads can become flooded as snow begins to Dismounted movement is often extremely slow
melt. The runoff from melting snows in the and arduous and may require highly skilled
spring and torrential rains in the summer or fall mountaineering teams to secure the advance. For
can wash away roads and flood low ground. In example, movement in Level II terrain may
the face of numerous dangers, all vehicles must dictate that elements secure the high ground in
have survival equipment for all personnel. Level III terrain. As with any type of movement,
proper movement techniques and formations and her shortened gait, allowing the unit to maintain a
constant security to avoid unplanned enemy uniform march rate.
contact are some of the keys to successful dis-
mounted movement. The terms broken and unbroken trail have
specific meanings. When moving through undis-
Route Planning turbed (unbroken) snow greater than 30 centi-
meters (12 inches), the lead 2 or 3 persons have
A tool available to commanders during the plan- to pack the snow for the rest of the file. Once
ning process is the time-distance formula, which accomplished, the trail becomes broken. Since
assumes acclimatized forces. The following con- the lead persons exert more effort while breaking
siderations will help planners determine time the trail, they need to be cycled to the rear of the
requirements for movements: formation every 15 to 30 minutes. Personnel
complete this cycling in much the same way
Altitude at which forces will be operating. they execute a last Marine up run. Leaders
Amount of time a unit has had to acclimate to replace personnel in the lead every 15 to 30
the environment. minutes, de-pending on fitness level.
Weight each individual will be required to carry. If dismounted, troops deploy into colu mn
Fitness level of the unit. (wedge) formation outside the file formation and
the unit will move more slowly. With no one
Foot marches in the mountains are measured in breaking the trail, all personnel must now move
time and elevation, rather than just distance. For a through undisturbed snow. In temperate regions,
map reconnaissance, map distance plus one-third column formation is ideal since it maximizes
is a good estimate of actual ground distance to be fields of fire and allows for greater command and
covered. One hour is planned for each three kilo- control; however, when operating in a snow-cov-
ered environment, the ideal formation is the file
meters (about two miles) of distance. An addi-
formation. Leaders only deploy into column for-
tional hour is added for each 300 meters (1,000 mation if enemy contact is imminent because the
feet) of ascent or each 600 meters (2,000 feet) of rate of movement is so constrained. Table 4-1
descent. The shortest Marine in the unit needs to shows dismounted movement rates of march in
be placed in the front of the formation due to his/ the mountains.
Commanders cannot permit straggling or devia- considered. First class lightweight assault packs,
tions from the selected route. Every aspect of however, are vital. Leaders at all levels must
march discipline must be rigorously enforced to ensure they review and modify existing unit
keep a column closed. To prevent an accordion packing lists and standing operating procedures
effect, unit members must allow enough distance when conducting dismounted operations in
between themselves to climb without causing the mountainous terrain. Consider using the memory
following individual to change pace. In moun- aid DROP—
tainous terrain, a slow, steady pace is preferred to
more rapid movement with frequent halts. Decide mobility levels.
Reduce unnecessary equipment.
Commanders must incorporate scheduled rest halts Organize resupply methods.
into movement plans based on distance and avail- Police the ranks and conduct inspections.
ability of covered and concealed positions. As a
general rule, units should stop and rest for 5 min-
utes after 25 minutes moving. If possible, com- Terrain Analysis
manders should not conduct rest halts during steep
Unlike flat terrain on which the quickest way
ascents or descents. At the start of a march, every-
from point A to point B may be a straight line,
one should dress lightly so that they begin the
march cool. A short halt should be taken to adjust moving in a straight line on mountainous terrain
clothing and equipment after the first 15 minutes is often more difficult and time consuming. Con-
of movement. siderations for route planning include—
In glacial areas, the principal dangers and obsta- Physical network analysis.
cles to movement are crevasses and snow and ice Contouring to prevent forces from gaining or
avalanches. Exposure to the hazards of glaciated losing elevation unnecessarily.
mountains increases at the company-level and Obstacles, such as population centers, rivers,
above; hence, movement should be limited to sep- and bridges.
arate platoons and lower levels. When moving on
glaciers, an advance element should be used. The Mountain Streams and Fords
advance element identifies the best routes of
advance, marks the trail, and provides directions Stream and river crossing operations are difficult
and distances for follow-on units. A marked trail is and are usually accomplished by expedient
especially important during inclement weather and means. Bridging operations in mountainous ter-
low visibility and provides a route for retrograde. rain are normally limited to spanning short gaps
Commanders must carefully weigh the advan- and reinforcing existing bridges by using prefab-
tages of a marked route against the possibility of ricated materials and fixed spans from floating
ambush and the loss of surprise. bridge equipment. However, standard design or
improvised suspension bridges may still be
Individual Loads
needed for longer spans. Because existing bridges
Economizing the individual combat load is es- may have low vehicle load classifications, stan-
sential for conducting dismounted operations in dard fixed tactical bridges and bridging materials
the mountains. In steep terrain at elevations should be on hand to quickly reinforce or replace
above 1,524 meters (5,000 feet), individual loads them. In extremely rough terrain, cableways and
may need to be reduced by 50 percent. For tramways may be constructed to move light loads
example, water purification and the amount of and personnel across gorges and up and down
bulky ammunition, such as pyrotechnics, must be steep slopes.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
4-6 MCWP 3-35.1
US military forces bring to the fight; however, and develop innovative TTP in order to success-
they benefit the indigenous adversaries whose fully accomplish the mission.
lesser sophistication better suits the environment.
The ability to move requires the proper integration
Mountain operations will restrict ground and air and use of all appropriate resources, including air-
movement of units. Movement requires careful craft, wheeled and tracked vehicles, watercraft,
planning and execution with the understanding porters, pack animals, and individual means. Suc-
that distance over arduous terrain can be as diffi- cessful negotiation of the terrain and overcoming
cult to overcome as the adversary. Marine forces the effects of the environment will depend on spe-
must adapt their standing operating procedures cialized mountain training and proper equipment.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
4-8 MCWP 3-35.1
natural and manmade obstacles, such as avalanche the degree to which obstacles restrict operations
debris, mines, and ice obstacles; and select the and at the ability of each force to exploit the tacti-
best site or route to accomplish the mission. cal opportunities that exist when obstacles are
employed. Manmade obstacles used with restric-
Snow and Ice tive terrain and observed indirect fire are ex-
tremely effective in the mountains; however, their
As much data and information regarding snowfall
construction is very costly in terms of time, mate-
and ice growth as possible should be collected in
riel, transportation assets, and labor. Command-
the area of operations. Both are equally import-
ers must know the location, extent, and strength of
ant and can be used as an advantage or can
obstacles so that they can be incorporated into
become a disadvantage to friendly forces. As
their scheme of maneuver. Commanders should
snow accumulates, it reduces the mobility of both
allot more time for personnel to construct obsta-
Marines and machine. Heavy accumulation of
cles in cold weather due to the restriction of addi-
snow can result in avalanches, so engineers must
tional clothing and equipment. When developing
be aware of the slope angles and aspects that
barrier obstacle plans, they must consider what
favor avalanches in their area of operations. This
effect changes in weather will have on the plan.
awareness enables the commander to use the fol-
For example, if temperatures increase signifi-
lowing forces of nature to his/her advantage:
cantly, many areas that were solid ground may
Fresh water freezes at 32 °F and salt water become untrafficable, such as rivers and lakes.
freezes at 28 °F. Conversely, if temperatures fall, causing rivers
Ice is relatively strong and has a varying and lakes to freeze, these areas may become new
degree of toughness and high bearing power. avenues of approach for the enemy. Conse-
As temperatures drop, the strength increases quently, these areas should be covered by a com-
rapidly from the freezing point to about 0 °F. bination of observation and direct and indirect fire
From this temperature, the strength of ice weapons, to include demolitions.
remains fairly constant despite lowering tem- The engineer should never fail to use the natural
peratures. obstacles that the environment offers. Icy slopes
and fallen trees can disrupt and channel troop
More information is available in MCRP 3-35.1D. movements. Leeward slopes with heavy deposits
of snow can be rigged with explosives in order to
catch enemy forces in the avalanche runout zone.
Countermobility Barbed wire and concertina are still effective on
snow. It is easy to create effective obstructions in
During mountain operations where limited mountains by cratering roads, fully or partially
mobility exists, it is relatively easy to conduct destroying bridges, or inducing rockslides and
countermobility. avalanches. Units can emplace antitank mine-
fields (family of scatterable mines) effectively to
Obstacles canalize the enemy, deny terrain, or support
defensive positions. Commanders should remem-
Obvious natural obstacles include deep defiles, ber that clearing or reducing these same obstacles
cliffs, rivers, landslides, avalanches, crevices, and may be extremely difficult and a hindrance to
scree slopes, as well as the physical terrain of the future operations. Using reserve and situational
mountains themselves. Obstacles vary in their obstacles, lanes and gaps, and plans to rapidly
effect on different forces. Commanders must eval- reduce friendly obstacles must be an integral part
uate the terrain from both the enemy and friendly of all defensive operations. Commanders must
force perspective. They must look specifically at also consider the enemy’s ability to create similar
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
5-6 MCWP 3-35.1
obstacles and minefields when developing yet not allow for the threat potential to rebuild. In
courses of action that hinge on speed of move- stability operations, planners must mitigate the
ment or a particular avenue of approach. avalanche threat regularly for all LOCs. Small
patrols in unfamiliar areas should carry mortar
Mines systems in order to mitigate any suspicious slopes
that they might encounter from a safe distance.
Personnel should refer to MCRP 3-35.1D for
considerations regarding the employment of
mines in cold weather. Survivability
Avalanches
The ability to dig survivability positions into a
Avalanches occur in nature when snow loads slope increases the amount of usable terrain,
exceed the strength of the snowpack structure. increases survivability of the positions, and saves
Artificial loads, such as explosive detonations, on time and money for force protection. Engi-
can be applied to the snowpack in order to artifi- neer units should task-organize and deploy with
cially trigger an avalanche. Artificial avalanche the proper resources to cut into the hillsides so
triggers allow engineers to cause avalanches at a survivability positions can be placed into the
specific time when it is safe or most advanta- mountain instead of building on top of them.
Such operations will require extensive use of
geous for friendly forces to hinder enemy force
heavy equipment and demolitions.
movement. The use of demolition charges or
artillery air munitions is one method of applying
Elevation of Forward Operating Bases/Combat
stress to the snowpack’s instability. Explosives
Outposts in Relation to Surrounding Terrain
do not provide the same loading of stress onto the
snowpack as other control trigger mechanisms, When planning to establish a fixed site, the posi-
but they may be ideal for some snowpack condi- tion and angle of the enemy’s fire plays a signifi-
tions. The range of terrain types as well as the cant role in choosing the site location. Whoever
operational requirements necessitates the use of maintains the high ground has an advantage of
various delivery methods to optimize the effec- fire and cover, so defensive positions should be
tiveness of the explosives. The explosives deliv- elevated. Placing fixed sites on peaks or ridges
ery methods employed in a control area are should be avoided because it makes the site vul-
chosen on the basis of the general terrain, snow- nerable to fire from 360 degrees. Ideally, sites
pack, effectiveness, operational necessity and should be located on the military crest of the
potential for noncombatant casualties, and reverse slope with observation posts on both the
destruction of civilian property and infrastructure. military crest of the forward slope and surround-
ing key terrain. As time permits, positions should
In order to mitigate the threat of avalanches and be camouflaged and/or concealed and dummy
rockslides to friendly forces, noncombatants, and positions established.
destruction of civilian property and infrastructure,
the MAGTF has several methods to artificially Overhead Cover
trigger the event when it is safe. Engineers can
place demolition charges on the snowpack or use Mountains will almost always present the enemy
indirect fire or direct fire with explosive projec- with the opportunity to shoot at the friendly base
tiles to trigger the event. Indirect fire allows the from an elevated position, so most rounds will
MAGTF to control the time of the event from a impact on the top of structures. Overhead cover
safe distance without the burden of movement. should be heavily reinforced and maintained,
They plan to trigger close enough to offensive requiring increased structural support in load
operations that time is available to clear routes, bearing walls and roof supports.
Mountain Warfare Operations__________________________________________________________________________________ 5-7
The FOB construction in high altitude areas must For the most part, creating new road systems in
be planned with space for snow removal. A loca- mountainous regions is impractical because of the
large amount of rock excavation required. Fur-
tion must be identified for storing snow piles and
ther, in winter months, rock excavation will be
these locations must have adequate drainage to
nearly impossible with the use of only heavy
remove the snow melt from the FOB.
equipment. Therefore, roadwork is generally lim-
ited to the existing roads and trails, which often
require extensive construction, improvement,
General Engineering maintenance, and repair to withstand the increased
military traffic and severe weather conditions. In
General engineering involves activities that iden- certain mountainous areas, materials may be diffi-
tify, design, construct, lease, and provide facili- cult to obtain locally and it may be impossible to
ties. Characterized by high standards of design, make full use of conventional heavy engineer
planning, and construction, general engineering equipment for road and bridge construction or
in mountainous terrain must be carefully consid- repair. In such cases, large numbers of engineers
ered due to extreme temperatures, altitudes, and are required and units must rely heavily on hand
difficulty of terrain. If feasible, construction labor, light equipment, and demolitions.
should be undertaken when little or no frost is on
the ground; often, if the permafrost is too thick, it Secondary Roads
can make it impossible to dig. Construction oper- Secondary roads and trails should be steadily
ations in mountainous terrain are extremely slow, improved to accommodate wheeled and tracked
time consuming, and complicated by the lack of vehicles and, eventually, heavier vehicles. Their
local material, heavy equipment operation diffi- selection depends on necessity and the speed with
culties, and enemy defensive activities. Due to which the routes can be put into service. Abnor-
the uneven terrain, surveyors must be employed mal gradients on roads may be necessary to
to help ensure the best structural integrity of the ensure that construction keeps pace with tactical
construction project. Local materials, if avail- operations. Side hill cuts are the rule and the same
able, should be used for construction purposes to contour line is followed to avoid excessive fills or
help with stability operations and to help alleviate bridging. When terrain permits, turnouts should
the strain on overburdened transportation and avi- be constructed in order to mitigate traffic conges-
ation assets. tion on single-lane roads or trails. Drainage
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
5-8 MCWP 3-35.1
should be avoided.
and departing aircraft. This situation may become
Soil stabilization and dust abatement must be even more dangerous with the addition of con-
understood. fined approach and departure paths due to sur-
An LZ should normally be on the windward rounding steep terrain. When possible, LZs
side of mountain ridges or peaks to ensure a should have an adequate system in place to
reasonably smooth air flow; however, in for- reduce the amount of dust prior to aircraft arriv-
ward areas, concealment from the enemy ing. Crushed rock, matting pads, large amounts of
observation is a more important factor in water sprayed on the LZ, glue-/grease-based dust
selecting a site. These sites should be well abatement products, and commercial products
clear of structures and vegetation, which are approved by aviation leadership are all viable
vulnerable to helicopter rotor downwash, par- methods of preventing pilot disorientation due to
ticularly in confined spaces. whiteout/brownout incidents.
An LZ should be as level as possible and may
not be on a slope exceeding 7 degrees in most Vertical Construction
situations. Aircrews that experience difficulty
landing due to extreme slope angles in LZs Field construction time and the difficulty of con-
may request to reposition to a less drastic ventional engineer work are magnified in moun-
slope angle for operations. On slopes greater tain operations. Environmental characteristics
than 7 degrees, a helicopter cannot land; how- that complicate engineer tasks are permafrost,
ever, if rotors are clear of obstructions, they extreme and rapid changes in temperature, wind,
may be able to load and unload in a low hover. moisture, snow, ice storm s, and flooding.
Snow-covered LZs can be effectively marked Although standard construction principles remain
with colored dye, timber “letters,” or smoke, the same in mountainous environments, some
but they should be camouflaged with more considerations must be given to construction
snow when not in use. during times of heavy snowfall.
The standard pitch of the roof (4:12 pitch [4 inches
In soft snow, a suitable reference point, such as a of rise over 12 inches of run]) is sufficient for
vehicle, should be available to the pilot to avoid snow to slide off; however, corrugated steel must
Mountain Warfare Operations__________________________________________________________________________________ 5-9
be used atop plywood in order to allow the snow blowtorch is used to preheat most air-cooled
to slide off more freely. Ceilings need to be sealed engines. Most liquid-cooled engines are equipped
in order to prevent dripping into structures. with a winterization kit that contains a preheater.
The respective generator’s technical manual for
For wood frame construction, all material design
preheating and cold weather starting operating
requirements for structures without a snow load
instructions is a good reference.
should be increased to the next standard material
size. For example, a building with 2-inch by 4-inch Special care must be taken when emplacing and
studs without a snow load should be designed with using field wiring harness kits. Typically, in
2-inch by 6-inch studs for use in an environment extreme weather conditions, a lower American
with a snow load. If material of a greater size is not wire gauge is needed. If temperatures drop to
available, on-center spacing for both studs and below -32 °F, a 12-gauge American wire will not
trusses can be decreased to accommodate the be able to withstand the weather. Wires will
increased weight due to snow load. become brittle and need to be covered with ther-
mal protectors. At the same time, if wire is bur-
Utilities ied, it needs to be below the permafrost layer,
which can be up to 3 feet (1 meter) in some areas,
Electrical and water equipment have associated or the gauge needs to be low enough to be able to
winter kits. It is imperative that these winter kits withstand the extreme temperatures.
are deployed with the gear in order to enable the
gear to work under extremely cold conditions. Generator sets are rated based on sea level alti-
Further considerations must be given to the alti- tude. The rating of the set may decrease as the
tude change for output of equipment. Also, when altitude increases. Information about operating
emplacing utility equipment, the operator must equipment at high altitudes is usually printed on
ensure that the equipment is on as level terrain as the data plate. The kilowatt rating may be
possible (not to exceed a 15 percent gradient) and reduced at high altitudes, depending on the type
the equipment is placed on any insulating mate- of engine used to drive the generator. Refer to the
rial to keep it from freezing to the ground. appropriate technical manual for information for
each model of generator set. As a general rule, a
Tactical Electrical generator will lose 3.5 percent of its power for
every 300 meters (1,000 feet) over 1,219 meters
Generator sets can start and operate at tempera- (4,000 feet) that it ascends.
tures as low as -25 °F without a winterization kit.
With a winterization kit, generators can operate at Cold weather maintenance must be done on all
temperatures as low as -50 °F and can be stored electrical systems. In all generators, the antifreeze
in temperatures no colder than -60 °F. It is solution must be able to protect the equipment at
recommended that winterization kits be installed the lowest temperature expected. Also, the batter-
prior to deployment. Generators must be allowed ies will need to be fully charged to prevent freez-
to rise to normal operating temperature before ing. In some cases, ice fog, which is caused by
applying a load to reduce the possibility of engine engine exhaust in very cold climates (-25 °F and
damage. When the ambient temperature is lower below), may occur. To eliminate ice fog, a tube
than -25 °F, most engines require preheating should be placed on the exhaust pipes and cov-
before they are started. The engine type deter- ered with a tarpaulin to diffuse the exhaust in the
mines the method used. The two basic types of snow. Lastly, prior to operating the equipment,
cooling systems used on power-generating ice, snow, moisture, and other foreign material
equipment are air cooled and liquid cooled. A should be removed from the generator set.
