KINEMATICS OF PARTICLES CHAPTER OUTLINE 2/1 Introduction 2/2. Rectilinear Motion 2/3 Plane Curvilinear Motion 2/4 Rectangular Coordinates (x-y) 2/3 Normal and Tangential Coordinates (n-£) 2/8 Polar Coordinates (r-6) 2/7 Space Curvilinear Motion 2/8 Relative Motion (Translating Axes) 2/9 Constrained Motion of Connected Particles 2/10 Chapter Review 2/1__Intropuction Kinematics is the branch of dynamics which describes the motion of bodies without reference to the forces which either cause the motion or aro genoratod as a result of the motion. Kinematics is often described as ‘the “geometry of motion.” Some engineering applications of kinematics include the design of cams, gears, linkages, and other machine cloments to control or produce certain desired motions, and the calculation of flight trajectories for aircraft, rockets, and spacceraft. A thorough work- ing knowledge of kinematics is a prerequisite to kinetics, which is the study of the relationships between motion and the corresponding forces ‘which cause or accompany the motion. Particle motion ‘We begin our study of kinematics hy first discussing in this chapter ‘the motions of points or particles, A particle is a body whose physical di- ‘mensions are s0 small compared with the radius of curvature of its path ‘that we may treat the motion of the particle as that of a point, For ex- ample, the wingspan of a jet transport flying between Los Angeles and [New York is of no consequence compared with the radius of eurvature of. 21cs Figure 2/1 ” Figure 2/2 * its flight path, and thus the treatment of the airplane as a particle or point is an acceptable approximation. We can describe the motion of a particle in a number of ways, and the choice of the most convenient or appropriate way depends a great deal on experience and on how the data are given. Let us obtain an overview of the oovoral methodo developed in thio chapter by referring, to Fig. 2/1, which shows a particle P moving along some general path in space. If the particle is confined to a specified path, as with a bead sliding along a fixed wire, its motion is said to be constrained. If there are no physical guides, the motion is said to be unconstrained. A small rock tied to the ond of a string and whirled in a circle undergoos con- strained motion until the string breaks, after which instant its motion is, unconstrained, Choice of Coordinates ‘The position of particle P st any time can be described hy speciy- ing its rectangular coordinates”, elt cylindrical eoordintes 8 2, or its spherical coordinates R, 4, ¢. The motion of P can also be de- scribed by measurements along the takgent@and normal@t the curve ‘The direction of n lies in the local plane of the curve.’ These last two ‘The motion of particles (or rigid badies) can be described by using oo- ordinates measured from fixed reference axes (absolute-motion analysis) or by using coordinates measured frarh moving reference axes (relative- ‘motion analysis). Both descriptions will be developed and applied in the articles which follow. With this conceptual picture of the description of particle motion in ‘mind, we restrict our attention in the first part of this chapter to the case of plane motion where all movement occurs in or can be epre- sented as oecurring in a single plane. A large proportion of the motions of machines and structures in engineering can be represented as plane ‘motion. Later, in Chapter 7, an introduction to three-dimensional mo- tion is presented. We begin our discussion of plane motion with recti- linear motion, which is motion along a straight line, and follow it with a doseription of motion along a plane curve 2/2__RecriLiNEAR MoTion Consider a particle P moving along a straight line, Fig. 22, The po- sition of P at any instant of time t ean be specified by its distance s mea- sured from some convenient reference point O fixed on the line, At time 1-4 AV the particle has moved to P' and ite coordinate becomes # ++ Ae. ‘The change in the position coordinate during the interval At is called Use uisplaveonent As of Use partials. Tae lisplaveisent woul be uwyative if the particle moved in the negative s-direction. *Onen called Cartesian coordinates, named after Rend Descartes (1596-1650), French shite wit We on ofthe entre of nab ‘This plano is called the escularng plane which comes from the Latin word oteulari mean ing to kin.” The plane which contains P and the two points A and B, one on ether side of becomes the osculating plane the distances between the pints approach zeroArticle 2/2_Recti 23 Velocity and Acceleration ‘The average velocity of the particle during the interval 4¢ is the dis- placa MiNi UY Cas Us EAGAN Eg“ ARVADA A ai ‘smaller and approaches zero in the limit, the average velocity approache the stuntonenus eat ofthe patil, which ist ~ Bi, SS ond ‘Thus, the velocity is the time rate of change of the position coordinate s. ‘The