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    2. Selected Topics of Mathematics

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    7 views16 pages

    Selected Topics of Mathematics

    Uploaded by

    John Philip Neri Besedillas

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    SELECTED TOPICS OF MATHEMATICS C/1_Intropuction Appendix © contains an abbreviated summary and reminder of se- lected tapies in basic mathematics which find frequent use in mechanics, ‘The relationships aro cited without proof. The student of mochanies will Ihave frequent occasion to use many of these relations, and he or she will be handicapped if they are not well in hand. Other topies not listed will also bbe neesied from time ta time, ‘As the reader reviews and applies mathematies, he or she should boar in mind that mochanioo is an applied ocionco descriptive of real bodies and actual motions. Therefore, the geometric and physical inter- pretation of the applicable mathematies should be kept clearly in mind uring the development of theory and the formulation and solution of problems, C/2__ PLANE Geometry 41. When two intersect- ing lines are, respec- % “| tively, perpendicular to two other lines, ‘the angles formed by a the two pairs are equal. T= Sector area = 37°0 3 Sina amp f Bkrey tangs econ ix os be Nicaea i | aright triangle, an Apegete ! eee A 0 + Oy + 03 = 180° a 04 = 6 + Oy A 0s\% of Mathematics C/3__Sotin Geometry 4. Sphere ‘Volume = $a Surface area = 4? 8. Right-cireular cone Volume = borth Lateral area = arb atk a asp opeanoarnnes a} vane OE | where B = area of base il C/4 Atcesra 1. Quadratic equation i. Cubie equation at tint Paar 2. Logarithms br ye logy Natural logarithms b=e=2.718 282 onyx logy Iny Jog Gab) = loga + log Jog a’) = loga ~ log Jog in) = —logen Joga” =n loga let logge = 0.4343 In x 8, Determinants 2nd order as 4, a, by ad order ab.~ a, lay yo az by ey a5 bs 6 tabsey + aber + abies ~atgbye — agbyes — aye Lotp = A8,q = Bi2. Case I: g? ~ p* negative (three roots real and distinct) con = aX Vp), 0- er aelol Buawance Eso dacet xenedns nal tit taboae cialdjamecebsancan’ alee as 1. Notation. Vector quantities are printed in boldface type, and scalar quantities appear in lightface italic type. Thus, the vector quantity V has a scalar magnitude V. In longhand work vector = p> //@ {quantities should always be consistently indicated by a symbol such as Vor V to distinguish them from scalar quantities. 2. Addition ‘Triangle addition P+Q=R P Parallelogram addition P+ Q=R Commutativelaw P+ Q=Q+P Associative law P+ (Q+R)=(P+Q +R 3. Subtraction P-Q=P+-@ Polly 4. Unit vectors i,j,k V= Vat V,i+ Vi where IMi=V= W240 2402 5. Direction cosines 1, m,n are the cosines of the angles between V and the, 9-, axes. Thus, Vo m=V,V n= VV so that V= Vili + mj + nk) and Bem? tnt= Article ¢/7 Vector Operations _695 6. Dot or scalar product gy P-Q= PQ cos # ¢ ‘This product may be viewed as Uhe magnitude of P multiplied hy ° the component @ cos # of Q in the direction of P, or as the magni- tude of Q multiplied by the component F cas # of P in the direction of Q. Qcos0 Commutativelaw — P-Q=Q-P From the definition of the dot product k=1 bj=Ji-tk=ki=j4 P.Q= (PE + PI + PLEO, =P.Q. + P,Q, + P.Q. PP=P2+P2+P2 +454 QO.) It follows from the definition of the dot produet that two vee- tors P and Q are perpendicular when their dot product vanishes, P-Q=0. "The angle 0 between two vectors P, and Py may be found from their dot product expression P,P, = P,P, e0s 0, which gives PyP,_PiPs,+P.Ps, +PiPs PP, PP, whore , m, n stand for the respective direction cosines ofthe vee- tors I is also observed that two vectors are perpendicular to each other when their direction easines obey the relation {ily + mym + nya = 0. 