5-10 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-35.1
other regions; however, there are considerations are increased when operating on uneven snow-
that must be made when planning engineer equip- packs, operators must be cautious of varying
ment operations. snowpack and snow stability.
operation support organizations and other higher Corps-unique items) came from the Army. Units
level joint commands. They are needed when re- operating in the mountains may be required to
supplying along ring routes to ensure supplies rely on other Service, coalition, and/or host-
being distributed to units operating in the moun- nation support for extended periods. Support
tains are properly prioritized. between adjacent units from different Services or
country origin is frequently necessary during
Logistic Cross-Training mountain operations. Logistics service providers
should be prepared to affect cross-Servicing
During mountain operations when units often agreements to procure sustainment from adja-
operate outside of the range of immediate exter- cent units from different Services in order to mit-
nal support, personnel will likely need to be igate periods of unreliable sustainment. The
cross-trained in many functional areas, including MAGTF must have a plan to coordinate multiple
logistics. The institution of combat lifesaver contingency contracting actions.
training for nonmedical personnel is one exam-
ple of successful implementation of this concept. Sustainment Challenges
Potential areas for logistical skills cross-training
include CASEVAC, utilities, maintenance, food Logistic planners must accept that time and dis-
service, and air delivery recovery. For example, tance will be at least doubled by the environ-
in an environment where IED attacks are preva- ment. In some areas, terrain is so restrictive that
lent, vehicle recovery crews may need to be able only air or foot movement is possible. Three kilo-
to conduct firefighting, CASEVAC, search and meters (2 miles) on the map may actually require
recovery of human remains, and sanitization of nearly 10 kilometers (6 miles) of foot movement
blast sites and equipment. More information on due to the switchbacks of trails, high elevation,
mortuary affairs is available in FM 4-20.64, Mor- and weather. Taking shortcuts and unnecessary
tuary Affairs Operations. risks typically delays movement and compro-
mises the safety of logistic efforts.
Interoperability
When operating in remote mountainous areas,
Joint operations in mountainous terrain require units must be prepared for extended periods with-
interoperability among the Services. For exam- out resupply. They may need to maintain two to
p l e, wh e n 1st Bat t a l i on, 3d M ar i nes was three times the anticipated requirement for sup-
deployed in the mountains of Afghanistan, all plies or adopt innovative methods to overcome
logistical support for the battalion (except Marine shortfalls. In mountain operations, units should
plan for 10 to 20 percent loss of supplies for the the local nationals. If not part of the planning pro-
following reasons: cess, waste management could rapidly become a
serious problem. More information can be found
Damage often occurs during air delivery. in MCIP 4-11.01, Waste Management fo r
Host-nation trucks can easily get damaged while Deployed Forces; MCWP 4-11.1, Health Service
traversing rough roads over long distances. Support Operations; MCRP 4-11.8A, Marine
Pack animals carrying supplies over treacher- Corps Field Feeding Program; and ATTP 4-02,
ous mountain trails can easily be lost. Army Health System.
Due to less open space to store supplies, enemy
indirect fire often has a greater effect than it Supplies and Equipment Accountability
would if supplies were properly dispersed.
In mountain operations, supplies and equipment
Packaged supplies can easily break open or get
accountability can be extremely difficult because
A combination of patrolling and air reconnais- Conversely, the extended daylight during summer
sance is the best means for providing route secu- requires important operational adjustments.
rity. Observation posts on dominant terrain along
supply routes are also essential for early warning Winterization
of enemy infiltration into rear areas. Checkpoints
between bases should be established to increase Equipment and facilities may need to be winter-
route security and enable trucks to deliver sup- ized in mountain operations. For example, heated
plies without interference from the enemy. Pa- buildings, shelters, or tents with wood flooring
trols must be continuously alert for ambush and are required for maintenance in cold weather.
they must be skilled at locating and identifying Winterization can be a significant operation that
mines; moreover, immediate action drills must be requires extensive advance planning in preparing
emphasized in training. Route clearance must be facilities and equipment. Material and equipment
conducted at irregular intervals to verify the sta- need to be ordered well in advance of the winteri-
tus of roads and prevent enemy infiltration. For zation date. Contracts may need to be negotiated
example, the route clearing process in OEF was, with host-nation providers for facilities, genera-
tors, and other winterization-related items and
first, for a route clearance request to be submit-
services. Delays in delivery of long lead-time
ted, and then for the combat logistic patrol to
items, such as lumber, may require extending
attempt to travel the route shortly after the route
winterization target dates. Competing construc-
was cleared. Experience showed, however, that
tion projects may stress engineer and logistical
the route clearance package may not occur on a
assets. These challenges highlight an important
certain date and at a certain time. Finally, move-
point: staff responsibilities must be synchronized
ment of supplies at night may reduce vulnerabil-
so that winterization is viewed as a force-wide
ity to enemy attack, but night marches present
mission, not just a task for engineers.
other hazards due to the difficult terrain and re-
quire daylight reconnaissance, careful route
preparations, and guides.
Supply
Aviation Support
Logistics and sustainment require the consider-
Wide variations in climate and frequent and sud- ation of several types of supplies. Chief among
den changes of weather will preclude continuous those are personal nourishment, protection, and
aviation support, especially during the winter equipment items.
when mountain passes are regularly impassable
due to low ceilings and poor visibility. Rapid Food and Water (Class I)
weather changes often do not allow for aircraft to
reach casualties; therefore, alternative modes of Mountain operations, particularly in extremely
evacuation must be planned in this environment. cold weather, increase Class I item consumption
and energy requirements by as much as 50 per-
The reduced hours of daylight consistent with cent. The average person’s caloric need may
mountain arctic or subarctic winter operations may increase to 6,000 or more calories per day;
dictate a greater need for artificial lighting, or a despite the greater caloric requirement, high alti-
greater reliance on night vision devices, as the tac- tude reduces the appetite. If a reduced appetite is
tical situation permits. The provision of the addi- allowed to result in decreased consumption, the
tional lighting must be planned for in the logistic effect can reduce morale and fighting capabilities
concept of operations. For example, sufficient and make personnel more susceptible to moun-
lighting equipment must be available to furnish tain-related illnesses. For example, some person-
adequate illumination for maintenance services. nel conducting dismounted operations during
_________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 6-5
OEF lost 20 to 40 pounds during deployment and fluid beverage bases to increase consumption of
at least one was evacuated due to malnutrition water and easy-to-eat snacks. The FSR ration is
and severe (60 pound) weight loss. Refer to meant to be used for three days or fewer at a time
appendix A for risks related to dehydration. due to the limited menu and limited caloric
content. To meet increased calorie needs while
The standard meal, ready to eat (MRE) contains operating at high altitude, the FSR will need
insufficient calories and nutrition for mountain supplemental items, such as fruit, vegetables, and
operations; whereas, the meal, cold weather milk, or the addition of one MRE to increase
ration is more suitable for the environment, if suf- calories and menu variety. When compared with
ficient water is available. If possible, fresh fruit three MREs, the one day FSR subsistence weighs
and vegetables should be provided as well. The 50 percent less and takes up half the space. The
meal, cold weather ration contains 1,540-calorie FSR is similar in weight to three meals, cold
menu bags. At high altitudes with extreme cold, weather but does not require rehydration.
an individual will need to consume three menu
bags per day. Each case contains 12 meal bags, Units that employ pack animals must account for
weighs approximately 15 pounds, and measures their feed as well. For planning purposes, pack
approximately 1.02 cubic feet. animals require two percent of body weight in
dry weight of feed per day, although individual
The MRE ration may also be used for high alti- animals will vary in their need. As the tempera-
tude and cold climates; however, the MREs ture drops below freezing, animals will require an
include components that contain liquid that can additional 1 percent of feed for each degree of
freeze during extreme cold weather operations if temperature change.
these items are not kept warm, such as by carry-
ing them inside the clothing. Each MRE contains Water requirements—its production, resupply,
1,250 calories. At high altitudes, an individual storage, and consumption—are often the most
would need to consume more than the standard significant logistical challenge to extended moun-
three MREs per day to meet energy demands. tain operations. Leaders should enforce an in-
Each case contains 12 meals, weighs approxi- crease in water consumption for two days prior to
mately 22 pounds, and measures 1.02 cubic feet. an operation. When operating at altitude, it may
be difficult to manpack enough water to sustain a
The First Strike Ration (FSR) may be a better unit for more than a day. Marines equipped with
option for use in high altitudes where tempera- lightweight water purification equipment and
tures typically remain above freezing. The FSR squad stoves will be able to easily deal with the
has already been used by units operating at high issues of procuring water. Dismounted patrols
altitude up to about 2,438 to 3,048 meters (8,000 should plan for daily resupply of water, if possi-
to 10,000 feet) without issue. The FSR does not ble. In low mountains, leaders should plan on
contain an individual heater and some items may each individual consuming 4 quarts of water per
not be palatable if frozen. The FSR includes day when stationary and up to 8 quarts per day
liquid-containing components that can freeze when moving. In high mountains, planners should
during extreme cold weather operations if not increase these planning factors by about 2 quarts
kept warm, such as by carrying them inside the per individual.
clothing. The FSR contains 2,850 calories in one
ration. It is meant to be used in mobile and In high mountains, where subfreezing tempera-
combat-intensive scenarios where eating on the tures persist year round, water may be extremely
move or out of hand is required. At high altitudes, difficult to find unless Marines are equipped with
eating small, frequent meals and consuming more a stove to melt snow or ice. Logistic planners and
fluids is advised. The FSR ration contains more operators should explore multiple methods of
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
6-6 MCWP 3-35.1
water delivery to ensure water needs are being accumulate close to the body. Fleece caps and
met. If available, units must rely on natural jackets offer warmth without weight/bulk. Cold
sources of water to reduce the logistic burden. It weather boots must also be issued in a mountain/
is important to remember that sterilization is cold weather environment. While personnel are in
always necessary no matter how clean mountain static positions, they should either wear overboots
water may appear (see chap. 5). Individuals must for warmth or stand on insulating material.
take regionally appropriate prophylaxis medica- Insulating material can be a pine bough or a flat
tions as an additional precaution against food and piece of wood. If personnel use improper or worn
waterborne illnesses. If clean snow is available, it clothing for even a short time, the chance of
can be melted for drinking and heated or steril- developing cold-related injuries increases sig-
ized using small squad stoves and cook sets. nificantly. Clothing should be fire retardant, if
Clean snow is defined as snow that is undisturbed possible, although fire retardant clothing may not
and fresh snowfall that is uncontaminated by ani- be available due to the transition from nonfire
mal waste or debris. As each gallon of water retardant clothing. Due to the rugged nature of
weighs approximately 8 pounds, carrying a small the terrain, there will be an increased need to
water filter or pump or stove and cook set for replace lost or damaged individual clothing and
extended operation can be a weight saver, despite equipment. Boots, which should be replaced
the added weight of fuel for the stove. Each every three months; jackets; and gloves in parti-
Marine will require approximately 6 ounces of cular will wear out quickly. In operational plan-
stove fuel per day to boil water and prepare food. ning, sufficient clothing overages should be
considered and clothing stocks should be built up
Measures, such as placing canteens or other per-
sonal water storage containers inside clothing prior to deployment.
where they can be warmed by body heat, should In cold weather, special equipment requirements
be taken to protect water containers from freezing include snowshoes, boot crampons, avalanche
in cold weather. Plastic water cans may break if cord, ski wax, candles, axes, shovels, matches,
filled at extreme temperatures; hence, when in 100 percent ultraviolet protection glacier glasses,
use, cans should be kept partially full and turned sunscreen, special fuel containers, tire chains, and
upside down. winterization kits. A more comprehensive list can
be found in MCRP 3-35.1A or ATTP 3-21.50.
Beyond individual consumption requirements,
water will also be required for personal hygiene, Prefabricated, synthetic dome tents are useful in
vehicle maintenance, medical care, and pack cold, mountainous environments. Tents must be
animals; however, priorities must be set for easy to carry and assemble at high elevations and
water consumption and conservation in all areas easily retrievable from deep layers of snow. Tents
will be at a premium. For example, in the moun- must also be able to withstand the weight of snow
tains, it may be necessary to avoid cleaning the and be equipped with winterization kits, such as
exterior of vehicles, except for windows and the roll out flooring and insulation. At a minimum,
undercarriage. More information can be found leaders should plan for sufficient tentage to sup-
in FM 10-52. port command and control, health services support,
maintenance, supply, food service, and hygiene.
Clothing, Individual
Equipment, and Tents (Class II) In cold weather, tent heaters and stoves in billet-
ing and storage areas are recommended. Heated
In cold weather, preferred clothing consists of tents will be required for storage of some classes
loose-fitting layers and insulated, polypropylene of supply items. Refrigerator boxes may be
clothing that does not allow perspiration to turned off and used to keep supplies warm. Some
_________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 6-7
units may prefer to use multifuel backpacker additives to prevent freezing and gelling. In arctic
stoves; however, at high elevations, multifuel conditions, fuel spilled on flesh can cause instant
cook stoves will operate at a lower efficiency. frostbite if the proper gloves are not worn.
In cold weather, all batteries provide less power, Multiviscosity oil (15W-40) is recommended for
so a greater quantity of batteries or more fre- most vehicles in cold weather. Use of 15W-40 will
quent charging of batteries is required. Cold preclude a need for frequent oil changes in an
weather batteries are recommended, if available. environment with a great variance in temperature.
Dry batteries must be stored at temperatures Vehicles should be changed to multiviscosity oil
above 10 °F and must be warmed gradually, before embarkation. In sustained extreme cold
either with body or vehicle heat, before use. In conditions, 10W oil will be required.
subzero weather, additional battery chargers must
be on hand to meet heavy requirements for bat- Cold weather mountain operations may require
tery maintenance. Battery stocks should be arctic engine oil, a synthetic SW-20 lubricant
used for temperatures down to -65 °F. Arctic
replenished often, paying particular attention to
engine oil is approved for engines, power steering
items with unique proprietary batteries. Also, per-
systems, hydraulic systems, and both manual and
sonnel must avoid relying on Service-specific
automatic transmissions. For all weapon sys-
items that require batteries not carried by the the-
tems, lubricant, arctic weather should be used
ater-level sustainment organization. In warm
below -10 °F.
weather where solar energy conditions permit,
leaders should plan for employing renewable When units are widely-dispersed, FOBs may be
energy harvesting systems, such as portable solar able to store only a limited quantity of fuel, which
panel-based technologies, as an alternative to car- can limit operations when circumstances prevent
rying excessive batteries. Regardless of weather timely resupply. Increased quantities of light-
conditions, commanders must implement an weight, portable fuel storage containers may be
effective battery disposal plan for unserviceable needed. Up to twice the normal number of fuel
battery items. cans may be required if transporting fuel to vehi-
cles, rather than bringing vehicles to the refueling
Petroleum, Oils, and Lubricants (Class III) point. Adequate quantities of 5-gallon cans, noz-
zles, and 1-quart fuel bottles must be available.
In steep-sloped mountains, vehicle fuel consump- When vehicles; generators; and petroleum, oils,
tion may increase by 30 to 40 percent. As vehi- and lubricants containers are brought into warm
cles ascend, the amount of oxygen available is storage from the cold, fuel tanks/containers
reduced and the engine efficiency drops. On aver- should be filled at least three-quarters full to pre-
age, vehicles lose 20 to 25 percent of their rated vent condensation. Some classes of supply will
carrying capacity; however, overall fuel con- require heated tents for storage during certain
sumption for the unit may decrease because of times of year or above certain altitudes. Autho-
lower vehicle movement. Heavy reliance on avia- rized fuel planners should plan for proper trans-
tion assets for resupply and movement increases port, distribution, and storage of such fuels as
aviation fuel requirements. Units that operate in JP8, packaged white gas, or K1 and gauge fuel
cold weather need to plan for multiple fuel use distribution according to anticipated demand and
and storage. Fuel points must supply units with environmental conditions.
refined or white gasoline that is specifically pro-
duced for pressurized stoves. Special fuels may Other Supplies
be needed if using host-nation equipment. Indi-
viduals may need to carry special fuel for per- Other supplies required for logistics and sustain-
sonal or squad stoves. Some fuels may need ment include ammunition, major end items, and
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
6-8 MCWP 3-35.1
medical supplies. Spare parts and supplies for freeze-dried material instead of liquids can be used
nonmilitary programs should also be considered when building the list of authorized medical
(see chap. 5). stocks to minimize freezing, storing, and handling
problems. Refrigerated and heated storage areas,
Ammunition (Class V) such as warming tents, vehicles, and containers,
are required for storing liquid medications and
Planners should expect increased consumption of
packed red blood cells or fresh whole blood that
indirect fire ammunition because of dead space,
has been collected and processed on an emergency
deep snow, and other effects of mountainous ter-
basis in theater (see FM 4-02.1, Army Medical
rain. Preparing ammunition dumps is more diffi-
Logistics, and MCWP 4-11.1). Perishable materi-
cult due to freezing and mud. Special storage for
als must be packaged and marked for special han-
ammunition is not required, but it should be
dling. Procedures must be established and
stored in its original containers. Ammunition will
followed for special handling requirements for
normally be transported by air from intermediate
Class VIII material from embarkation to its final
support bases to forward deployed units.
destination. There will also be an increased
requirement for lip balm, cough syrup, and decon-
Personal Demand Items (Class VI) gestants. More information is presented in this
The availability of personal demand items (e.g., chapter under Medical Support Considerations.
sundry packages, personal health, comfort, and
post exchange items) is closely tied to troop morale Repair Parts (Class IX)
in mountainous operating environments. Care must
Due to the increased stress on vehicle parts and
be taken to avoid stocking Class VI items that have
adverse effects of cold weather, a unit may need
the potential to freeze in cold weather or deterio-
to increase its Class IX block by up to 300 per-
rate in excessively hot weather. For a more detailed
cent. Repair parts blocks for motor transport and
discussion on Class VI, see MCWP 4-11.8, Ser-
engineering equipment should be increased, espe-
vices In An Expeditionary Environment.
cially for parts that are susceptible to cold tem-
peratures. Examples of these parts include
Major End Items (Class VII) starters, generators, alternators, and glow plugs.
Resupply of battle damaged major end items is a There will be an increased reliance on secondary
significant challenge in mountain operations. repairable, component repairs, and selective com-
Movement of deadline equipment may clog nar- ponent exchanges. Like other items, obtaining
row supply routes. There will be an increased parts for specialized equipment can take pro-
demand for power generators, heaters, and rough longed periods in mountain operations.
terrain loaders with a snow removal capability.
Forward-based units desiring to stay lean may not Material to Support Nonmilitary Programs (Class X)
be able to stock many spare end items. When
In mountain operations, the same protective mea-
equipment is destroyed or damaged beyond sures and commodities necessary to protect
repair, the only course of action may be to wait friendly forces are also needed for enemy prison-
for redistribution. ers of war, indigenous inhabitants, and refugees.
Commanders should be sure to expedite detained
Medical Supplies (Class VIII personnel quickly to the rear closer to such secu-
Including Medical Repair Parts) rity areas as those sponsored by the host nation, a
High consumption rates for medical supplies nongovernmental organization, or the Joint Force
should be anticipated. Solid medications and Command. Considerable effort and expenditure
_________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 6-9
should be run for at least 10 minutes or until Personnel must be trained to recover vehicles
normal operating temperature is reached with themselves in mountainous terrain because a
the air cocks open to prevent them from freez- wrecker may be unable to reach the recovery site.
ing. The valves should be closed once the vehi- Training for mountain operations should include
cle is shut down, but never all at the same time. vehicle recovery missions that use real world sce-
A rotating system must be established when a narios, such as simulated IED-/mine-damaged
vehicle is used to start another before it is shut vehicles with different levels of catastrophic
down. Vehicles have to be operated continu- destruction, and allow for the evaluation of
ously when weather is at or below -25 °F. Per- appropriate recovery assets selected as well as for
sonnel must not be allowed to sleep under or in the actual recovery mission to take place.
vehicles and must remain vigilant for vehicle
deficiencies that might expose personnel to car-
bon monoxide poisoning. Vehicle Maintenance
Vehicle Rollover
In mountain operations, vehicle maintenance is
A primary cause of death and serious injury in inherently difficult because units are almost
mountain operations is vehicular rollover acci- invariably forced to drive heavily-laden vehicles
dents. Rollover drills must be rehearsed using over uneven terrain. Road networks in the moun-
egress trainers, if available, and equipment must tains are unforgiving on motorized equipment.
be tied down in vehicles. Rocks, ever-present dust, shifts from desert heat
to arctic cold, and dramatic gradient changes can
Vehicle Recovery take a significant toll on military motorized
equipment. Overall, maintenance failures may far
Mountainous terrain is hard on vehicles and when exceed losses due to combat.
a vehicle breaks down, recovery is also difficult.