velocity is positive or negative depending on whether the corre- sponding diaplacement is positive or negative "The average acceleration of the particle during the interval AV is the change in its velocity divided by the time interval or ayy = Av/A¥. As At becomes smaller and approaches zero in the limit, the average accelera- tion approaches the instantaneous acceleration of the particle, which is ear enw ‘The acceleration is positive or negative depending on whether the ve- locity is increasing or decreasing. Note that the acceleration would be positive if the particle had a negative velocity which was becoming less negative. If the particle is slowing down, the particle is said to be ‘Velocity and acceleration are actually vector quantities, as we will see for curvilinear motion beginning with Art. 2/3. For rectilinear mo- tion in the present article, where the direction of the motion is that of the given straight-line path, the sense of the vector along the path is de- scribed by a plus or minus sign. In our treatment of curvilinear motion, ‘we will account for the changes in direction of the velocity and aecelera: tion vectors az well as their changos in magnitude. hi By eliminating the time dt between Eq. 2/1 and the first of Eqs. 2/2, accel ‘we obtain a differential equation relating displacement, velocity, and ae- Tio ean a « ew Equations 2/1, 2/2, and 2/3 are the differential equations for the ree- tilinear motion of a particle, Problems in rectilinear motion involving fi nite changes in the motion variables are solved by integration of these basic differential relations, The position coordinate s, the velocity v, and the acceleration a are algebraic quantities, so that their signs, positive or negative, must be carefully observed, Note that the positive direc- tions for v and a are the same as the positive direction for printer will undergo rectilineer ation until he reaches his te speed. ‘Differential quantities can be multiplied and divided in exactly the same way as other algebrle quantities.Kinematics of Particles @ » © Graphical Interpretations Interpretation of the differential equations governing rectilinear ‘motion is considerably clarified by representing the relationships among, 5,0, , and ¢ graphically. Figure 2/Ja is a schematic plot of the variation of s with ¢ from time f; to time ¢, for some given rectilinear motion. By constructing the tangent to the curve at any time ¢, we obtain the slope, which is the velocity v = dsidt. Thus, the velocity ean he determined at all points on the curve and plotted against the corresponding time as shown in Fig. 2/36. Similarly, the slope duidt of the v-t curve at any in- stant gives the acceleration at that instant, and the a-t curve ean there- fore be plotted as in Fig. 2/8. We now see from Fig. 2/30 that the area under the v curve during lime de is v dé, which from Eq, 2/1 is Une displacement ds. Consequently, the net displacement of the particle during the interval from f, to fs is, the corresponding area under the curve, which is [ acflre oye ia, = (area under u-t curve) 7 Similarly, from Fig. 2/3¢ we see that the area under the a-f curve during time di is at, which, from the first of Eqs. 2/2, is dv. Thus, the net change in velocity between ¢, and f, is the corresponding area under the ceurve, which is [lan [hec oe eee eneumtrt te Note two additional graphical relations. When the acceleration a is plotted as a function of the position coordinate s, Fig. 2/4a, the area under the curve during a displacement ds is @ ds, which, from Eq. 2/3, is, v dv = div2). Thus, the net area under the curve between position co- ordinates ¢, and 9, is [Cate fies Seton tometer When the velocity v is plotted as a function of the position coordinate s, Fig. 2/45, the slope of the curve at any point A is dvids. By constructing, the normal AB to the curve at this point, we see from the similar trian- gles that CB/v = duids. Thus, from Eq. 2/3, CB = vidv/ds) ~ a, the accel- eration. It is necessary that the velocity and position coordinate axes Ihave the same mumerical scales so that the acceleration read on the po- sition coordinate scale in moters (or feet), say, will represent the actual acceleration in meters (ar feet) per second squared. ‘The graphical representations deseribed are useful not only in visu- lising the rolationshipo among the covoral motion quantitioa but aloo in obtaining approximate results by graphical integration or differentia- tion. The latter ease oveurs when a lack of knowledge of the mathemati- cal relationship prevents its expression as an explicit mathematical funetion which can be integrated or differentiated. Experimental data and motions which involve discontinuous relationships between the ‘variables are frequently analyzed graphically.