08 0 = = Lily + mm + rym Distnbutivelaw PQ} R)=P-Q+P-R P 7. Cross or vector product. The eross product P x Q of the two voctors P and Q is defined as a veetor with a magnitude [Px Q|~PQsine sinew direction specified by the righthand ra the veetor order and using the right-hand -PxQ Distributivelaw PX(Q+R)=PXQ+PXR From the definition of the cross product, using a right-handed coordinate system, we get ixj xk kxi-j Sxisck okxje-i ike Sree ies of Mathemat With the aid of these identities and the distributive law, the vector product may be written Pe Qa (PEP A+ Pk) ¥ (Od + O54 Qed = P,Q. ~ P.Q)i + (P,Q, ~ PALI + (P.Q, ~ P,A.k ‘The cross product may also be expressed by the determinant yx PxQ- > PP, aoe 8. Additional relations ‘Inple sealar product (P x Q)+R = RAP x Q). ‘The dot and eross may be interchanged as Iong as the order of the vectors is main- tained. Parentheses are unnecessary since P x (Q-R) is meaning- loss because a vector P cannot be crossed into a scalar Q-R. Thus, the expression may be written PxQR-P-QxR ‘The tripl sealar product has the detorminant expansion PP, B. We, We RRR exe ‘Triple vector product (P x Q) x R= -R x (P x Q) = Rx (Q x P). Here we note that the parentheses must be used since an expression P x @ x R would be ambiguous because it would not identify the vector to be crossed. It may be shown that the triple ‘vector product is equivalent to PxQxR-RPQ Rer or P x (QR) = P-RQ-P-QR ‘The first term in the first expression, for example, is the dot prod- uct R-P, a scalar, multiplied by the vector @. 8. Derivatives of vectors obey the same rules as they do for scalars, @® pe pye dyed Pa p= Bis bj + Pk au) _ ps, PH) a 1 Be rere AP *® pi bu Article C/9 Derivatives 697 10. Integration of vectors. If Vis a function of x, y, and z and an el- cement of volume is d> = dx dy dz, the integral of V over the volume may be written as the vector sum of the three integrals of its com- ponents. Thus, Jvarsifyarsi| yates tf yar C/8 Series (Expression in brackets following series indicates range of convergence.) iay= BOSD ey ME DO AD ey pe be < om] be @] bet < a] b2< a] 1 f parsin a {Fourier expansion for —1 the hth estimate of the desired root x, Jory) = the function jx) evaluated at x = xy J'(x,) = the function derivative evaluated at x = x, ‘This equation is repeatedly applied until flrg..) is sufficiently close to 2or0 and x, = 2. The student should verify that the equation is valid forall possible sign combinations uf, Fox), and "ery Several cautionary notes are in order: 1. Clearly, f'C2,) must not be zero or close to zero. This would mean, 1s restricted above, that x, exactly or approximately corresponds to a minimum or maximum off). Ifthe slope f'(x,) is zero, then the tangent to the curve never intersects the x-axis. Ifthe slope f'¢x,) is small, then the correction to x, may be so large that x,.1 is a worse root estimate than x). For this reason, experienced engineers usu- ally limit Uhe size of Uhe correction lerm; that is, if Uhe absolute value of fix/f'(xy) is larger than a preselected maxinam value, that maximum value is used, 2, If there are several roots of the equation fx) = 0, we must be in the vicinity of tho dosirod root x, in ordor that the algorithm actually converges to that root. Part 6 of the figure depicts the condition hon the initial estimate x, will result in convergence to x,, rather than 3, 8. Oscillation from one side of the root to the other can occur if, for example, the function is antisymmetric about a root whieh is an inflection point. The use of one-half of the correction will usually provent this behavior, which is depicted in part ¢ of the accompa- nying figure, Example: Beginning with an initial estimate of x, = 5, estimate the sin- se root of the equation e ~ 10 eos x — 100 ‘The table bolow summarizes the application of Newton's method to Ure given equation. The iterative yruvess mao terminated whe Cie abe solute value of the correction ~fx,)/f"(x,) became less than 10 so) h s a ( navn 4 fo) sip ea 1 5000000 45570587 198829 816 0.398 805 2 4671695 7285610 96.887 065 =00%5 197 3 4596498 0.29288 89.203 650 =0.008 288 4 459.215 000827 8.882 536 =0.000 008, 54598209 —2100"") 88.881 958 22500" C/12_ SeLecTED TECHNIQUES FOR NUMERICAL INTEGRATION 1. Area determination. Consider the problem of determining the shaded area under the curve y = fix) from: = a tox = b. as depicted in part a of the figure, and suppose that analytical integration is not feasi- ble. The function may be known in tabular form from experimental ‘measurements or it may be known in analytieal form. ‘The function is taken to be continuous within the interval ¢

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