Recovery capabilities will be adversely affected Maintenance Personnel
by heavy snow, extensive muskeg (bog-like)
areas, unpredictable weather, and a limited road Additional mechanics will likely be needed to
network. When these conditions occur, recovery support dispersed operations in the mountains.
alternatives include attempting to fix the vehicle At least one mechanic should be at every FOB,
with a contact team, towing it to a vehicle collec- with two or three mechanics preferred. The abi-
tion point, extracting it by heavy lift aviation lity to drop an engine at a distant FOB is an
asset, or destroying it in place. More information immeasurable combat multiplier. By teaching
can be found in MCRP 4-11.4A, Recovery and operators the next level of maintenance (super-
Battle Damage Assessment and Repair. vised by a company mechanic), units can free up
Recovery and on site repair by forward contact the mechanics for larger, more complicated jobs.
teams is preferred, if possible. In recovery opera- Although enemy ambushes on main and/or
tions, lightweight tow bars are useful, but may alternate supply routes can inflict high numbers
become a liability if used improperly. A mini- of casualties, mechanics should be assigned to
mum of two tow bars should be carried in every combat logistics patrols and convoys with
combat patrol. Vehicles with winches are essen- maintenance and/or recovery assets. General
tial. Unit vehicles can generally accomplish tow- support maintenance sections need to be rein-
ing; however, wreckers or tank retrievers, if forced with extra mechanics. In the mountains,
available, are more appropriate, since chains and companies should have access to individual
cables can easily break loose and allow the dis- operator-/crew- and field-level maintenance
abled vehicle to slide. capability. Battalions should have individual
________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 6-11
operator-/crew-, field-, and sustainment-level the risk to operators and crew due to rollover. This
maintenance capability. Further clarification on threat is multiplied in mountainous terrain.
the levels of maintenance can be found in
MCWP 4-11.4, Maintenance Operations. Proper maintenance on springs and shocks is crit-
ical to combat the high rate of front-end failure.
Preventive Maintenance and Repair Torque wrench tightening of all bolts on the sus-
pension is needed regularly. Because transmis-
Preventive maintenance is crucial in mountain- sions will break down due to the combination of
ous terrain and cold weather: vehicle operators added weight and dramatic gradient changes,
must be well-trained in maintenance and driving training on transmission troubleshooting should
techniques and suitable cleaning solvents and be provided to all maintenance teams.
lubricants need to be available and appropriate to
the weather and terrain. Units may have to adjust Cold weather has a significant effect on vehicle
the preventive maintenance checks and services maintenance operations as well. For more infor-
process to focus on items that are most suscepti- mation, see MCWP 4-11.9, Ammunition Logis-
bl e to b reaking in t he m ountai ns, such as tics, and FM 9-207, Operations and Maintenance
HMMWV half-shaft bolts, alternator brackets, of Ordnance Materiel in Cold Weather.
and fluid levels. For vehicles operating in rough
terrain, the maintenance service interval may
need to be reduced. For example, during OEF, the Distribution and Transportation
maintenance interval for up-armored HMMWVs
operating in the mountains was reduced from Conventional distribution methods are chal-
6,000 miles to 3,000 miles. lenged in the mountains, so redundant methods of
distribution must always be planned. Distribu-
Field Maintenance
tion will consist of a combination of methods:
In mountain operations, leaders need to balance airdrops, assault support, tactical vehicles, pack
operating tempo with sufficient time for proper mules, and porters. Since ground transportation is
maintenance. The ability to maintain vehicles preferred for distributing food, water, fuel, and
directly correlates to a unit’s ability to conduct construction material, units should be task-orga-
operations. Commanders should consider alter- nized with additional motorized assets, specifi-
nating between motorized operations and heli- cally trucks. Such organization reserves more
borne and/or foot-mobile operations to allow rotary- and fixed-wing assets for higher-value
vehicle maintenance teams time to make repairs. supplies, such as ammunition, major end items,
They should also set aside at least one day for and medical supplies.
maintenance each week. Heavy field maintenance
In mountain operations, the biggest distribution
is not always possible at forward-deployed loca-
challenge is in transporting supplies across those
tions, some items will need to be evacuated back
last few miles to the FOB. Whereas supplies can
to larger, more capable logistics hubs.
be transported hundreds of miles to an ISB within
The increased weight of sandbags, bolt-on armor, hours or days, it may take as much or longer to
and other counter-IED protective measures on move supplies much shorter distances from an
vehicles will stress the shocks, springs, and struts, ISB to the FOB. At higher altitudes, pack animals
leading to a dramatic increase in damaged pitman are the preferred means of transport. At altitudes
arms, tie-rods, and half-shafts. Commanders must where even pack animals cannot go, porters or
make appropriate risk management decisions, military personnel must. While prepackaged
since counter-IED safety measures also increase loads are preferred at higher echelons, loads may
6-12 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-35.1
need to be broken up and distributed among difficult, so having more of them available permits
Marines and animals at the lowest echelons. rotation of vehicles in use for maintenance.
Loads are often pilfered. the mountains, a pack animal training course is
Local trucks may not be properly maintained recommended. See FM 3-05.213, Special Forces
and may require frequent towing. Use of Pack Animals, and MCRP 3-35.1C for
more information.
Movement coordinators for the MAGTF/logis-
tics combat element working with host-nation Porters
trucks need to verify that these vehicles are main- Units operating in the mountains may need to
tained, loaded, fueled, and manned properly. A hire local porters who have developed endurance
good relationship with the host-nation truck pro- and are accustomed to breathing thin air to trans-
vider is essential to optimizing transportation port equipment and supplies by foot. Porters will
capacity. Additionally, service providers should usually be employed to move supplies to a certain
leverage other Service line haul capacity (consis- point prior to handing them over for unit move-
tent with United States Code, Title 10, Armed ment to the furthermost dangerous forward posi-
Forces) to meet sustainment gaps for transporta- tions. The disadvantages of hiring local porters is
tion support. that they may be reluctant to work too far away
from their homes and villages. For force protec-
Pack Animals tion/security planning purposes, commanders
Pack animals, such as mules and donkeys, are an should provide escort to porters in order to pro-
essential distribution method in mountainous ter- tect them from enemy fire, indirect fire, and
rain. For load planning purposes, mules can carry CBRN weapons effects. When calculating the
200 pounds depending on the terrain and altitude. number of porters required for a particular opera-
Donkeys, on the other hand, can only carry about tion, the following factors must be considered:
65 pounds. As a general rule, pack animals carry Distance of movement.
up to 25 percent of their body weight. While Terrain, including height above sea level.
mules can travel 20 miles per day under moderate Type of porter available.
conditions, they may make only 8 to 10 miles per Availability of water.
day in severely rugged terrain. Crude or impro- Size, shape, and weight of the loads.
vised pack equipment, unconditioned animals, and
Location of an area suitable for offloading
the general lack of knowledge in the elementary
supplies.
principles of animal management and pack trans-
Escort.
portation tend to make the use of pack transporta-
tion difficult, costly, and potentially problematic
to mission accomplishment. These animals require Military Personnel (Manpacking)
care, attention, and training; planners must Any combination of resupply usually includes
account for the weight and bulk of food and water manpacking supplies to forward positions. Per-
required daily and the handlers required. sonnel are often required to carry awkward loads,
including cans of kerosene, rations, and building
Animals are conspicuous, vulnerable, and can be materials for bunkers. Commanders must develop
noisy. Caring for animals takes time to learn as priorities, accept risk, and require the combat force
does preparing and tying on loads. Ad hoc ani- to carry only the bare essentials needed for its own
mal transport units may be formed using locally support. Any excess equipment and supplies will
obtained animals, with or without local han- reduce the efficiency of their personnel. Non-
dlers, and any personnel who have experience essential equipment should be identified, collected,
with animals. For units planning to operate in and stored until it is needed. In situations when
6-14 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-35.1
th ere are con fli cts bet ween t he wei ght of Inclement weather is a significant threat to aerial
ammunition and weapons, experience has shown resupply. The operating environment must be
that it is better to carry more ammunition and permissive from the point of origin to the point of
fewer weapons. delivery to accomplish the mission. Fog, cloud
cover, sudden storms, icing, and unpredictable air
Training must emphasize foot marching over dif- currents can quickly shut down air support.
ficult terrain with heavy loads. In cold weather, Higher elevations also decrease overall aircraft
movement should be conducted at a slow pace, lift capabilities. For example, in the Marine
depending upon the fitness level of the individ- Corps, a general rule used by most commanders
ual, to avoid sweating and cold weather injuries. and planners is that most helicopters cannot haul
loads above 3,048 meters (10,000 feet). Tempera-
River Distribution ture and density altitude can restrict an aircrew’s
ability to carry loads and high mountain weather
Troops analyze terrain to determine if resupply by
conditions frequently shut down flying for days.
river is possible. Boats, ferries, and rafts may be
Air distribution may be cancelled due to the
employed up, down, or across rivers. While it may
inability to observe the ground or to navigate
seem counterintuitive, it is possible to raft against
through the mountains. Mountain terrain may
the current and move into mountains—an option
also interfere with air-to-ground and air-to-air
explored in Russian doctrine. If the river type
communication. Aviation assets may choose to
allows, this method will mitigate the limitations of
follow the terrain features of the mountains, add-
aviation assets in a mountainous environment and
ing predictability to their approaches and increas-
may release them for other missions. For example,
ing the risk to the crew.
during the Soviet-Afghan war, it would take an
MI-8 MTV transport helicopter 340 to 580 flights, As a general rule, Army rotary-wing assets can
depending on altitude, range, and temperature, to carry heavier loads and travel to higher ele-
transport the same amount of material as a 58-raft vations than their Marine Corps counterparts.
Russian model boat company. The aircrew determines loading and altitude
restrictions. Mountainous terrain can sometimes
Air Distribution interfere with communication, but satellite com-
munications (SATCOM) and friendly force
In mountain operations, aviation assets should be tracking have increasingly added to the capacity
maximized to deliver supplies directly to units. for aircrews and ground forces to communicate.
Aerial resupply may consist of parachute drop, Aircrews choose the routes best suited for their
free drop, or assault support asset (such as the missions and may opt for high altitude operations
MV-22 Osprey helicopter) delivery. During OEF, in areas of relatively low antiaircraft artillery
units operating in the mountains relied heavily on and/or manportable air defense system threat.
aerial resupply. During Operation Mountain Lion
in Afghanistan, almost all resupply was con- Air distribution in the mountains requires de-
ducted by helicopters and CDS drops for 5 weeks. tailed planning, effective liaison, and a habitual
relationship between the aviation crew and the support teams trained in the recovery of air-
ground unit. Suitable drop zones in the mountains dropped supplies and in using sling loads. When
will be difficult to find and, if close to the enemy, using CDS, planners should expect significant load
will likely be covered by mortar and small-arms attrition (the Marine Corps considers that one-third
fire. Aviation assets must be able to safely hover loss is a good planning factor) even with seasoned
over the drop zone while supplies are distributed. crews. Sleds are useful in recovering CDS in the
Support personnel should be well-trained in high mountains. Material handling equipment may
sling-load operations and supplies must be pack- be required at the drop zones and/or LZs. In all
aged to be immediately manportable. cases, aircrews will advise supported ground units
to determine limitations.
Ring Routes
Air transportation using a ring route might be the Low-Cost Low-Altitude Delivery System
only way to move among various outlying bases The low-cost low-altitude delivery system can be
in an area of operations. During combat opera- used in mountain operations and has been a very
tions, one ring route of regular scheduled rotary- successful asset when high risks prevent ground
wing assets may depart from a large, centrally- resupply options. These systems have the follow-
located airfield, which may be the primary means ing characteristics:
to deliver Class V items, personnel, and mail,
especially to FOBs. Prioritization of supplies They might be restricted to day use.
using ring routes must be done with caution to The typical load is 500 pounds or less when
prevent backlogs. Due to weather, ring route using one parachute, but up to three para-
flights may often change, sometimes being chutes can be used for heavier loads.
delayed by a week or more. Distribution planners There is no rigger requirement.
must submit air mission requests to ensure air- Each parachute system costs less than $100 and
craft are scheduled. Ring routes are determined is a throwaway item.
by schedule and sequence.
Speedball Technique
Container Distribution System Drops Speedballs are a field expedient technique using
In mountain operations, air distribution by CDS is duffle bags or similarly-sized containers with
frequently used, but is a challenging and man- resupply items and releasing them out the door of
power-intensive operation. Use of CDS involves hovering aircraft. Items could include cold weather
detailed drop zone coordination. It requires landing clothing, rations, or ammunition.
staged ascent, troops ascend to a moderate alti- sleep low is a rule of thumb (e.g., sleep 1,000 feet
tude (2,438 to 3,962 meters [8,000 to 13,000 feet]) lower than the working elevation.) Once they have
and remain there for 4 days or more to acclimate ascended to 2,438 meters (8,000 feet), troops
before ascending higher. When possible, troops should gain no more than 300 meters (984 feet)
should make several stops during the ascent to of sleeping altitude each day. This process sig-
allow for increased acclimatization. A graded nificantly reduces high-altitude illnesses. A com-
ascent limits the daily altitude gain to allow par- bination of staged ascent and graded ascent is the
tial acclimatization. The altitude at which troops safest and most effective method to prevent high-
sleep is critical to acclimatization—work high, altitude illnesses.
CHAPTER 7
AVIATION
This chapter covers the functions of military avia- ground troops. The objective is to have aviation
tion in support of mountain operations. The basic forces available to the dispersed units for plan-
functions of Marine aviation do not change when ning and execution on short notice so they can
operating in complex and compartmentalized ter- quickly react to intelligence and support ongoing
rain, high altitude, and cold/all weather condi- ground operations. Dispersed operations impart
tions. However, there are unique considerations increased risks for the ACE commanders as it is
and limitations associated with some of these more difficult to provide supply/resupply, a full
functions when operating in these conditions, all echeloned maintenance capability, fuel, forward
of which are found in mountainous environments. deployed ordnance, command and control, and
Many of the limitations to these functions can be security when aviation units are not centrally
minimized or mitigated through understanding located with these support functions. For the
the planning and training considerations for the ground commander, this environment imposes
aviation combat element (ACE). difficulties in surface transportation, which cre-
ates an increased demand for aviation support.
In general, aviation operations will require addi- The delicate balance among such factors requires
tional time, planning, equipment, and personnel in careful planning and a solid understanding of avi-
order to operate successfully in this environment. ation capabilities among the Services.
The ACE must strive to affect the mission in all
weather conditions and all environments. Moun- The paragraphs in this chapter discuss some of the
tain weather conditions that can limit or ground most important planning considerations for each of
some aviation assets are clouds, fog, heavy rain, the six functions of aviation plus ground and logis-
and whiteout. Icing presents a problem to aircraft tic support. Understanding these considerations
that do not have anti-icing equipment. Aircraft and applying them in combat will help the com-
with those capabilities are capable of safe instru- mander and his/her staff achieve mission success.
ment flight into clouds or visible moisture when
the temperature is below freezing; however, their
ability to influence and support the ground scheme Antiair Warfare
of maneuver may be limited. The weather and
environment can also greatly affect ground main- Planning Considerations
tenance. The climate history of the operational
area should be studied to determine the probable Severely compartmentalized terrain presents a
frequency and duration of weather conditions that number of unique challenges to ground-based air
will limit or preclude flight operations and the defense assets. Primary among these challenges
support ground units can expect from them. are communications, mobility, logistics, cueing,
and tactical employment.
Aviation units should be deployed to best sup-
port the troops on the ground. Unlike many other
environments, mountainous environments require Communications
the MAGTF commander, ground task force com- Mountainous terrain severely precludes the use of
mander, or joint task force commander to use dis- very high frequency (VHF) radio assets except in
persed operations to effectively support their short-range, LOS situations. The nature of low
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
7-2 MCWP 3-35.1
altitude air defense (LAAD) or short-range air ground-based radar assets. The terrain will limit
defense unit employment is such that the tactical what ground-based radars can see and can limit
dispersion of surface-to-air missile teams, sec- communications with the identification/engage-
tions, platoons, and batteries will render VHF ment authority, extending the amount of time to
communications unreliable. Solutions that can be gain approval authority to prosecute a threat (kill
fielded within the battalion include SATCOM chain). Air defense planners should attempt to
assets and high frequency (HF) radio assets. In decentralize identification and engagement
addition to organic communications assets, authority to the lowest level possible given rules
LAAD or short-range air defense planners should of engagement and mission constraints. Planners
explore the possibility of nonorganic communica- should coordinate with airborne early warning
tions support, such as the use of an airborne com- platforms to maximize the amount of cueing that
munications relay, if such assets are operating teams can receive.
within the area of operations.
Unique Capabilities and Limitations of
Mobility Marine Corps Low Altitude Air Defense
Given that typical air defense operations are The current air defense weapon within the Marine
motorized, mountainous terrain will limit the Corps LAAD battalion is the Stinger missile, a
mobility of the teams. Foot-mobile, LAAD teams shoulder-fired, fire and forget missile. Although
can carry a limited number of missiles and batter- early warning and cueing from ground-based or
ies and a limited amount of communications airborne radars can help the gunner locate a poten-
equipment, food, and water. It is difficult for a tial threat quickly, the Stinger does not depend on
dismounted LAAD unit to execute sustained cueing to fire, which makes it a very effective and
operations. Options for the LAAD planner to highly mobile weapon platform. One disadvan-
consider include inserting helicopter/tilt-rotor tage the LAAD team faces in the mountains is the
teams if the assets are available or dispersing dis- enemy’s ability to mask its terrain, which chal-
mounted teams from a rally point or points that lenges the gunner’s ability to see and engage the
are accessible by vehicle. The most constricting target. Additionally, down-angle shots against air-
terrain may require the use of pack mules. craft that have background clutter may reduce the
probability of a successful engagement.
Logistics
When tactically employing a LAAD unit in
Mobility constraints affect not only the air defense mountainous terrain, general support missions are
teams, but also their logistic support. Planners preferred over direct support missions. Direct
anticipate that the ability for vehicles to support support missions, such as air defense of a maneu-
resupply efforts will be limited so they should vering infantry unit, will likely lead to teams
explore the use of helicopters, airdrops, and pack
employed in locations with limited fields of fire
mules to sustain the force. Creative resupply
and reduce the time available for gunners to
options, using gas station or tailgate logistics or a
engage enemy aircraft. However, some missions,
combination of the two, based on METT-T and
such as air assault missions, are effective direct
space and logistics should be considered.
support missions in the mountains because they
are generally isolated and provide mobility to the
Cueing and Tactical Deployment teams being inserted. General support missions,
Compartmentalized terrain impacts air defense on the other hand, allow the LAAD unit to maxi-
unit employment and the ability to receive mize the advantages of the terrain and minimize
el ectron ic earl y war ning and cueing from the disadvantages. Planners should seek to
_________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 7-3
employ the units based on terrain and likely type or mission, can provide valuable intelligence
enemy avenues of approach. High vantage points and conduct air reconnaissance as a secondary or
with excellent visibility and fields of fire abound concurrent mission. Reconnaissance is most
in the mountains; hence, teams can be placed to successful only if ground and aviation units com-
provide overlapping, mutually supporting fire municate and exchange information. Prior
over likely enemy avenues of approach within the coordination and participation in mission plan-
unit’s area of operations. Planners should keep in ning can alert pilots to look for critical intelli-
mind that employing in this manner may require gence information that is helpful to the maneuver
teams to locate in remote, austere locations, forces. It is also important that ground personnel
increasing the need for security to protect them or LNOs participate in mission debriefs whenever
from ground attack and their logistical footprint. possible to extract critical information about the
enemy terrain or weather and to insure this
Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses information is passed to the units who need it.
and Air-to-Air Planning Considerations
Aircraft specifically designed for the reconnais-
Aircraft performance may be degraded when sance mission may be available to ground forces,
attacking surface-to-air threats in high altitude providing real-time information to the ground
environments, since height above target may force commander. Thermal imaging, forward-
affect fuzing and ordnance delivery. Geometry of looking infrared, and day-time television record-
ing provide commanders and Marines with an
attack and weather are also considerations in this
accurate depiction of what aircrews are seeing
environment. Detecting air-to-air threats, ground-
and how it may affect their operations. The most
controlled intercepts, and overall radar coverage
widely used air reconnaissance platforms in
will be affected by mountainous terrain because mountain operations are rotary-wing aviation
of the numerous radar blind zones caused by the and UASs.
mountains. A good IPB can map these blind
zones and limit these effects. Attack Reconnaissance Helicopter Operations
Training Considerations The use of rotary-wing aircraft to conduct recon-
naissance operations enables the ground forces to
When preparing to operate in mountainous envi- have additional maneuver and effect. Rotary-
ronments, air defense units need to focus their wing assets can be either planned, in the case of
training efforts specifically on the area of opera- an air mission request, or unplanned, such as an
tions. Every effort should be made to conduct established quick reaction force. These plat-
mountain warfare training, to include survival, forms can also provide mobile and stationary
first aid, rope skills, climbing, mountain commu- security coverage for ground forces during oper-
nications, and mule packing. Depending on the ations as a screening force, providing ground
area of operations, cold weather mountain train- forces with reaction time and maneuver space on
ing, to include cross-country and alpine skiing, the battlefield.
may also be appropriate.
Given the compartmentalized nature of moun-
tainous terrain, the ACE may choose to divide
attack reconnaissance aircraft and lift and cargo
Air Reconnaissance helicopters into smaller maneuver elements that
are part of an aviation task force to provide the
While some aircraft have air reconnaissance as ground force commander with a wide range of
their primary mission, all aircraft, regardless of aviation support options.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
7-4 MCWP 3-35.1
Unmanned Aircraft Systems Altitude, air density, and temperature; for exam-
ple, the RQ-7B Shadow cannot be commanded
The addition of UASs to the piloted capabilities above 4,572 meters (15,000 feet) or operate in
increases the reconnaissance capability of forces temperatures below -4 °F or above 122 °F.
in the mountains. These aircraft are generally Aircraft icing at the operating flight altitude,
assigned the following tasks in all environments: icing is often more prominent at higher moun-
tain elevations.
Conduct air reconnaissance.
Communication restraints are caused by moun-
Analyze and synthesize information.
tainous terrain and LOS constraints between the
shortens the sensor to shooter loop. As with any angles, confining terrain, variable mountain
system, UAS proficiency requires units to train in winds, and limited avenues of ingress/egress,
similar environments to that in which they will use of externally-delivered or air-dropped sup-
operate. plies may be required instead of internally deliv-
ered cargo offloaded in the LZ. Helicopter/tilt-
rotor external delivery requires the support of
Assault Support helicopter support teams (HSTs), which are
needed to hook up external loads for transport.
Mountain operations will result in a decrease of Due to the dispersed nature of mountain opera-
tions, additional personnel should be trained in
troop capacity, combat radius, endurance, and
these skills so they can be available to the
payload. These same limitations apply to all
receiving units as well. Planners should con-
rotary-wing and assault support aircraft in the
sider operating aircraft and HSTs out of multi-
joint inventory.
ple dispersed locations and using forward
arming and refueling points (FARPs) to miti-
Air Delivery
gate the effects of weather and terrain on the
Mountainous terrain imposes unique require- availability of support provided.
ments on usable LZ terrain to deliver supplies in Higher elevations and higher temperatures nega-
support of ground forces. Due to higher slope tively affect the lift capability of assault support
Handoff point
GCS (FWD)
*Spoke* Supported
unit COC
Launch/
recovery
site “Hub” GCS
GDT
COC
LEGEND
COC combat operations center
ELOS extended line of sight
FWD forward
GCS ground control station
GDT ground data terminal
km kilometer
NM nautical mile
aircraft. Due consideration should be given to the personnel, or other personnel, as determined by
location of the PZ and drop zone, the weight of the Secretary of Defense, who are isolated,
the load(s) to be inserted/extracted, and the time missing, detained, or captured in an operational
required to transit to/from the location. More environment. The effects of weather on isolated
assault support aircraft will be required to deliver personnel and their ability to endure the conditions
supplies in the mountains due to the higher alti- until recovery forces can locate, authenticate, and
tude’s effects on aircraft performance; moreover, recover them should be analyzed. Pilots and crews
if more assets are not available, then a larger must be trained to survive in harsh conditions and
number of sorties will be required to accomplish survival kits should be prepared accordingly. High
the same tasking. mountain winds and limited LZs may inhibit the
recovery forces’ ability to land close to the iso-
While external air deliveries place supplies and/
lated personnel and/or aircraft, further delaying the
or logistics in a precise drop location, air deliv-
ery by air-drop loads allows assault support assets recovery effort and limiting the TOS available for
to remain in flight during the drop, which, in supporting aircraft. Lastly, weather will affect the
most cases, allows a larger and/or heavier load to responsiveness of recovery aircraft and may
be delivered and decreases the vulnerability of impede the recovery force from reaching isolated
the aircraft to indirect fires during the delivery personnel should the supporting assets be opera-
process. Precise coordination between air deliv- ting from dispersed locations and/or conducting
ery aircraft and supported ground assets is operations spanning impassable mountainous
required to ensure that dropped loads fall in the terrain that has been closed by weather.
correct locations. Due to the variable nature of Terrain will almost certainly hamper communi-
mountain winds and the confining nature of ter- cation between the rescued individuals and the
rain, air delivery by air-dropping may spread forces trying to locate them because of LOS
dropped supplies over a larger area and is usually communication restrictions, so planners should
not the preferred method.
consider using over-the-horizon communica-
tions capabilities. Aerial relays, SATCOM, and
Combat Search and Rescue and
other techniques will have to be employed by
Tactical Recovery of Aircraft and Personnel
communications planners to locate and commu-
Both combat search and rescue and tactical ni cat e wit h aer ial and downed personn el .
recovery of aircraft and personnel missions Detailed information on the planning and execu-
require pre-established criteria for the launch of tion of tactical aircraft and personnel recovery
assets. These missions involve a coordinated can be found in FM 3-04.513, Aircraft Recov-
effort among several organizations, all of which ery Operations, and FM 3-50.1, Army Person-
are challenged by the mountainous terrain, dis- nel Recovery, respectively.
persed forces, and weather. Such challenges
include communications, isolated personnel Medical, Casualty, and Air Evacuations
detection, lift, and time on station (TOS) capabil-
As with any assault consideration, the effects of
ity of helicopters used to conduct the rescue and/
or recovery. mountainous terrain on the responsiveness and
capabilities of aviation assets supporting a medi-
Personnel recovery is defined as the sum of cal, casualty, or any air evacuation will be affected
military, diplomatic, and civil efforts to affect the by supportability of LZ terrain and the TOS and/or
recovery and return of US military, Department of lift capability of supporting assets. The need to
Defense (DOD) civilians, DOD contractor deliver patients to appropriate medical facilities as
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
7-8 MCWP 3-35.1
fast as possible (commonly referred to as the planning for and execution of air assaults is
golden hour) motivates rescuers to use the fastest found in MCWP 3-24, Assault Support.
aircraft available unless they must evacuate large
numbers of personnel. In offensive operations Airborne Command and Control
conducted over complex terrain, assault support
ability to transport injured personnel to the appro- Weather permitting, commanders should consider
priate level of care may be limited by weather, the use of organic and joint airborne command
which increases the risk and decreases the chance and control capabilities to mitigate the effects of
of survival for critically injured patients. To miti- limited LOS communications in mountainous ter-
gate these risks, planners may have to disperse air- rain. Rotary-wing platforms, such as the Marine
UH-1Y, give the commander the ability to use
craft and position them closer to the operating
LOS communications with aviation and ground
forces or establish medical care facilities farther
forces and to land directly in an LZ to build the
forward to cut down the travel time. If larger force
commander’s situational awareness or communi-
extraction is required, heavy lift assault support
cate directly with forces on the ground.
assets at higher altitude often offers the quickest
means to move forces to safety. Planners should A Marine Corps organic aviation platform capa-
consider using intermediate shuttle LZs to facili- ble of providing limited command and control
tate hasty extractions. capability is the MV-22. Although the communi-
cations capability and visibility inherent in the
Combat Assault Transport UH-1Y are more limited in the MV-22, this plat-
form does offer the commander the ability to
High altitude assault operations, to include aerial refuel in flight, extending the available TOS.
resupply, are restricted due to the combined Much like the MV-22, the Marine KC-130 can
effects of canalizing terrain and mountain provide the commander the ability for extended
weather. At higher elevations, zone size, slope, overhead operations and communications without
and suitability for large-scale assault support the need to land in the vicinity of the operating
landings must be tempered with the desire to forces. In addition, there are numerous other joint
rapi dly bui ld com bat power up in the LZ. airborne command and control capabilities that
Assault support aircraft planners require detailed can increase situational awareness and mitigate the
analysis of the LZ suitability, the forecasted effects of terrain. Commanders and their staffs
weather, the anticipated loads (passengers and should request the use of these assets through nor-
cargo), and the requirements for transit and loi- mal joint tactical airstrike request procedures to
ter in the objective area. Based on the impact of augment their own capabilities and mitigate the
the weather at higher elevations and the limits effects of weather and terrain in the mountains.
imposed by aircraft performance and aircrew,
dispersed operations will likely be required to Battlefield Illumination
facilitate timely support for the ground unit.
In order to maintain situational awareness for
Commanders must recognize that timely sup- Marines being transported, assault support assets
port depends on aircraft availability and the should plan for battlefield illumination in a
location of supporting assets. Cold weather, mountainous environment. While conducting low
mountainous terrain, and dispersed operations light operations, battlefield illumination will help
will hamper security, maintenance, and logistic to mitigate the effects of brownout and/or white-
support, which will adversely affect aircraft out landings. In low light environments, proper
availability in support of the ground scheme of planning of the objective area geometry, com-
maneuver. Further information regarding the bined with the coordination of assets to employ
_________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 7-9
battlefield illumination, will enhance the capabil- areas, escape/departure routes, dropoff, waveoff,
ity of assault support assets to accomplish the elevation, density altitude, and power available
mission more effectively. Though battlefield illu- versus power required. As assault support perfor-
mination does not turn low light into high light, mance decreases, the transition period becomes
planners should consider employing both overt more critical, approaches must be shallower, and
and covert illumination in a theater of operation. transitions must be gradual. As the height of
Battlefield illumination should be requested in obstacles increases, larger LZs are required to
advance and made available to conduct such facilitate appropriate approach angles and/or
operations; however, if all personnel have night speeds and aviation planners should be consulted
vision goggles, then battlefield illumination to ensure that the LZ meets their approach crite-
would be superfluous and counterproductive. ria. Additionally, planners must consider the
number of aircraft that are required to land in
Landing Zone Considerations order to support operations. Although prevailing
winds should be a key factor for landing direc-
Special considerations must be made when choos- tion, terrain produces local wind effects that
ing and/or evaluating an LZ for operations in could also be dangerous during landing or take-
mountainous terrain. The effects of high altitude off from the LZ. Further guidance on effective air
on assault support aircraft include decreased hover assault mission planning and LZ and/or PZ selec-
power, decreased forward airspeed limits, suscep- tion criteria can be found in ATTP 3-18.12, Air
tibility to blade stall, vortex ring state, and Assault Operations, and in FM 3-21.38, Path-
decreased maneuverability. Planners, working finder Operations.
with aviation leadership familiar with the area of
operations, should evaluate landing sites, consid- Snow-Covered Terrain
ering LZ size and suitability for the mission. Avia-
tion requirements for altitude, prevailing winds or Brownout and whiteout can cause spatial disori-
weather, and safe approach and departure paths entation. Winter operations in mountains bring
may further limit the selection of certain LZ and/ recurring snowfalls that are characterized by
or PZ sites, but aviators endeavor to meet the deep, dry, powder-like snow, particularly in very
needs of ground forces within those limitations. high elevations. Viable whiteout mitigation plans
Together, ground forces and aviators should select are mandatory in these conditions. The proce-
LZs that will be frequently used as part of routine dures for landing in snow-covered terrain are
air movements, such as FOBs and COPs. These similar to desert landing approaches and should
sites should be well marked and, if available, be briefed before execution. Aircrews should
lighted by either visible or infrared position lights. make situational calls to facilitate referenced
Portable systems can be acquired through military landings by pilots. Recommended waveoff cues
supply and can decrease the overall risk associ- should be briefed to ensure a safe, controlled
ated with confined or low light LZ operations, approach into a high altitude, snow-covered land-
especially when aircrews may be operating fre- ing. The aircrew should consider terrain beneath
quently under night vision systems. Landing zones the surface of the snow to ensure safe touchdown
that will be used only once for assault operations of landing aircraft. To assist with the landing site,
should be carefully chosen with input from the air- the landing points should be marked with an
crews that will be performing the air assault. object that contrasts with the snow to provide a
reference for depth perception. The aircrew must
Further considerations include the height and size also consider a slow release of power in settling
of obstacles, slope, suitability, topography, wind the landing aircraft to ensure stability of the land-
direction, demarcation line, turbulence, null ing gear on unknown, snow-covered terrain.
7-10 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-35.1
planning process. In decentralized combat opera- Delegation of authority is a key consideration for
tions in a mountainous environment, MACCS MACCS agencies during dispersed operations.
agencies may support individual companies or Once established, this command relationship
battalions, which will likely not be the senior must be proliferated and maintained throughout
GCE component. As the main effort shifts, units the MAGTF, so the Marine TACC acts as the
of the MACCS will need to be flexible in their only MACCS agency that exercises command.
support. Marine air traffic control mobile teams For example, an air support element that con-
may need to displace in order to provide air traf- ducts the same mission as the DASC may own
fic control services to austere sights as required its own airspace but still be subordinate to the
by the GCE. Another example could be direct air DASC; it could work directly for the TACC and
support center (DASC) or UAS liaisons pushed be adjacent to the DASC. The established rela-
down to a company or battalion level to ensure tionship must be agreed upon prior to the execu-
those units have the ability to request manned or tion of operations.
unmanned air support.
TAC(A)
DASC(A)
CAS
Assault Support
COMM
MMT
MMT
ASG
SPT
LEGEND
ASG air support group
COMM communication
DASC(A) direct air support center (airborne)
MMT Marine air traffic control mobile team
SPT spot team
TAC(A) tactical air coordinator (airborne)
Additional Equipment and Personnel TAOC, a task-organized early warning and con-
The requirement for additional SATCOM gear trol (EW/C) site, or an early warning site in
and dedicated nets must also be planned. Addi- mountainous terrain presents certain limitations.
tionally, HF communications are necessary to Radars are an LOS means for detecting and con-
trolling aircraft. Mountainous terrain greatly lim-
communicate with other MACCS agencies and
its LOS to ground-based radars, which limits the
GCE command and control nodes. Multichannel
ability of radar to identify, acquire, and track air-
communications may not be able to support data
craft; positively control them; or cue other air
connectivity due to LOS constraints; therefore,
defense resources to a threat. To mitigate limited
HF and SATCOM must be used to achieve data
ground-based radar coverage, planners may con-
functionality. Since all MACCS units could face sider augmenting it with an airborne radar plat-
additional personnel requirements in the event of form , such as t he E- 3 AWACS [Airbo rn e
dispersed operations, they may also need to task Warning and Control System] or E-2 Hawkeye,
small unit leaders as direct liaisons to GCE and using data links to share the air picture.
other ACE units, depending on the level of sup-
port required by the GCE. The qualifications of Further limitations exist with radio communica-
these personnel may vary greatly and could tion. Most aircraft controlled by a TAOC and/or
require additional training with the units they are EW/C site use ultrahigh frequency (UHF) radios,
supporting prior to deployment. Also, due to the which also have LOS limitations. Aircraft can be
additional SATCOM and HF single-channel controlled procedurally if SATCOM or radio
communications requirements, personnel that are relay is available. See MCWP 3-25, Control of
sent to austere sites must understand the opera- Aircraft and Missiles.
tion of these types of communications. Security Mountains provide challenges to logistic opera-
at these austere sites will also be a factor. tions and terrain presents issues with employing
and supporting TAOC and/or EW/C sites. These
Training Considerations sites have a large logistic resupply requirement
The MACCS units should continue to train to that must be vehicle transported though transpor-
their output standards regardless of the opera- tation can be severely limited on unimproved
tional environment; however, it is imperative that roads. All TAOC equipment, radars, and opera-
commanders provide their intent as well as tions modules require level ground, which is not
updated mission-essential tasks that may better typically found in compartmentalized terrain, so
suit operations in a mountainous environment. staffs must plan to have engineers available
The MACCS agencies should also include train- during set up.
ing on current beyond-LOS capabilities because In air-to-air operations, positive identification and
of the communication constraints in a mountain- control is required to successfully support the
ous environment. Wing communication squad- engagement of fighter aircraft against airborne
ron Marines would likely be required to set up threats. A TAOC or EW/C site employed in
relay sites within the compartmentalized terrain mountainous terrain would not likely be able to
to provide LOS communications. These Marines execute this mission set, so an airborne radar and
should train to this task at the appropriate venue. controlling agency would be required to take
these missions.
Tactical Air Operations Center Considerations
Overcoming mountainous terrain for the TAOC
The tactical air operations center (TAOC) pro- and/or EW/C site would require smaller, more
vides surveillance, traffic, and positive radar con- mobile, self-sustaining ground-based systems
trol services to the MAGTF. Employment of the that can employ multiple radars over the terrain
________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 7-13
to cover gaps. Data links currently available in it is necessary for electronic warfare planners to
these sites would be used to fuse the air picture study the terrain carefully to determine how it
by SATCOM. impacts the effects of enemy radar coverage,
communication capability, and friendly electronic
Joint/Coalition Theater warfare assets. This study begins with the intelli-
Command and Control Architecture gence section’s IPB, which should be updated as
new information becomes available from ground
Joint and coalition command and control archi- reports and other sources.
tecture will center on the theater air-ground sys-
tem. Each Service and coalition member has its Time On Station
own unique contribution to this system—the
MAGTF has the MACCS. The roles and respon- Aircraft TOS is a significant consideration when
sibilities of each Service and its respective agen- planning electronic warfare fires, which include
cies will vary; however, the senior agency is antiradiation missiles and radar and/or communi-
typically the air operations center. The air opera- cations jamming, in any environment. In general,
tions center may be joint or coalition, depending airborne electronic attack assets will be tasked by
on the type of operational environment. More the combined forces air component commander
information on joint/coalition command and con- as a theater asset, which may impact the MAGTF
trol architecture is available in JP 3-30, Com- commander’s priority for this asset. The Prowler
mand and Control for Joint Air Operations. The is a combined forces air component commander
joint theater command and control architecture asset, so it may not be collocated with the
will not significantly change for operations in MAGTF, which may affect planning or TOS con-
mountainous environments. siderations. Airborne electronic attack should be
delivered at a critical time against a critical
enemy electronic system, such as fire control nets
Electronic Warfare during an enemy attack, air defense systems
during friendly offensive air operations, and com-
The mission of the Marine tactical electronic war- mand and control communications for the con-
fare squadrons (VMAQs) (EA-6B) and other Ser- trol of the movement or commitment of reserves.
vices’ electronic warfare units is to provide While these factors apply in any environment, the
electronic warfare support to designated forces. dispersed nature of mountain operations compli-
Aviation electronic warfare units conduct tactical cates them. Air officers need to be familiar with
jamming to prevent, delay, or disrupt the enemy’s electronic warfare capabilities and work with
ability to use early warning, acquisition, fire or other staff members to ensure communication
missile control, counterbattery, and battlefield links or liaisons provide redundant ways to coor-
surveillance systems. Tactical jamming also dinate the proper use of these assets.
denies/degrades enemy communications capabili-
ties. A more detailed discussion of their capabili- Electronic Attack
ties and employment considerations can be found
in MCWP 3-40.5, Electronic Warfare. Though electronic attack operations should be
preplanned, they may be conducted in response to
Weather and Terrain the immediate tactical situation. These unplanned
operations are especially difficult because of the
The EA-6B Prowler is a subsonic, all-weather, centralized control of the asset and the communi-
carrier-capable aircraft. Weather/terrain affect cations challenges associated with mountain op-
EA-6B operations by limiting its takeoff and erations. Commanders should not count on elec-
landing options. In mountainous terrain, however, tronic attack support in the mountains unless they
7-14 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-35.1
are the main effort and they have put a great deal support to the MAGTF. The system correlates the
of planning effort into ensuring that changes at EA-6B mission data with other sources of elec-
the tactical level will not affect other operations. tronic intelligence, electronic warfare support, and
If commanders choose to use electromagnetic EOB and/or threat characteristics information to
jamming, they must carefully weigh the opera- provide support to the MAGTF during operations
tional requirement against the rules of engage- afloat and at FOBs. The resulting product is a
ment, the effects on friendly systems, and the loss comprehensive EOB, which provides intelligence
of enemy information otherwise gained by and situational awareness information critical to
SIGINT and/or electronic warfare support. Deg- the mission planning of Marine, joint, and coali-
radation of some friendly communications may tion operations. The challenge that the mountains
have to be accepted in order to effectively pose to this system is how to push information to
employ jamming. Mountain operations can work the many dispersed FOBs that may need it. The
to an advantage in that mountains can help elec- TCAC must aggressively push this information to
tronic warfare units target one area while shield- all elements of the MAGTF and it is the responsi-
ing friendly forces on the other side of the bility of the subordinate elements to ensure they
mountain from the effects of the electronic war- plan for redundant means to disseminate this
fare attack. A good IPB that incorporates the information down to the tactical units that need it.
enemy electronic order of battle (EOB) is critical This situation also applies to joint assets.
to success. More information about amplitude
modulation control authority and propagation Electronic Protect
effects of airborne electronic attack can be found
in MCWP 3-40.5. Electronic protect is the subdivision of electronic
warfare and involves actions taken to protect per-
Electronic Warfare Support sonnel, facilities, and equipment from any effects
of friendly or enemy use of the electromagnetic
Intelligence feeds electronic warfare support by
spectrum that degrade, neutralize, or destroy
making accurate EOB and/or threat characteris-
friendly combat capability. Examples include
tics information available in order to accurately
program electronic warfare support equipment. spectrum management, electromagnetic harden-
Alternatively, electronic warfare support feeds ing, emission control, and use of wartime reserve
intelligence through electronic warfare support modes. There are no special considerations for
systems that collect information. That informa- mountain operations; however, units should use
tion can then be rapidly disseminated as a threat mountains to shield them from the enemy’s elec-
warning or be passed to intelligence production tronic warfare capability and should consider the
and analysis elements for further processing. EOB and battlefield geometry when establishing
Electronic warfare support provides immediate communication sites and command posts when-
threat recognition and a source of information for ever possible.
immediate decisions involving electronic attack.
To best meet immediate tactical requirements, Training Considerations
electronic warfare support information used in
immediate threat recognition is rapidly dissemi- Mountainous terrain has limited impact to elec-
nated without in-depth processing. tronic warfare operations. As such, commanders
should focus training toward the mission skills
Organic to all VMAQs is the technical control and that support the Marine Corps tasks for VMAQ.
analysis center (TCAC). The mission of the Electronic warfare operations and training should
TCAC is to provide semiautomated SIGINT pro- be tailored to the expected threat in the area of
cessing, analysis, reporting, and electronic warfare interest, whether traditional or nontraditional,
________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 7-15
rather than the expected terrain. Commanders and selection. While higher elevations may bene-
must consider the effects of terrain as well as the fit fixed-wing aircraft fuel burn and TOS, they
other elements of METT-T in developing their negatively affect rotary-wing operations. The thin-
training plans. ner air at higher elevations affects rotary-wing
power management and can limit the ability to
hover in certain conditions, necessitating rolling
Offensive Air Support takeoffs or landings on large, improved surfaces
and shallower than normal approach and depar-
ture paths.
Planning Considerations
While TTP for most offensive air support plat- Forward Operating Base and Forward
forms will remain the same, some platforms, Arming and Refueling Point Locations
especially rotary-wing aircraft, will experience The FARPs locations in higher altitudes may
the following limitations in mountainous envi- affect how much fuel or ordnance an aircraft can
ronments, especially high mountains, due to alti- reload. An aircraft that arms and fuels at lower
tude restrictions: elevations will provide a different capability than
All Marine Corps rotary-wing aircraft are an aircraft arming and fueling at a higher eleva-
restricted to less than 3,048 meters (10,000 feet) tion. Planners must be aware that loading up with
pressure altitude due to lack of supplemental the same amount of ordnance and fuel may not be
oxygen systems and pressurized cabins. possible, which is a significant planning factor
According to Army Regulation 95-1, Flight when developing supportability timelines as it
Regulations, Army rotary-wing aircraft that are will affect TOS for all CAS and rotary-wing air-
unpressurized may operate to: craft. These issues should also be considered
3,048 meters (10,000 feet) for up to 1 hour,
when planning FOB and/or FARP locations.
after which oxygen is needed. Prior coordination with the ACE enable ground
3,650 meters (12,000 feet) for up to 30 min-
forces to extract information about FARP capa-
utes, after which oxygen is needed. bilities and limitations prior to FARP emplace-
4,267 meters (14,000 feet) and above, oxy-
ment at various FOBs and the required support
gen must be used. package needed. Further information on FARP
planning and FARP operations is found in
The LOS challenges associated with communica- MCWP 3-21.1, Aviation Ground Support. Avia-
tions in a mountainous environment apply to the tion III and/or V platoons can be limited on
terminal control of attack aircraft as well. An equipment and personnel and can often exceed
understanding of communications paths is essen- their operating capacity if too many FARPs are
tial in order to provide timely, effective fires in emplaced with too few personnel staffing them.
rugged mountains. Consideration of the usage of Ground forces may have to assist FARP opera-
other radio relay and digital CAS platforms can tions to maintain continuous and close aviation
greatly enhance communication between the support for certain periods of time.
JTAC and/or FAC and attacking aircraft.
Ordnance Selection
Ordnance Versus Fuel
Target type, composition, location, risk estimate
The more ordnance an aircraft carries, the less fuel distance, and collateral damage estimate will drive
can be carried, decreasing TOS. The TOS required ordnance selection. Terrain will also impact ord-
by the commander may affect weapons load out nance fuzing and/or explosive effects. Planners
7-16 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-35.1
must understand how to employ certain aerial restrict the marking platform, the terminal control-
weapons in mountainous and snow-covered ter- ler, and/or attacking aircraft’s sight to the target.
rain and the capabilities and limitations of attack The enemy has a significant advantage in the
aircraft. The terrain and the mission requirements mountains, because they are in a position to use
will directly influence the munitions selected and terrain to effectively counterattack CAS aircraft.
the fuzing used. When employing laser-guided
weapons, lower than typical cloud layers and Weather
heavy mountain fog can have a negative effect on
the ability to laser designate a specific target. Weather conditions in the mountains will have
Depending on whether the target is located in a the same effect on aviation assets as they do in
cave, on the side of a mountain, or in the middle flat terrain. Overreliance on aviation assets may
of a valley, the effects of laser energy should be render a force susceptible to the uncertainties of
planned. Risk estimate distances may be reduced weather. Winds, cloud deck, visibility, and tem-
by the effects of surrounding terrain, allowing the perature must be considered because they can
use of larger munitions in close proximity of affect the type of supporting CAS aircraft and
friendly forces—a significant advantage in com- ordnance employed. Conditions will also affect
partmentalized terrain. the accuracy of certain weapon systems as well
as the delivery profile of the attacking aircraft.
Reduced Power Available Knowing capabilities of CAS aircraft will help to
successfully prosecute targets despite a deterio-
During operations at high altitude, rotary-wing rating weather condition. Differences in the way
aircraft can experience significantly different
CAS aircraft are affected must be understood by
flight characteristics than at sea level. The most
planners: fixed-wing aircraft may be unable to
significant among the differences is a limitation
see the target or use specific weapons due to
of power available due to the general aerodynam-
ics of rotor systems. Whether these limitations quickly materializing cloud layers, while rotary-
are felt in less lift, reduced tail rotor authority, the wing aircraft may not have the ability to climb
inability to recover quickly from a dive, or the high enough to safely avoid mountainous terrain
reduced ordnance and fuel combinations avail- due to altitude limitations and lack of supple-
able to planners, the challenges are significant mental oxygen.
and must be accurately and continually planned.
Planners must update supported units on what Deep Air Support
they can expect during different times of year and
in different environmental conditions of heat, Deep air support is not considerably affected by
humidity, and altitude. this environment. However, limitations created by
weather patterns and winds must be considered.
Geometry of Fires
Training Considerations
The GCE scheme of maneuver, enemy position,
environment, and terrain are all factors when Training requirements are outlined in aircrafts’
determining attack geometry; however, special training and readiness manuals and should be
attention must be paid to CAS in mountainous ter- relied upon for the accomplishment of full spec-
rain, which becomes more significant when inte- trum missions, to include offensive air support.
grating fires in a combined arms scenario. Reverse Continual training and skill refinement is neces-
slope, terrain features, type of weapon, aircraft sary to overcome the difficulties associated with
type, and attack profiles are all factors for consid- aviation operations in a mountainous and high
eration while employing fires. The terrain may altitude environment. This environment requires
________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 7-17
achieving and maintaining a high degree of air- could generate enough static electricity to ignite
crew proficiency. fuel vapors. The storage of ordnance is also a
concern. Terrain should be used when possible
to satisfy the safe storage of explosives and
Aviation Ground Support quantity distance separation requirements. An
aviator must certify the FARP using a FARP
Planning Considerations checklist (see FM 3-04.104) prior to the FARP
being available for refuel and rearm.
An effective aviation ground support deployment
capability enables the ACE to establish and main- Forward Operating Base Locations
tain a viable expeditionary force. The Marine
Airfield size, approach and departure paths, and
wing support squadron must be capable of de-
security for the forward aviation sites are the
ploying under a variety of conditions and config-
urations. Considerations for fixed-wing aircraft same for normal operations. If an airfield that can
should be made when operating in a mountainous be used by the ACE does not already exist, there
environment. Normal runway lengths of 2,438 to are various options available to the ACE to build
3,048 meters (8,000 to 10,000 feet) can be re- one. Unimproved surfaces will be engineered to
duced with the addition of arresting gear and the allow for safe continuous flight operations. Vary-
reduction of fuel and ordnance loads. ing types of expeditionary airfield systems pro-
vide fully portable options that range from
Forward Arming and Refueling Points individual AM-2 landing pads to a full 8,000-foot
runway with taxiways and parking areas. These
The FARP provides the fuel and ordnance neces- systems can include tactical air traffic services
sary for highly mobile and flexible helicopter, packages that provide both airfield control and
tilt-rotor, and fixed-wing operations. The size of radar guidance as needed. For Marine Corps
the FARP varies with the mission and the number units, assets and equipment required to build an
of aircraft to be serviced. Normally, FARPs are airfield can require support from all MAGTF ele-
temporary, transitory facilities established for a ments if needs exceed the capabilities of a Marine
specific mission and duration. The scope of flight wing support squadron. When deployed, these
operations in the FARP area should include indi- services allow for a safe, all-weather launch and
vidual aircraft or aircraft sections or divisions recovery capability.
requiring ordnance and refueling. The location
and size of the LZ remain the same for mountain-
ous and/or cold environments; however, weather Aviation Logistic Support in
considerations impact FARP operations. Deep a Mountainous Environment
snow could cause an aircraft landing gear to sink,
greatly reducing the rotor ground clearance and
increasing the hazards to personnel operating in Planning Considerations
and around the FARP.
As with all air operations, planning for mountain
There are several hazards to consider during air- warfare should be no different with regard to its
craft arming and refueling operations in a moun- aviation logistical support process. Aviation
tai no us env i ronm ent wit h snow. A maj or logistic success is based on having a centralized
concern is eliminating sources of ignitions and location for the distribution and/or repair of
controlling vapor generation. One of the primary components for its supported dispersed units.
sources of ignition is static electricity. Deep These concepts are set forth in MCWP 3-21.2,
snow retards the grounding of aircraft, which Aviation Logistics. More maintenance support
7-18 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-35.1
Availability of intermediate and higher levels Cold weather and snow has significant effects on
of maintenance and equipment. all types of supplies. Personnel operating in
these conditions must undergo special training to
Intermediate-level technicians (National De-
work effectively.
fense Industries).
Inspections cycles.
Effects on Supply Operations
exposed skin, such as the face and hands. Activi- Effects on Rubber and Plastics from Extreme Cold
ties that normally require only minutes in temper- Rubber and plastic gradually stiffen, but retain a
ate weather may require hours in extreme cold. large part of their elasticity until reaching extreme
Movement by foot or vehicle over snowy and icy cold temperatures, normally below -20 °F, at
surfaces is slower and poses a high risk of injury which rubber loses its elasticity and becomes brit-
to personnel and damage to equipment. Subfreez- tle. For example, fuel hoses may crack when
ing temperatures result in freezing water in water allowed to crystallize from cold weather exposure
tanks, waterlines, and equipment exposed to snow or may break if bent when frozen. Aircraft tires
and water penetration. Because water expands become rigid in cold weather, causing flat spots on
when frozen and metals and plastics become brit- parts that come in contact with the ground. In
tle in subzero temperatures, standing water in severe cold temperatures, sidewalls become brittle
equipment may freeze and damage components in and crack. Every effort should be made to mini-
areas with close tolerances and no room to mize the length of time that material constructed
expand. Additionally, metals contract at lower primarily from rubber and plastic is exposed to
temperatures and expand at higher temperatures. extreme cold temperatures.
Consideration must be given to guard components
and equipment against improper clearances that Training Considerations
can lead to binding or excessive looseness when
Maintenance and logistical personnel must train
exposed to subfreezing temperatures.
for this environment and plan for additional
Commanders and logisticians must make every requirements before deploying to mountainous
effort to winterize vehicles and equipment with regions. The most effective training program
cold weather lubricants and antifreeze liquids. includes hands on and real time environmental
Equipment should be kept free of snow and water and survival training for the individual Marine
to prevent the effects of freezing water by keep- followed by supporting actual aircraft in the envi-
ing equipment running or placing impermeable ronment to which they will deploy. Marines must
understand all the factors affecting the aircraft,
covers on it when in storage or not in use. Mate-
tools, equipment, vehicles, support gear, and
rial handling and storage personnel should be
themselves in order to keep airplanes flying. The
provided with suitable head gear and gloves to
MALS Marines will likely be responsible for
minimize the effects of severe cold weather.
their own force protection and security when
operating in remote regions while supporting avi-
Effects on Metals from Extreme Cold ation operations. Training for this mission should
Metals become brittle and subject to failure in include fire team and squad tactics and an under-
severe cold temperatures. Storage, handling, and standing of quick reaction forces and supporting
use of equipment that contains dissimilar metals fires from higher headquarters. Communications
that are bolted together or are in constant friction equipment, weapons, and ammunition tailored to
are most at risk for failure during transportation, the operating area will be required.
handling, or when placed into operation follow- To be truly effective in mountain warfare, the
ing long periods of exposure to subfreezing tem- MAGTF and BCT must understand the limitations
peratures. In cold weather, special care should be imposed by the effects of this environment on the
taken to protect equipment from excessive shock, fighting ground force and aviation elements. While
so mechanical components should be allowed to the terrain, altitude, and weather impact certain
slowly warm up before being started. operations, the basic tenets of military aviation
7-20 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-35.1
support the mission of the Marine regardless of the overall mission. Since successful planning will
location in which he/she is fighting. The inherent result in the mitigated effects of high altitude and
skills and knowledge of ACE operators ensures the extreme weather, ACE planners should be used
successful integration between ACE units in extensively to ensure that support for the Marine is
support of the MAGTF or BCT commander’s being sourced appropriately.
CHAPTER 8
FIRES
Combat operations in mountainous areas are
characterized by many of the same challenges Organization for Artillery
found in cold regions—rugged, compartmented
terrain with steep slopes and treacherous mobil- To mitigate some of the limitations in the moun-
ity; however, mountain weather may range from tains and in order to better support isolated
extreme cold with ice and snow in winter to maneuver units, the artillery battery can be bro-
extreme heat in some areas during the summer. ken down into smaller platoons than what is
Extreme terrain and weather can pose significant called for in the unit’s TOE. This organization
problems and are important planning consider- does allow support of maneuver units across vast
ations for both maneuver and fire support opera- distances, but it strains its personnel and equip-
tions. Since, in many cases, the terrain favors the ment. Despite these constraints, these smaller gun
defender who tries to control the heights, offen- platoons can operate independent of the battery,
while retaining the capability to mass fires as a
sive operations are usually battles for this key ter-
battery depending on the distance. Platoons can
rain or the chokepoints they control in the
also operate from FOBs or COPs in support of
valleys. Consequently, dismounted infantry and
missions, but ammunition could be limited due to
airmobile operations are most suitable for this logistic requirements.
type of terrain, especially if they are properly
supported by fires. For example, it is important to Although the use of smaller gun platoons may
position mortars and artillery in defilade to effectively support the commander in a dispersed
increase their survivability; yet, such terrain is environment, such dispersal complicates his/her
often subject to snowslides, rockslides, or ava- ability to mass fires, lead, and sustain each pla-
lanches, which can fall on their positions with toon. He/She must depend on officers and senior
devastating results. Intelligence estimates should and junior NCOs capable of operating inde-
identify defilade positions that pose the least pendently and sometimes performing duties
amount of risk of such hazards. above their TOE rank structure. The requirement
for specialized logistics, security, communica-
Of course, these same types of positions are tions, computers, and vehicles for each platoon
sought by enemy units and that is why observed position may require a significant increase in per-
indirect fires are so crucial to success in this envi- sonnel, exceeding a battery’s authorized TOE. As
ronment. Indirect fires can impede the enemy’s a result, proper allocation of resources based on
mobility or destroy positions, giving maneuver predeployment mission planning is essential.
elements time to close with and destroy the
The structure of the artillery battalions will dic-
enemy. While the basic tactical principles for
tate how they can be divided into two-gun pla-
artillery remain valid in mountains, they are sub-
toons. For example, heavy BCTs and infantry
ject to the limitations imposed by the terrain and BCTs have a fires battalion with two, eight-gun
weather addressed in this chapter. Unless other- batteries, while Stryker BCTs have three, six-gun
wise noted, the principles outlined in this chapter batteries. Currently, artillery TOEs do not support
apply to mortars as well as artillery. two-gun platoons from the standpoint of fire
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
8-2 MCWP 3-35.1
direction center (FDC) communications equip- limited to traveling on the existing road and trail
ment, computers, or personnel. To meet this chal- networks and positioning in their immediate
lenge, units may have to either cross-train vicinity. Air movement of towed field artillery is
personnel and request additional equipment or possible with fixed- or rotary-wing aircraft; there-
operate with reduced personnel at all FDCs and fore, gun crews should be proficient using
divert communications and computers from other equipment-rigging techniques and air assault
sections. Such a plan detracts from mission procedures and should possess ample sling-load
accomplishment by the sections from which the equipment. Field artillery emplaced by helicopter
equipment and/or personnel are taken. normally requires continued airlift for subsequent
displacement and ammunition resupply and often
necessitates substantial engineer support.
Movement and Positioning
Air Movement
Reconnaissance, Selection,
and Occupation of a Position Towed field artillery may require forward dis-
placement of gun sections by helicopter to pro-
The reconnaissance (the examination of the terrain vide forward troops the necessary support.
to determine its suitability for use in accompli- Additionally, this provision requires Marine
shing the mission), selection, and occupation of a Corps HSTs to facilitate a battery’s firing capa-
position are critical to mission accomplishment. bility using air movement operations.
Rugged terrain and reduced mobility increase the
reliance on field artillery fire support; however, Position Selection
the employment and positioning of field artillery
systems may be severely impacted by the extreme Normally, field artillery is employed far enough
difficulty of ground mobility in mountainous ter- to the rear to take advantage of increased angles
rain. The battery leadership must analyze the of fall. Flat areas, such as dry riverbeds, villages
routes to be used by the unit assets and the time and/or towns, and farmland, can usually accom-
and distance required to make the move. The modate firing units; however, these positions
ability to move one firing platoon while keeping a present particular problems in the mountains for
second platoon fire capable is critical to platoon- the following reasons:
based operations in support of dispersed maneuver Dry riverbeds are hazardous because of the
units. Moving the battery over long, difficult danger of flash flooding.
routes requires well planned, coordinated move- Towns and villages usually have adequate flat
ment orders and unit standing operating proce- areas, such as parks, schoolyards, and playing
dures (see MCWP 3-16.3, Tactics, Techniques, fields, but they are relatively scarce and often
and Procedures for the Field Artillery Cannon easily targeted by the enemy.
Battery). Clearance of near and intervening crests
Farmland is often difficult to negotiate from
is always a factor in selecting firing positions.
find and their relative scarcity makes it easier for launcher firing point and are measured and input
the enemy to target probable locations. Com- to the launcher fire control system by individual
manders must ensure that positions on dominant section chiefs. Downrange masks are beyond
terrain provide adequate defilade. Positions on 1,981 meters (6,500 feet) and are measured and
commanding terrain are preferable to low ground input into the advanced field artillery tactical data
positions because there is— system’s fire direction system by the platoon
leader and/or battery operations officer in accor-
A reduced number of missions requiring high-
dance with unit operating procedures.
angle fires.
A reduced amount of dead space in the target Downrange masks are measured and applied
area. using crest clearance tables and automated
Less exposure to small arms fire from sur- downrange mask checks. Both M270A1- and
rounding heights. M142-equipped units in mountainous terrain
Less chance of being struck by rockslides or must be familiar with these tables, which allow
avalanches. leaders to establish minimum planning ranges
beyond a crest for launchers in a specific firing
Some weapons may be moved forward to pro- area. Proper use of these tables will ensure rock-
vide long-range interdiction fires or, in extreme ets will clear the crest and not detonate prema-
cases, direct fires to engage a road-bound enemy turely. It will also help to identify the dead space
in mountain passes or along valley floors. that must be covered by other indirect fire weap-
Because of rugged terrain, higher angles of fire, ons, such as mortars, or by aviation or direct fire
and reduced ranges, it is generally necessary to weapons placed behind the intervening slopes.
displace artillery more frequently in mountains
than on level terrain to provide continuous sup-
port. Additionally, even when maneuver units are
not dispersed, artillery commanders may often be
Acquisition and Observation
forced to employ field artillery in a decentralized
manner or disperse it in multiple locations in the Radar Considerations
same general area because of the limited space
for gun positions. Security must be provided for Because of high-angle fire requirements, radar can
each gun location. be effective against enemy indirect fire systems if
properly emplaced; however, terrain masking can
Multiple Launch Rocket System diminish the radar’s LOS and degrade its effec-
M270A1 and High Mobility Artillery tiveness if it is not properly emplaced. Sites should
Rocket System M142 Position Considerations be selected on prominent terrain to obtain the low-
est possible screening crest, but it is often difficult
While mountains can mask all types of firing to obtain a low and consistent screening crest in
units, they present special challenges and limita- mountainous terrain. Too low a screening crest
tions to rocket-fired munitions. Dead space is the drives the search beam into the ground; too high a
area that is masked behind a crest and cannot be screening crest allows the enemy to fire under the
attacked by rockets from particular firing posi- beam and avoid detection.
tions. Masks are terrain features that have enough
altitude to potentially interfere with the trajectory In mountainous terrain, selecting general posi-
of the rocket or missile. There are two categories tion areas to take full advantage of the radar
of masks—immediate and downrange. Immediate range and capabilities is difficult. Helicopter
masks are within 1,981 meters (6,500 feet) of a assists are often required to move radar teams to
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
8-4 MCWP 3-35.1
optimal locations. Very often the positions that Computing track volume may become a critical
provide the best LOS for acquisition provide the task in determining the radar’s effectiveness for
least concealment and survivability, so proper a proposed position (see MCRP 3-16.1A for
camouflage techniques are critical for survival. computations).
Additionally, the heavy rain and snow often Units will need to rely more on shelling reports
found in the mountains can degrade the capabili- to determine enemy firing locations, so prede-
ties of radar by decreasing the probability of ployment training must ensure all units meet
location (see MCRP 3-16.1A, Tactics, Tech- minimum standards for this skill.
niques, and Procedures for Field Artillery Tar-
get Acquisition, for additional information on Observer Considerations
radar positioning).
High-angle fire is used for firing into or out of
When positioning weapons-locating radars, com- deep defilade, such as that found in heavily
manders should also consider the following: wooded, mountainous, and urban areas. It is also
used to fire over high terrain features near friendly
Although time consuming to create, visibility troops. The observer may request high-angle fire
diagrams are extremely useful in determining based on terrain analysis in the target area. The
the probability of acquiring targets within the fire direction officer may also order high-angle
radar’s search sectors. fire on the basis of a terrain analysis from the fir-
To limit search areas, radars should focus on ing unit position to the target area. The primary
terrain that can be occupied by artillery and characteristic of high-angle fire is that an increase
mortars. in elevation causes a decrease in range.
Accurate survey control is essential because of
the extreme elevation variations in mountain- Because high-angle fire involves large quadrant
ous terrain. Helicopters may be useful in per- elevations and long times of flight, it will not be
as responsive as low-angle fire to the immediate
forming survey by use of the Position and
needs of a maneuver force. In addition, trajecto-
Azimuth Determining System. If possible, dig-
ries will also be more vulnerable to enemy detec-
ital radar maps may be used to minimize the
tion. The long time of flight and the steep terrain
time required for height correction of the make it difficult for the observer to identify his/
weapon system. Digital maps allow the Fire- her round. Corrections may change drastically
finder systems to initially locate weapon sys- from round to round because spotting rounds
tems to within 250 meters (820 feet), which often get lost in defilade positions. To help the
enables the radar operator to make only few observer, FDC personnel announce the time of
visual elevation adjustments to accurately flight in the message to observer and SPLASH 5
locate the weapon system. seconds before each round impacts (see MCWP
Prediction is computed at the radar’s elevation; 3-16.4, Tactics, Techniques and Procedures for
therefore, excessive errors in the prediction can the Field Artillery Manual Cannon Gunnery).
be expected.
Radars in the same area that face one another Note: SPLASH is a proword transmitted to
and radiate at the same time can cause interfer- the observer 5 seconds before the estimated
ence and emissions burnout, resulting in equip- impact of a volley or round of artillery, mor-
tar, or naval gun-fire.
ment failure. If radars must face one another to
accomplish the mission, commanders must To prevent fratricide, noncombatant casualties,
coordinate with each other to ensure that they and destruction of civilian property and infra-
do not radiate at the same time. structure, field artillery fires in mountains will be
Mountain Warfare Operations__________________________________________________________________________________ 8-5
observed, especially close support and defensive Low clouds or fog may require moving the obser-
fires. Unobserved fires are generally more unreli- vation post to preplanned emplacements at lower
able in mountains because of poor maps, rapidly elevations. Observers must be prepared to per-
changing MET conditions and elevation changes. form assault climbing to reach the most advanta-
A good FDC can overcome some of the chal- geous observation site. Commanders may use
lenges of weather and high-angle fires through aerial observers or UASs to detect long-range tar-
training and by capturing timely and accurate gets and complement forward observers by
MET data. adjusting fires beyond terrain masks, in deep
defilade, and on reverse slopes. Commanders
Elevated points, such as crests and trees, are often may also consider the use of long-range tele-
used for observation posts. Landmarks and prom- scopic cameras for use in observation; however,
inent terrain features should be avoided as these
in extremely high mountains, air observers may
are probably targeted. When selecting an obser-
be confined to valleys and lower altitudes due to
vation post, the observer must consider the char-
altitude limitations on different types of aircraft.
acteristics of forward slope (military crest) versus
Observing fires in mountains is difficult because
reverse slope positioning.
the area being observed is three dimensional rela-
Advantages of the forward slope position include— tive to other types of terrain. As such, the ob-
server may encounter increased difficulties in
The view of the front and flanks is better. determining accurate target location (to include
Fires impacting on the topographic crest will altitude). Additionally, subsequent corrections
not neutralize the position. may appear more exaggerated, particularly as
The hillside provides background, which aids angle T increases. In most cases, increased accu-
in concealment. racy comes with experience and training gained
from operating in mountains before deployments.
Disadvantages of the forward slope position are
as follows: Use of Laser Range Finders and Laser
Designators for Laser-Guided Munitions
Difficulty in occupying during daytime with-
out disclosing the position. Use of laser range finders and laser-guided weap-
Radio communications may be difficult and ons in the mountains also demands increased
require remoting radios to the reverse slope. emphasis on training and observation techniques.
Cover from direct fire may not be available. Laser target ranging and designation systems help
to overcome difficulties in range estimation by
providing accurate directional distance and verti-
The advantages of a reverse slope position are—
cal angle information for use in locating enemy
It may be occupied in daylight. targets; however, when using a laser designator,
Greater freedom of movement is possible. an observer should consider LOS with the target
Communications installation, maintenance, and cloud height. While laser-guided munitions
and concealment are easier. (artillery, mortar, or air delivered) self-correct in
Protection from direct fire is available. flight, the ability to correct the trajectory is based
upon the seeker head acquiring the target in suffi-
cient time to make the correction. Cloud ceilings
Disadvantages of the reverse slope position are—
that are too low will not allow laser-guided muni-
The field of view to the front is limited. tions enough time to lock on and maneuver to the
Enemy fire adjusted onto the topographic crest target. Global Positioning System (GPS)-aided
may neutralize the observation post. munitions can overcome this limitation as they do
not rely on reflected laser energy.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
8-6 MCWP 3-35.1
Meteorological Message
Survey and Meteorology Space and Time Validity
120-mm mortars on dismounted movements, it is mobility is also restricted by terrain. The forward
not desirable to do so in rugged mountainous ter- air controllers (airborne) (FACs[A]) and CAS
rain. The increased weight of the 81-mm and pilots can be used as valuable sources of informa-
120-mm mortar rounds severely hampers move- tion and can find and designate targets that may
ment that is already slow due to the constraints of be masked from direct ground observation. Vehi-
the mountainous environment. Planners must cles and personnel are particularly vulnerable to
consider that small units will also be forced to effective air attack when moving along narrow
sacrifice carrying other heavier items, such as mountain roads. Precision-guided munitions,
Javelins, AT4s, additional ammunition for crew- such as laser-guided bombs, can quickly destroy
served weapons, and fewer mortar rounds if they bridges and tunnels and, under proper conditions,
carry larger mortar systems. If possible, larger cause landslides and avalanches that close routes
mortar systems should be placed at COPs or or collapse on both stationary and advancing
FOBs for use, which is often the only way to
enemy forces. Precision-guided munitions and
ensure there are tactically significant quantities of
fuel-air explosives can also destroy or neutralize
ammunition available.
wel l-protected point targets, such as cav e
During movement to contact or other offensive entrances and enemy forces in defilade.
operations, larger mortars should be transported
Low ceilings, fog, and storms common to moun-
along valley roads and trails to provide continu-
tain regions may degrade air support operations.
ous fire support coverage to the lighter dis-
Despite these challenges, GPS-capable aircraft
mounted units in the higher rugged terrain.
and air-delivered weapons can negate many of the
Continuous coverage can be achieved by splitting
previous limitations caused by weather. Terrain
units into sections and conducting bounding tech-
canalizes low-altitude air avenues of approach,
niques to ensure at least one section is always
which limits ingress and egress routes and avail-
ready to fire. See MCWP 3-15.2, Tactical Employ-
able attack options and increases aircraft vulnera-
ment of Mortars, for additional information on
bility to enemy air defense systems. Potential
employing mortars in mountainous environments.
targets can hide in the crevices of cliffs, the niches
of mountain slopes, and on gorge floors; hence,
Air Support pilots may be able to detect the enemy only at
short distances, requiring pilots to swing around
Because the terrain compels the enemy to con- for a second run on the target and giving the
centrate their forces along roads, valleys, reverse enemy more time to disperse and seek better
slopes, and deep defilades, CAS is very effec- cover. Additionally, accuracy may be degraded
tive; however, the terrain restricts the attack due to the need for pilots to divert more of their
direction of the CAS strikes. The enemy also con- attention to flying while executing their attack.
ducts an IPB to determine the likely direction of Planning considerations for CAS and close com-
the CAS strikes and will weight their air defenses bat attack (CCA) are discussed in MCRP 3-16.6A,
along those routes. The fire support officer must JFIRE Multi-Service Tactics, Techniques, and
aggressively identify the enemy air defense sys- Procedures for the Joint Application of Fire-
tems and target them to enhance the survivability power. While CAS is a joint concept, CCA is used
of the CAS assets. exclusively by the Army and is defined as a coor-
Air interdiction and CAS operations can be par- dinated attack against targets that are in close
ticularly effective in mountains, since enemy proximity to friendly forces.
8-10 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-35.1
While CAS and CCA are similar, there are differ- commanders with the timely synchronization and
ences to explore. The first is the two manners in responsive execution of all joint fires and effects
which support is requested: CAS is requested in a at the tactical level.
standardi zed 9-l ine format, while CCA is
reported according to a 5-line format. Second,
CCA enables aircrews, having received the brief Naval Surface Fires
from ground forces, to retain the freedom to
maneuver as needed to engage targets. Third, due As demonstrated in the Pacific Campaign of
to enhanced situational awareness from aircrews,
Worl d War II , naval sur face f i res can b e
positive terminal control from the ground forces
employed in mountainous terrain; however, the
or certified controllers are not required. Both
opportunity to use such fires is limited. The
methods should consider the joint nature of the
issues of trajectory and intervening crests along
contemporary operational environment. In moun-
tainous terrain, the use of a CCA enables ground the gun-target line often make its employment
forces to provide information on the engagement difficult in mountainous terrain. Conventional
to Army attack reconnaissance helicopters with- naval surface fires typically have a low angle of
out limiting the direction of engagement, which fire and a flat trajectory. Though the position of
allows aircrews to use the canalizing terrain and the naval vessel in relation to the target will
select more advantageous attack methods to determine the gun-target line and the accessibility
destroy enemy targets. of the target by conventional naval surface fires,
operational level planners should not forget the
In addition, CAS is requested by using FACs or capability that naval-launched, precision-guided
JTAC. Both are certified Service members who, munitions can bring to the battlefield. Cruise mis-
from a forward position, direct the action of siles launched from naval vessels can engage tar-
combat aircraft engaged in CAS and other of- gets deep inland with devastating accuracy and
fensive air operations. A FAC(A) is a specifi- are not subject to the same limitations as conven-
cally-trained and qualified aviation officer who tional naval fires.
exercises control from the air of aircraft and
indirect fires engaged in CAS of ground troops.
According to MCRP 3-16.6A, a certified and
Nonlethal Fires
qualified JTAC or FAC(A) will be recognized
across DOD as capable and authorized to perform
terminal attack control. Nonlethal fires are an important part of any arse-
nal and can be effective across the range of mili-
A joint fires observer is a certified and qualified tary operations in mountainous environments. As
Service member who can request, adjust, and with lethal fires, the desired effects of nonlethal
control surface-to-surface fires; provide targeting fires can be limited by the terrain due to mobility
information in support of type 2 and type 3 CAS restrictions and the fact that physical geographic
terminal attack controls; and perform autono- features can create sub-environments where the
mous terminal guidance operations in accor- same nonlethal fires may have entirely different
dance with MCRP 3-16.6A and JP 3-09.3, Close effects. Marines must be creative and utilize other
Air Support. While not as highly trained as a nonlethal capabilities when interaction with the
JTAC, FAC, or FAC(A), more individuals can be local populace is hindered by terrain or weather.
trained as a joint fires observer. The joint fires
observer adds warfighting capability, but does not Information Operations
circumvent or nullify the need for a qualified
JTAC, FAC, or FAC(A) during CAS operations. Information operations are defined as the integra-
With JTACs, joint fires observers assist ground tion, coordination, and synchronization of all
Mountain Warfare Operations_________________________________________________________________________________ 8-11
actions taken in the information environment to conducts fire support coordination at the battalion
affect a target audience’s behavior in order to cre- level and higher. The distances and dispersed
ate an operational advantage for the commander. nature of the fight in mountainous environments
In many cases, traditional information-related often requires smaller units to control and clear
capabilities, such as print and broadcast media, fires within their areas of operations and compa-
will prove less effective in the execution of infor- nies to receive some of the same equipment and
mation operations because many mountain com- personnel that is normally only found in battalion
munities have low literacy rates and do not have and larger organizations. Recommended methods
access to modern communication technologies. to achieve this organization are to—
Personnel who engage in information operations
Establish clear boundaries and simple direct
can overcome such challenges by offering low
measures.
Deception Recommend appropriate airspace coordinating
measures.
Deception is a capability in the form of a plan-
ning process that focuses actions to deliberately
mislead adversary military decisionmakers (or Artillery Logistics
target audiences) as to friendly military capabili-
ties, intentions, and operations with the intent of Artillery requires a substantial logistic effort to
enticing or inciting a specific behavior in the bat- supply and maintain itself on the battlefield.
tlespace that will provide the commander or Mountainous terrain requires that artillery per-
MAGTF an operational advantage. One example form many high-angle missions and missions
is the use of mock radar systems in addition to using propellant charges at maximum capabil-
the actual radar system. This deception prevents ity. Such artillery use causes premature failure
the enemy from knowing the actual location of of the howitzers and an increased maintenance
friendly radar systems and, most importantly, effort to remain mission capable. In a mountain-
from knowing the direction of radar observation. ous environment, logistic support becomes very
difficult and requires unique solutions due to the
terrain limitations.
Fire Support Coordination Measures Helium and nitrogen management is vital in
mountainous terrain. Helium is used by MET
The information contained in MCRP 3-16.6A is teams to gather updated weather data for firing
applicable to any environment; however, the units. Meteorological support can only extend up
mountains often necessitate changes to standing to 10 kilometers (about 6 miles) from the release
operating procedures. The Marine Corps normally point in mountainous terrain. In order to provide
Radio in a Box
The radio in a box is a 250-watt personal radio powered by a hand crank. The advantage to this system is that it is not
technologically complicated and is easily used by the listener. The employment of a radio in a box was considered to be
one of the most effective means of communicating with the local population in Afghanistan because the local population
has an adult illiteracy rate of more than 70 percent.
—Marine Corps Center for Lessons Learned Report
8-12 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-35.1
accurate MET support throughout the battlefield, detail in chapter 6 of this publication or in
the MET teams and their helium must be posi- MCRP 3-35.1D for the effects of cold weather
tioned and frequently resupplied in numerous on artillery ammunition.
locations across vast distances. As a result,
logistical resupply of helium becomes more Fires are one of the strongest enablers for com-
important and more difficult in mountainous ter- manders and planners in mountainous environ-
rain. Similarly, nitrogen resupply is essential in ment s. Eff ecti ve use of let hal fi res h el p s
maintaining firing capability among artillery compensate for the long ranges and large amount
units. The amount of nitrogen used in howitzer of dead space that is found in mountainous envi-
recoil systems, how much is on hand in a given ronments. Commanders can, if necessary, break
country, where it is located, and how to transport down batteries from their traditional modified
it to the area of operations are all logistical con- TOE with proper preparation and training. There
siderations when managing artillery operations will be a heavy reliance on air support. Command-
in this environment. ers and planners should train all personnel on CAS
procedures and, if possible, train unit personnel to
Energy management and ammunition manage- become joint fires observers. Effective nonlethal
ment are also other important issues of consider- fires and information operations will build good
ation for the artillery community in mountain will with the public and facilitate operations of all
operations. Many of these issues are covered in types in the mountainous environment.
CHAPTER 9
COMMUNICATIONS
The MAGTFs are rarely employed indepen- Each organization has its own unique require-
dently; they are likely operating within a larger ments for command and control. The mission,
force or coalition. Every effort should be made to area of operations, terrain, and weather will dic-
maintain the integrity of these organizations to tate the radio nets, local area networks, and spe-
maximize their inherent synergies, such as their cial purpose systems required. Expeditionary
robust joint, interoperable communication net- units coming from the sea will initially rely heav-
work that enables operational adaptability of ily on long haul, wideband communications until
command and control system capabilities. The command and control transitions ashore. Once
mountainous environment poses unique chal- ashore, networks will expand as more units and
lenges when trying to employ communications capabilities are added. Units expand their com-
equipment. The following are communications mand and control network from one that relies
planning considerations: primarily on tactical radios to one that consists of
a combination of radios and local area networks.
Widely distributed units, such as companies A fully implemented command and control archi-
and platoons, will require the same communi- tecture integrates four different types of commu-
cations capabilities and decisionmaking nications and information networks known as the
authorities that are traditionally found at battal- tactical data network. See table 9-1on page 9-2
ion or higher levels. for communications planning requirements.
Units must develop core communications com-
petencies with a variety of communications
equipment and/or systems down to the lowest Communications Systems Comparison
echelons of command possible.
Commands must develop the leadership and Eleven methods of communications are avail-
decisionmaking skills of junior leaders. able for use. The following subparagraphs and
Command and control architectures require table 9-2, on page 9-3, discuss the advantages
redundancy and must account for the effects of and limitations of each.
the operational environment.
Installation time of communication nodes in Single-Channel Radio
mountainous areas can double, depending on
the terrain and the weather. The SCR equipment includes radios that operate in
Command and control plans for communica- the UHF tactical satellite (TACSAT), UHF, HF,
tions nodes should accommodate expansion as and VHF bands that can provide secure voice and
limited data communications capability (transfer
more equipment and personnel arrive and more
rates are limited by bandwidth constraints).
capability is required.
The communications priority should be single- Retransmission of tactical communications is one
channel radio (SCR) and SATCOM, since they of the most effective means of mitigating the defi-
will be the primary command and control links ciencies of VHF and UHF communications. As a
for headquarters. result, retransmission requires focused and detailed
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
9-2 MCWP 3-35.1
A single, closer (yet lower) peak cut transmis- Large, domed mountains cut UHF transmissions
sions to 20 to 22 kilometers (12 to 14 miles) to 5 to 6 kilometers (between 3 and 4 miles),
and that was only if the mountain crest was while cut-up rugged mountainous terrain fur-
narrow and both stations were aimed at the ther limited transmissions to 4 to 5 kilometers
sharp peak. (about 2.5 to 3 miles).
UHF communications distance was cut to 10 to UHF communications were frequently lost
12 kilometers (6 to 7 miles) if the intervening while moving along mountain roads or in the
peak rose up to 100 meters (328 feet) higher “silent zone” on the far side of mountains.
than the stations.
If there were a series of 200- to 400-meter These communications ranges involved knife edge
(650 to 1,300 feet) peaks between stations and diffraction, also known as obstacle gain diffrac-
if both stations were far enough away from the tion. This method of establishing communication
mountain bases and used whip antennae, has typically been applied within the Marine
transmission distance was cut to 9 to 10 kilo- Corps to high power, directional systems, such as
meters (5.5 to 6 miles). the AN/TRC-170. The low power, omnidirectional
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
9-4 MCWP 3-35.1
UHF systems employed by Marines are not likely Special Purpose Systems
to experience such types of radio links.
Special purpose communications systems support
Measures to improve UHF communications in specific functions, such as position location, navi-
the mountains include the following: gation, and intelligence dissemination. There are
many types of special purpose systems in the
Select communications sites that have a narrow Marine Corps inventory and many more are avail-
single mountain crest between them. Aim the able when operating as part of a joint task force.
transmissions at the highest peak. Keep the Marines must be able to employ these systems to
sites away from the mountain base. leverage the significant capabilities they repre-
Deploy radios away from the mountain base to sent. For example, the Distributed Tactical Com-
a distance at least equal to the distance of the munications System (DTCS) is an extension of
slope between the base and mountain crest. “Netted Iridium,” push-to-talk communications
Deploy radios to commanding heights to capability. The DTCS can provide over-the-hori-
improve their LOS to the top of the interven- zon, on-the-move, beyond-LOS netted voice and
ing mountain. data communications over the Iridium network.
Deploy radios where they can communicate
over a single mountain rather than a series of Multichannel Radios
peaks and defiles. Broadband multichannel radios (MUXs) use fre-
When confronted with a large, domed moun- quencies in the UHF, SHF [super high fre-
tain, deploy the radios away from the base of quency], and EHF [extremely high frequency]
the mountain and on high ground. bands. The demands of operating along these fre-
quency bands as well as performing multiplexing
Tactical Satellite Radio functions require complex and relatively large
pieces of equipment. The MUX systems, there-
The radio of choice in the mountains is the
fore, have considerably more logistical and oper-
TACSAT, also known as SATCOM, radio. It
ating requirements than SCR systems. In
combines mobility, flexibility, and ease of
addition, they have a requirement to transmit and
operation with unlimited range. The PRC-117,
PRC-148, PRC-152, VRC-110, and VRC-111 are receive a tightly-focused beam of radio energy,
all capable of transmitting SATCOM, UHF, and which is not practical for units on the move. For
VHF voice or data and are suitable for base or sustained operations in mountains, ground relay
mobile communications in the mountains. stations or “RIPER” nets can be established to
Though flexible and reliable in the mountains, relay large amounts of data. Planners should con-
TACSAT radios are more susceptible to elec- sider the following MUX characteristics:
tronic warfare and interference, channels are
MUX equipment is limited to LOS and, in
usually limited, and the radios have limited capa-
some cases, a very low takeoff angle.
bility to support data transfer.
Compartmentalized, mountainous terrain will
Commercial Satellite Terminals require more nodes and larger packages.
Communications between MUX communica-
Commercial satellite terminals with appropriate tions nodes will not be possible if there is inter-
communications security modules can be used vening terrain between the nodes.
to provide reliable worldwide voice and data MUX repeater sites can enable command and
communications. These devices provide a first- control in the mountains. Repeaters need to be
in, redundant, and amplifying capability to placed near or on the top of ridges or peaks.
TACSAT or SCR.
_________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 9-5
Wind speeds on top of ridges and peaks often terrain study and detailed planning is required to
exceed the operational tolerances of MUX make EPLRS work in mountainous terrain.
antennas, requiring the antennas be taken down
during inclement weather. Blue Force Tracking
Satellite terminals, such as the Support Wide
Area Network system and the Secure Mobile Blue force tracking (BFT) provides a reliable data
Anti-Jam Reliable Tactical Terminal, along communications link for sending preformatted
with older systems, such as the TSC-85 and and free text messages. Because BFT uses satel-
lites vice ground radio relays, it is an ideal system
TSC-93, provide a method of switched
for mountainous environments, such as in
connectivity in addition to MUX that often
Afghanistan. Unlike the EPLRS, which is limited
makes them preferred over MUX in a moun-
by the LOS, BFT provides continuous coverage
tainous environment.
despite the terrain and number of users on the
Enhanced Position Location Reporting System battlefield. It provides a near real-time feed to the
common operational picture and is a highly reli-
Because it is an LOS UHF radio, the enhanced able means of text communication between dis-
position location reporting system (EPLRS) is best persed units.
suited for flat terrain and a battlefield that is heav-
ily populated with units. The system has limited Cell Phones
use in dispersed rugged mountainous terrain as a The proliferation and common use of cell phones
position reporting system because of the LOS may provide opportunities to exploit operational
issues. Like any LOS system, it must have an security issues, particularly as relay towers and/or
unobstructed view to receive signals. A thorough usage expand in the future.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
9-6 MCWP 3-35.1
Who: all unit personnel Who: 1-2 per platoon Who: 2 per battalion Who: 1 per brigade
Capability: basic mobility Capability: basic Capability: advanced Capability: advanced
skills and understanding technical skills; trainer of technical skills; advisor technical skills and
of the fundamentals for soldiers and leaders in to commander; unit experience; advisor to
operating in a mountain- basic mobility skills and trainer and planner of commander; unit
ous region assists in planning mountain sustainment trainer and planner of
mountain operations training and operations mountain sustainment
training and operations
Training time: 4-5 days Training time: 15 days Training time: 15 days
Training provider: Training provider: Training provider: Training time: 2+ years
Formal Mountain Schools Formal Mountain Schools Formal Mountain Schools Fully qualified current or
or Mobile Training Team AMWS AMWS former Military
AMWS NWTC NWTC Mountaineering
NWTC MCMWTC Instructor
Unit Military Mountaineer
Basic Basic
Advanced Advanced
Unit operational capability Unit Unit operational capability Unit
Soldier, leaders, planners trained Capability Advanced technical skills Capability
Capability built and applied Capability built and applied
Individual cold weather clothing and equip- Leading on class 4 and 5 terrain.
ment use, care, and packing. Conducting multipitch rappelling.
Basic mountaineering equipment care and use. Establishing and operating hauling systems.
Mountain bivouac techniques. Establishing fixed ropes with or without inter-
Mountain communications. mediate anchors.
Mountain travel and walking techniques. Moving on moderate angle snow and ice.
Hazard recognition and route selection. Establishing evacuation systems and perform-
Mountain navigation. ing high-angle rescue.
Basic MEDEVAC.
Rope management and knots. Level III: Mountain Leader
Natural anchors.
Familiarization with artificial anchors. Mountain leaders possess all the skills of the
Belay and rappel techniques. assault climber and have extensive practical
Fixed ropes (lines) usage. experience in a variety of mountainous environ-
Rock climbing fundamentals. ments in both winter and summer conditions.
Rope bridges and lowering systems. Level III mountaineers should have well devel-
Individual movement on snow and ice. oped hazard evaluation and safe route-finding
Mountain stream crossings (to include water skills over all types of mountainous terrain.
survival techniques). Mountain leaders are best qualified to advise
First aid for mountain illnesses and injuries. commanders on all aspects of mountain opera-
tions, particularly the preparation and leadership
required to move units over technically difficult,
Note: Level I-qualified personnel should be hazardous, or exposed terrain. The mountain
identified and prepared to serve as assistant leader is the highest level of qualification and is
instructors to train unqualified personnel in the principle trainer for conducting mountain
basic mountaineering skills. All high-risk operations. Level III qualification is required to
training must be conducted under the super-
supervise all high-risk training associated with
vision of qualified level II or III personnel.
level II. Instructor experience at a military moun-
tain warfare training center or as a member of a
Level II: Assault Climber
special operations forces mountain team is criti-
(Marine Corps)/Advanced Mountaineer (Army)
cal to acquiring level III qualification.
Assault climbers and/or advanced mountaineers
are responsible for the rigging, inspection, use, Additional Knowledge and Skills
and operation of all basic rope systems. They are
At a minimum, mountain leaders should possess
trained in additional rope management, knot
the following additional knowledge and skills:
tying, belay, rappel techniques, and the use of
specialized mountaineering equipment. Assault Preparing route, movement, bivouac, and oper-
climbers and/or advanced mountaineers are capa- ational risk management.
ble of rigging complex, multipoint anchors, and Recognizing and evaluating peculiar terrain,
high-angle raising and/or lowering systems. weather, and hazards.
Level II qualification is required to supervise all
Performing avalanche hazard evaluation and
high-risk training associated with level I. At a
mitigation.
minimum, assault climbers should possess the
following additional knowledge and skills: Organizing and leading avalanche rescue oper-
ations.
Using specialized mountaineering equipment. Planning and supervising roped movement
Performing multipitch climbing on rock. techniques on steep snow and ice.
10-4 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-35.1
Conducting glacier travel and crevasse rescue. the unit does not have mountain leaders, mobile
Conducting ski instruction. training teams can be requested from MCMWTC.
Planning and conducting skiborne patrols in The suggested training is not meant to be all in-
class 3 and 4 terrain. clusive; rather, it is a guide that commanders may
Using winter shelters and survival techniques. use to develop a customized mountain warfare
Conducting multipitch climbing on mixed ter- training package.
rain (rock, snow, and ice).
Leading units over technically difficult, haz- Phase 1: Pre-environmental Training
ardous, or exposed terrain in winter and sum- Pre-environmental training (PET) is conducted
mer conditions. over 3 to 5 days, preferably before a unit deploys
Advising commanders and staff during plan- to a mountainous environment (upon initial
ning on mountain warfare considerations across arrival, if necessary). It includes individual entry-
all warfighting functions. level training using the 2000-level tasks from
NAVMC 3500.70A. This phase encompasses
environmental considerations, hazards and mitiga-
Marine Corps Mountain tion, the use of specialized clothing and equip-
Warfare Training Center ment, and historical lessons learned. Refresher
training prior to any significant change in altitude,
topography, and/or temperature is recommended.
Training at MCMWTC should be conducted prior
to deploying to a mountainous and/or cold
Phase II: Environmental Training
weather operational environment. Training should
replicate the high altitude, mountainous, and cold This training is conducted over 7 to 11 days at the
weather conditions associated with the opera- operational altitude and/or climate. This phase
tional environment. At the MCMWTC, training is focuses on collective 3000- to 6000-level events
conducted at both the individual and unit level. from NAVMC 3500.70A. Emphasis is initially
The individual training by formal school courses placed on survival, movement, and fighting skills,
is considered an integral part of unit training and then environmental considerations for TTP are
should be scheduled 1 to 3 months before unit taught at the small unit and company levels. Units
fire organic weapons and practice MOS skills in
training and deployment.
the environment. If required, phase II incorporates
Collective Training enhanced 2000-level mobility training events. This
training may include advanced mountain and over-
The established collective training exercise is the-snow mobility training, driver training, medi-
called Mountain Exercise. It is designed and cus- cal training, and animal packing.
tomized to train all elements of the MAGTF and is
normally divided into three phases—pre-environ- Phase III: Marine Expeditionary Brigade/Marine
mental, environmental, and mission rehearsal. Sit- Expeditionary Unit Mission Rehearsal Exercise
uations will arise when units are deployed to a This training is conducted over 4 to 5 days. The
mountainous area of operations without prior train- final phase is to exercise the entire MAGTF on
ing. The unit should use their mountain leaders to 6000 - t o 9 000- l ev el t as ks f ro m NA VM C
schedule, prepare, organize, and conduct in the- 3500.70A. The following exercises test MAGTF
ater training. This usually takes 2 to 3 weeks and is dispersed operations in complex, com-
accomplished concurrent with acclimatization. If part ment al ized, m ount ai nous t er rai n t h at
________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations 10-5
replicates elevations and climates found in the to lead climbs on vertical to near vertical terrain.
operational environment: Two per platoon (with six TRSTs) are recom-
mended to enhance the vertical obstacle maneu-
The command element tests its ability to effec- ver capabilities of the unit.
tively plan, command, and control the conduct
of anticipated dispersed mission profiles across
Urban Assault Climber
all elements of the MAGTF.
The GCE tests its ability to shoot, move, and Urban assault climbers are TRST-qualified
communicate. Marines who are trained and certified to lead
The ACE conducts air missions; maintenance climbs on vertical to near vertical urban obstacles.
of aircraft; logistic support; LZ use at high alti-
tude, on ridgelines, and/or in snow; and the Scout Skier
establishment of FARPs. Scout skiers are scouts and reconnaissance
The logistics combat element tests its ability to Marines who are trained and qualify as military
provide CSS to the MAGTF that is focused on skiers. They possess the skill to negotiate arduous
the use of CASEVAC/MEDEVAC, aerial re- snow-covered and avalanche-prone terrain on
supply, and ground resupply over restricted ter- skis and are skilled in basic tracking/counter-
rain using animals or over-the-snow vehicles. tracking, avalanche assessment, and avoidance.
Reconnaissance, scout snipers, and other desig-
Individual Training nated scouts (one platoon per rifle company or
one company per battalion) should receive this
Individuals may be specially trained for one or advanced, over-the-snow mobility training.
more of the functions discussed in the follow-
ing subparagraphs.
Mountain and/or Cold Weather Medical Training
Tactical Rope Suspension Technicians Some corpsmen, doctors, and medics receive
training in mountain, cold weather, and/or alti-
A TRST is a Marine trained in the skills neces- tude-related environmental illnesses and casualty
sary to establish all rope systems used in tactical handling. Four per company are recommended
operations, which include high tension rope for each seasonal skill set.
installations, rappelling, water obstacle crossing,
fixed ropes on steep earth, balance climbing, and
top roping. A TRST can also serve as a number 2 Animal Packing
climber to the lead climber (assault climber). A Animal packers are trained to care for, pack, and
TRST, who is an NCO or above, is certified as a lead pack animals through arduous and often
rappel master to conduct rappelling operations on inaccessible terrain in order to conduct resupply,
a tower. A TRST is the minimum certification for transport crew-served weapons, and handle
NCOs and above to conduct TRST training on CASEVAC. Four per platoon are recommended.
vertical to near vertical terrain for rappelling, top
roping, and fixed ropes. Two TRSTs per rifle Mountain Communicators
squad are recommended.
Mountain communicators are communications
personnel who have been trained i n rad io
Assault Climbers communications in complex, compartmen-
An assault climber is a TRST-qualified Marine talized, mountainous terrain. Four per company
who receives additional training and is certified are recommended.
10-6 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-35.1
Rough Terrain Evacuation (see Army Training focuses on scenarios that show ways each agency
Requirements and Resources System for more can benefit the other’s mission.
detail on course schedule and availability).
Mountain Leader Orientation Course—7 days,
three per year. Coalition Training in Mountain Warfare
Master Mountaineering Course—3 weeks. cises in mountainous terrain in Norway and Slove-
nia are the best means to mutually exchange TTP:
Navy Sea-Air-Land Team Norway: the Marine Corps is provided annual
Cold Weather Maritime Course quotas to the Allied Officers Winter Warfare
Course (5 weeks long) and the Commander’s
Winter Warfare Course (10 days long).
The SEAL [sea-air-land] team cold weather train-
Slovenia: Slovenian Armed Forces Mountain
ing is located at Kodiak, Alaska. It is a 28-day
between individuals).
operations because of their detrimental effect on sleeping at the lowest altitude possible, avoiding
blood coagulation. Acute mountain sickness alone cold exposure, and avoiding strenuous exertion
does not mean that descent is absolutely neces- until acclimated.
sary. Stopping the ascent to rest and acclimatize to
the same altitude will resolve AMS in 3 days or Immediate descent is the best treatment for
less (in most individuals)—the best option in HAPE. If available, a hyperbaric chamber, such
cases of mild AMS. Medical therapy is crucial as t he Gamow Bag (a portable hyperbari c
when descent is not possible. Use of any medica- chamber weighing 14 pounds), can take a patient
tion should be discussed with a physician. from 4,267 to 2,134 meters (14,000 to 7,000 feet)
in 4 to 6 hours if evacuation to lower altitudes is
Once symptoms have gone away, troops can not possible. Operated by a foot pump, the bag is
resume gradual ascent. Those who continue to pressurized to an internal pressure of 2 pounds
show signs of AMS must be observed for develop- per square inch.
ment of high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE)
or high altitude cerebral edema (HACE), both of High Altitude Cerebral Edema
which could be fatal.
All troops are susceptible to high altitude illness.
A staged or graded ascent, or movement to a CAUTION
lower altitude, can prevent AMS. Limited evi- The preferred step in treating any high
dence suggests that a high carbohydrate diet, such altitude illness is to evacuate affected
as whole grains, vegetables, peas and beans, pota- individuals to a lower altitude. Under
no circumstances should anyone with
toes, fruits, honey, and refined sugar, can also severe AMS symptoms or suspected
reduce AMS symptoms. HAPE or HACE be allowed to con-
tinue their ascent.
High Altitude Pulmonary Edema
High altitude pulmonary edema occurs when
individuals ascend too rapidly to high altitude or High altitude cerebral edema is the most severe
ascend too rapidly from a high to a higher alti- illness associated with high altitudes. Individuals
tude. High altitude pulmonary edema normally with HACE frequently have HAPE. As with
begins within 24 to 72 hours after rapid ascent to other high altitude illnesses, HACE is caused by
2,438 meters (8,000 feet) or more. Symptoms ascending too rapidly without proper acclimatiza-
include coughing, noisy breathing, wheezing, tion. Troops experiencing AMS should be closely
gurgling in the airway, difficulty breathing when monitored for the development of HACE. Troops
at rest, and deteriorated behavioral status, such as with AMS who continue ascending are consid-
confusion or vivid hallucinations. High altitude ered to be at high risk for HACE.
pulmonary edema occurs in 2 to 15 percent of
In general, HACE occurs later than AMS or
people brought rapidly to altitudes above 2,438
meters (8,000 feet). HAPE. If untreated, HACE can progress to coma
in 12 hours and death within 24 hours. In some
Troops experiencing AMS who are not treated instances, death has occurred in less than 12 hours.
and continue to ascend to higher altitudes are at The average onset time of symptoms following
significant risk for HAPE. If untreated, HAPE ascent is 5 days with a range of 1 to 13 days.
can be fatal within 6 to 12 hours. It is the most
common cause of death among altitude-related Sym pt oms of HACE often resem ble AMS
illnesses. Preventive measures include staged (severe headache, nausea, vomiting, and extreme
and graded ascent, proper acclimatization, lethargy); however, a more visible indicator for
_________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations A-3
the onset of HACE is a swaying upper body, Injuries, such as burns or cuts, may require
especially when walking. Early behavioral deteri- descent for effective treatment and healing.
oration may include confusion, disorientation,
and inability to speak coherently. Marines may
appear withdrawn or demonstrate behavior gener- Environmental Threats
ally associated with fatigue or anxiety.
Preventive measures for HACE are the same as The following subparagraphs address conditions
for AMS and HAPE. Those with symptoms of that are not unique to mountainous environments
HACE should be evacuated immediately. Treat- but commonly occur at high elevations.
ment of HACE is immediate descent at first sign
of symptoms, such as swaying upper body and Nonbattle Injuries
change in behavioral status. Decadron and oxy-
Exhaustion, dehydration, lower limb orthopedic
gen are used to treat HACE. If available, a
hyperbaric chamber (such as a Gamow Bag) can injuries, lower back injuries, frostbite, diarrhea,
be used to stabilize patients if evacuation to lower malaria, and weight loss are the most common
altitudes is not possible, but should NOT be used nonbattle-related injuries in the mountains.
as a substitute for descent. Hypoxia, an inadequacy in the oxygen reaching
the body’s tissues, and cold can impair judgment
High Altitude Systemic Edema and physical performance, resulting in a greater
risk of injury while operating in rugged terrain.
High altitude systemic edema is the swelling of
tissue and joint discomfort that may occur due to Cold Injuries
rapid ascent. Persons with high altitude systemic
edema may not exhibit any other symptoms of Once a Service member has acclimated to alti-
high altitude sickness. tude, cold injuries are generally the greatest
threat. Frequent mountain winds may prove dan-
High Altitude Retinal Hemorrhaging gerous due to windchill effects. Because hypoxia-
High altitude retinal hemorrhaging only occurs at induced psychological effects can result in poor
extremely high altitudes (almost always found judgment and decisionmaking, a higher inci-
above 4,572 meters or 15,000 feet). Signs can dence of cold injuries should be anticipated. Pre-
only be seen with an ophthalmoscope. Vision can ventive measures for cold injuries include
be blurred in severe cases. command emphasis on maintaining nutrition,
drinking plenty of fluids, and dressing in layers.
Subacute Mountain Sickness
Heat Injuries
Subacute mountain sickness occurs in some people
during prolonged deployments (weeks to months) Standard heat injuries, such as heat cramps, heat
to elevations above 3,474 meters (11,400 feet). exhaustion, and heat stroke, can occur in the
Symptoms include sleep disturbance, loss of
mountains. They occur during movements, espe-
appetite, weight loss, and fatigue. This condition
cially upslope with heavy loads or at high altitude
reflects a failure to acclimate adequately.
with heavy loads. Personal protection equipment
Poor Wound Healing can restrict evaporation of sweat (body cooling)
and also cause heat injuries. Commanders need to
Poor wound healing may occur at higher eleva- balance the load, personal protection equipment,
tions and results from lowered immune functions. and pace with the altitude and degree of slope.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
A-4 MCWP 3-35.1
Injuries Caused by Sunlight falls. Poor judgment at high altitude increases the
risk of injury. The potential for being struck by
The potential for solar radiation injuries caused by lightning is also increased at higher altitudes,
sunlight increases at high altitudes due to higher especially in areas above the tree line. Protective
ultraviolet radiation in the thinner atmosphere and measures include taking shelter in solid-roofed
the reflection of light on snow and rock surfaces. structures or vehicles; laying in depressions, such
Solar radiation injuries will occur with less expo- as creek beds; and avoiding tall structures or
sure at high altitude than at low altitude and large metal objects.
include sunburn and snow blindness.
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
Sunburn
Carbon monoxide poisoning is a frequent haz-
Sunburn is more likely to occur on partly cloudy ard. Heavier than oxygen, carbon monoxide set-
or overcast days when troops are unaware of the tles in the bottom of tents and enclosures. Tent
threat and fail to take appropriate precautions. ventilation should be at the lowest point in the
Applying sun block (at least 15 SPF [sun protec- tent to ensure carbon monoxide is able to escape.
tion factor]) to all exposed skin helps to prevent The following can lead to increased carbon mon-
sunburn. Some medications, such as acetazol- oxide levels:
amide, increase the danger of sunburn.
Inefficient fuel combustion.
Snow Blindness Combustion heaters and engines in enclosed,
poorly ventilated spaces.
Snow blindness results from ultraviolet light
Cigarette smoking.
absorption by the external parts of the eyes, such
sensation (hypoxia-induced), underconsumption eat meals. Poor eating habits (lack of fruits and
of calories, and increased energy needs due to vegetables or eating only a few MRE ration com-
exertion increase the risk of dehydration. Routine ponents) and dehydration may also lead to con-
activities and chores performed at high altitudes— stipation or aggravation of hemorrhoids.
even common activities, such as walking—require
increased exertion. Troops can reduce the effects of poor nutrition at
high elevations by increasing their consumption
Dehydration increases the likelihood of hot and rates. Rations should be supplemented and fre-
cold weather injuries, altitude illness, and quent snacking encouraged. High carbohydrate
decreased physical capabilities. Many symptoms snacks are recommended since they are easily
of dehydration and HACE are similar. carried and require no preparation. Technical
Bulletins Medical 505 and 508 also have more
Troops can prevent dehydration at high altitudes by
information on the importance of proper nutri-
consuming at least 3 to 4 quarts of water (including
tion in the prevention of cold weather injuries.
water consumed in food) or other noncaffeinated
fluids per day and 6 to 8 quarts during cold
Toxins
weather. Individuals can drink a variety of fluids,
such as juice or sports drinks, as each is an equally Other products that can seriously impact military
effective aid in rehydration. At high altitudes or operations include tobacco, alcohol, and caffeine.
cold weather, thirst is not an adequate warning of Tobacco smoke interferes with oxygen delivery by
dehydration. Commanders must monitor troops to reducing the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacities.
ensure they drink enough fluids and do not become Tobacco sm oke i n close, confi ned spaces
dehydrated (see Technical Bulletin Medical 505, increases the amounts of carbon monoxide. The
Altitude Acclimatization and Illness Management, irritant effect of tobacco smoke may produce a
and 508, Prevention and Management of Cold-
narrowing of airways that interferes with optimal
Weather Injuries, for more information).
air movement. Smoking can effectively raise the
“physiological altitude” as much as several thou-
Nutrition
sand feet. Alcohol impairs judgment and percep-
Poor nutrition contributes to illness or injury, tion, depresses respiration, causes dehydration,
decreased performance, poor moral e, and and increases susceptibility to cold injury. Caf-
susceptibility to cold injuries. Influences that feine from coffee and other sources may improve
impact nutrition at high elevations include a dulled physical and mental performance; however, it also
taste sensation (making food undesirable), nausea, causes increased urination (leading to dehydra-
lack of energy, or lack of motivation to prepare or tion) and should be consumed in moderation.
APPENDIX B
MOUNTAIN WEATHER DATA
Wet Cold
Cold Weather Categories
Wet snow and rain often accompany wet cold
Cold weather temperature extremes are seasonally conditions. This type of environment is often
associated with most mountainous environments more dangerous to troops and equipment than the
and almost always associated with high altitude. colder, dry cold environments because the ground
Because of the impact cold temperatures can have becomes slushy and muddy and clothing and
on personnel and equipment, it is important for equipment become wet and damp. Because water
military planners to understand the unique charac- conducts heat 25 times faster than air, core body
teristics associated with operating in this type of temperatures can quickly drop if Marines become
weather. The Army and Marine Corps divide cold wet and the wind is blowing; they can rapidly
weather temperatures into the four categories become casualties due to weather if not properly
shown in figures B-1 and B-2 (differences are equipped, trained, and led. Wet cold environ-
shown for joint operations understanding). The ments combined with wind can be even more dan-
one exception is that the Army adds one category gerous because of the wind’s effect on the body’s
due to the operational design of the force. Due to perceived temperature (see fig. B-3 on page B-2).
the expeditionary nature of the Marine Corps, its Wet cold can quickly lead to hypothermia, frost-
equipment is generally not designed to operate bite, and trench foot. Wet cold conditions are not
below -25 °F. The climatic definitions outlined in only found in mountainous environments, but
the following subparagraphs will generally have also in many other environments during seasonal
the same impact on operations. transition periods. Under wet cold conditions, the
Army Categories
Wet Cold: +39 °F to +20 °F
Dry Cold: +19 °F to -4 °F
Intense Cold: -5 °F to -25 °F
Extreme Cold: -25 °F to -40°F
Acute Cold: -40 °F and below
Wind
Speed Air Temperature (°F)
(mph)
15 >120 >120 33 20 15 12 9 8 7 6 5 4
20 >120 >120 23 16 12 9 8 8 6 5 4 4
25 >120 42 19 13 10 8 7 6 5 4 4 3
30 >120 28 16 12 9 7 6 5 4 4 3 3
35 >120 23 14 10 8 6 5 4 4 3 3 2
40 >120 20 13 9 7 6 5 4 3 3 2 2
45 >120 18 12 8 7 5 4 4 3 3 2 2
50 >120 16 11 8 6 5 4 3 3 2 2 2
NOTE: Wet skin could significantly decrease the time for frostbite to occur.
FROSTBITE RISK
LOW—freezing is possible, but unlikely (white background—greater than 120 minutes)
HIGH—freezing could occur in 11 to 30 minutes (bold type)
SEVERE—freezing could occur in 5 to 10 minutes (dark gray background)
EXTREME—freezing could occur in less than 5 minutes (light gray background)
LEGEND
> greater than
mph miles per hour
plan for weapons, vehicles, and munitions to fail which this occurs is called the condensation
in this environment. Most military equipment is (dew) point. The dew point varies depending on
tested and required to perform only at tempera- the amount of moisture in the air at the time it
tures above -25 °F. As in other categories, leader- begins to cool. Air that contains a lot of mois-
ship, training, and specialized equipment is ture, or high humidity, can reach its dew point
critical to operate successfully. when the temperature cools to 68 °F. However in
very dry environments, condensation may not
Acute Cold occur until the temperature drops to 32 °F.
Commanders and planners are warned that opera-
Air Movement
tions below -40 °F are extremely hazardous. Units
must be extensively trained before undertaking an There are three ways that air can be lifted and
operation in these temperature extremes. cooled beyond its dew point—orographic uplift,
convection, and frontal lifting. Mountain envi-
ronments often experience some or all three,
Precipitation which contributes to the unpredictability of
mountain weather:
Mountain precipitation is a result of several fac-
tors, the most important being humidity and air Orographic Uplift
flow. It is important for military planners and
leaders at all levels to understand the causes of This phenomenon happens when an air mass is
precipitation in mountains and why precipitation pushed up and over a mass of higher ground,
rates vary. Precipitation results from cloud forma- such as a mountain. Due to the increase in alti-
tions that, when accompanied by a drop in baro- tude, the air cools until it reaches its condensation
metric p ressure, are t he best indicators of point. The result is precipitation. This type of lift-
approaching adverse weather. Planners need to ing and cooling is the most common type in
understand how clouds form and why precipita- mountainous environments. In large mountain-
tion occurs in order to predict mountain weather ous areas where there are prevailing winds, the
and its effect on operations. Before understanding side of the mountain facing the wind often expe-
clouds, however, a few MET concepts must be riences high levels of precipitation while the
explained: humidity, air movement, cloud forma- backside of the mountain is drier because the
tion, and atmospheric pressure. clouds release their moisture before reaching the
top and the air warms as it rolls down the oppo-
Humidity site side. This weather also occurs even in warm
weather mountainous areas. For example, the
Humidity is the amount of moisture in the air. windward side of the Hawaiian Islands experi-
The amount of moisture air can hold is propor- ences a lot of rain, but the leeward side is com-
tional to its temperature: the warmer the tempera- paratively dry and warm.
ture, the more water the air can hold.
Accordingly, cold air holds less moisture than
Convection Effects
warm air. Air is considered to be at its saturation
point when it has 100 percent relative humidity. Convection is normally a summer effect due to
When air that is saturated is cooled, the moisture the sun’s heat reradiating off of the earth’s sur-
is released in various forms, such as clouds, rain, face and causing air currents to push straight up
dew, snow, sleet, and fog. The temperature at and lift air to its condensation point.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
B-4 MCWP 3-35.1
Frontal Lifting Cumulus clouds are formed from rising air cur-
Frontal lifting occurs when two air masses of dif- rents and are prevalent in unstable air that favors
ferent temperature and moisture content collide. vertical development. These currents of air cre-
ate cumuliform clouds that give them a piled or
The resultant phenomena are known as fronts.
bunched up appearance, looking similar to cotton
Since the air masses will not mix, the warmer air
balls. Within the cumulus family there are three
is forced aloft; from there it is cooled until it
different types that help to forecast the weather:
reaches its condensation point.
Cumulus are fair weather clouds, but should be
Cloud Formations observed for possible growth into towering
cumulus and cumulonimbus.
Any time air is cooled below its saturation point,
Towering cumulus clouds are characterized by
clouds are formed. Being able to identify clouds
vertical development. Their vertical lifting is
and understand how they are formed helps to pre-
caused by some type of lifting action; for
dict weather changes, which is important to those
example, during summer afternoons when
who are planning or executing mountain opera-
wind is forced to rise up the slope of a moun-
tions. Clouds can be described and classified by tain or the lifting action that may be present in
height, by appearance, or by the amount of area a frontal system. The towering cumulus has a
covered (vertically or horizontally). Meteorolo- puffy, cauliflower-shaped appearance.
gists recognize many different types of clouds.
Cumulonimbus clouds are characterized in the
Cirrus, stratus, and cumulus are the most useful
same manner as the towering cumulus, forming
to military planners. the familiar thunderhead that produces thunder-
Cirrus clouds are formed of ice crystals at very storm activity. These clouds are characterized
high altitudes (usually 6,096 to 10,668 meters or by violent updrafts that carry the cloud tops to
20,000 to 35,000 feet) but are thin, feathery extremely high elevations. Tornadoes, hail, and
clouds at the mid-altitudes. These clouds gener- severe rainstorms are all products of this type
ally point in the direction of the air movement at of cloud. At the top of the cloud, a flat anvil-
their elevation and can provide up to 24 hours shaped form appears as the thunderstorm
warning of approaching bad weather. Frail, scat- begins to dissipate.
tered types, such as “mare tails” or dense cirrus
layers are a sign of fair weather, but predict the Atmospheric Pressure
arrival of precipitation and a front.
Besides cloud formations, changes in weather
Stratus clouds are formed at low and mid alti- are also indicated by changes in atmospheric
tudes when a layer of moist air is cooled below (barometric) pressure. Decreasing pressure nor-
its saturation point. Stratus clouds lie mostly in mally indicates deteriorating weather, while
horizontal layers or sheets that resist vertical increasing pressure usually indicates improving
development. The word “stratus” is derived from or good weather.
the Latin word for “layer.” A stratus cloud is
characteristically uniform and resembles fog. It
has a uniform base and a dull, gray appearance. Wind
Stratus clouds appear heavy and will occasion-
ally produce fine drizzle or very light snow with Mountains greatly affect the flow of air and
fog. Because there is little or no vertical move- amplify wind speed. Generally, valley winds on
ment in stratus clouds, they usually do not pro- south-facing slopes (north-facing slopes in the
duce heavy precipitation. southern hemi sphere) change di recti on at
_________________________________________________________________________________
Mountain Warfare Operations B-5
different times of the day. When air is heated wind blowing at 40 knots pushes four times
during the day, its density decreases and the air harder than a wind blowing at 20 knots. So, it is
rises up the slope. The resulting winds are fairly important to pay attention not only to prevailing
gentle; however, at night the direction is reversed winds in the mountains, but wind gusts as well.
and it turns into a down slope wind. Down slope As previously discussed, wind combined with
winds are caused by cooling air, which can cold temperatures will produce windchill (see
occasionally be very strong. Wind speeds change fig. B-4), which can cause freezing and frostbite
as winds flow across mountains. For example, to exposed skin.
winds traveling down the leeward slope can
become especially strong. Examples of these
types of very strong winds are the Foshn in the Light Data
Alps, the Chinook winds in the Rockies, and the
Zonda winds in the Andes.
Sunrise, sunset, and the amount of useable light
Additionally, winds are accelerated when they available for operations is relative to where per-
converge through mountain passes and canyons sonnel are physically located. Light data analysis
to create a funneling effect. Because of this, wind in the mountains must be specific to the local area
may blast with great force on an exposed moun- to be relevant to operations. See MCRP 3-35.1D
tainside or summit. Mountain winds are subject for detailed information on predicting illumina-
to strong gusts and the force exerted by wind tion depending on the time of year.
quadruples each time wind speed doubles; that is,
LEGEND
mph miles per hour
MTSQ . . . . . . . . . . . mechanical time super quick TACC . . . . . . . . . . . . tactical air command center
MUX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . multichannel radio TACSAT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .tactical satellite
TAOC . . . . . . . . . . . tactical air operations center
NAVMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Navy/Marine Corps TC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . training circular
departmental publication TCAC . . . . . technical control and analysis center
NCF. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .naval construction force TOE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . table of equipment
NCO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .noncommissioned officer TOS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . time on station
NWTC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Northern Warfare TRST. . . . . . . tactical rope suspension technician
Training Center (Army) TTP . . . . . . . . tactics, techniques, and procedures
Federal Publications
United States Code, Title 10, Armed Forces
Army Publications
Army Field Manuals (FMs)
2-0 Intelligence
2-19.4 Brigade Combat Team Intelligence Operations
2-22.3 Human Intelligence Collector Operations
3-04.111 Aviation Brigades
3-04.126 Attack Reconnaissance Helicopter Operations
3-04.155 Army Unmanned Aircraft System Operations
3-04.513 Aircraft Recovery Operations
3-05.213 Special Forces Use of Pack Animals
3-07 Stability Operations
3-14 Space in Support of Army Operations
3-21.8 The Infantry Rifle Platoon and Squad
3-21.38 Pathfinder Operations
3-34.170 Engineer Reconnaissance
3-50.1 Army Personnel Recovery
3-55 Information Collection
3-60 The Targeting Process
3-90 Tactics
4-02.1 Army Medical Logistics
4-20.64 Mortuary Affairs Operations
5-19 Composite Risk Management
5-102 Countermobility
________________________________________________________________________________________
References-2 MCWP 3-35.1
Miscellaneous
Marine Corps Institute Publication. ORM 1-0, Operational Risk Management.
Marine Corps Center for Lessons Learned Reports
Marine Corps Intelligence Activity (MCIA) Mid-Range Threat Estimate for 2005–2015
________________________________________________________________________________________
References-4 MCWP 3-35.1
Miscellaneous
2010 Quadrennial Defense Review
Malik, Muhammad Asim, Major, Pakistan Army. Mountain Warfare—The Need for
Specialized Training, Military Review. September–October 2004.
MMM, Manual of Military Mountaineering (British Royal Marine)
UD 6-81E, A Guide to Cold Weather Operations (Norwegian Army)
To Our Readers
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