‘Analytical Integration If the position coordinate ¢ is known for all values of the time ¢, ‘than sneenssive mathamation! ar guaphion! diffaventiation with raspact to f gives the velocity v and accoleration a. In many problems, howover, the functional relationship between position coordinate and time is un- known, and we must determine it by successive integration from the acceleration. Acceleration is determined by the forces which act on moving bodies and is computed from the equations of kinetics dis- ‘cussed in subsequent chapters. Depending on the nature of the forces, ‘the acceleration may be specified as a function of time, velocity, or posi tion coordinate, or as a combined function of these quantities. The pro- cedure for integrating the differential equation in each case is indicated 3 follows, V_ (a) Constant Acceleration. When a is constant, the first of Eqs. 2/2 and 2/3 can bo intograted directly. For simplicity with s = 59, = vg, and + = 0 designated at the beginning of the interval, then for a time inter- val the integrated equations become [fdewe[fae or vente freiinsfite om gt + ale ~ 99) Substitution of the integrated expression for v into Eq. 2/1 and integra. tion with respect to f give Lat 9 + vot + dat ‘Those rolations are necessarily restricted to the special ease whore the acceleration is constant, The integration limits depend on the initial and final conditions, which for a given problem may be different from those ‘used here. It may be more convenient, for instance, to begin the intogra- tion at some specified time ¢, rather than at time ¢ = 0. Caution: The foregoing equations have been integrated for constant acceleration only. A common mistake is to use these equations for problems involving variable ac- celeration, where they do not apply. (®) Acceleration Given as a Function of Time, a = (0). Substitu- tion of the function into the first of Eqs. 22 gives f(t) ~ do/dt. Multiply- ing by dé separates the variables and permits integration. Thus [fae ffnna a onme fisma26 chapter 2 Kinematics of Particles From this integrated expression for v as a function of , the position eo- ordinate sis obtained by integrating Eq. 2/1, which, in form, would be [feds me maw ot Uh in integral ned h nd atone nd tabla he constant tga, The oleate wih ese deen re ae mt If desired, the displacement s can be obtained by a direct solution of the mendeeinecntlonatns = tp coeds nesta orf neha secod oan 22 (9) Acceleration Given as a Function of Velocity, a = f(v). Substi- snd te neon ne he ht Bax teen) = ok Jarabe panting he ear and aang Ta fle is ‘This result gives ¢ as a funtion of v. Then it would be necessary to solve forv asa function of ¢ so that Eq. 2/1 ean be integrated to obtain the po- sition coordinate as a funetion of Another approach is fe substitute the function @ = fle) inte the fret of Eqs. 2/3, giving v do = flv) ds. The variables can now be separated axnd dhe equation integrated in Ue form “ydv_ [* [esd = [ds oe Note that this equation gives sin terms of v without explicit reference to (d) Acceleration Given as a Function of Displacement, a = f(s). ‘Substituting the function into Kq. 2/3 and integrating give the form fizz [ised or weal sods [Next we solve for v to give v = g(s),a function of s, Now we can substi- ‘tute ds(dt for v, soparate variables, and integrate in the form ds fig on ds anh Ja) which gives ¢ as a function of s. Finally, we ean rearrange to obtain s as a funetion oft In each of the foregoing cases when the acceleration varies according fo rome fanttionel relolionship, the powsibiity of walring the equations by direct mathematical integration will depend on the form of the function. In cases where the integration is excessively awkward or difficult, integra- tion by graphical, numerical, or computor methods can be utilized.@ Aticle2/2_Rectlinear Motion _27 Sample Problem 2/ ae ee ee are eee gadget See eer a eee eoticoarrle ud edn bag GT wae tgs se parte oven ayelaof 2m om inna oaiionst 0,0) thee am CGlraton of the partie when v= 30 mi, and (tho net dpacerent othe eee peteta Gear Se 4 Sefction, ‘Toe vlsiy aod sentation we bain by socemive diferent. 7 (Gareth rnc tne To, oer ne ey Mes) v= 62 24m ea a= imi! sl 2 venus (a) suatitting» = 72 mis into the epreaton for» gives us 72» 62 — 24, om ed ra ee nc eee a... Tholnlaon of melon Unt inofso pial labers,Than, edie { feu at | 2 3 a ae esa ls ama! < A fivighter is moving at a spoed of 8 knots when its engines ere suddenly GF stopped. It takes 10 minutes for the freighter to reduce its speed to 4 knots, de- ee ee gee elo ce te v in knots as functions ofthe time ¢ during thie interval, The decoleraton of the ship is proportional to the square ofits speed, so that @ = het Hetpfal Hints Recall that one Knot is the speed of ieee ee GE pe Work directly in the unite of nut cal miles and hours, Solution. The speeds and the time are given, so we may substiate the expres- sion for acceleration directly into the basle definition « = doidt and integrate, Thus, Now we substitute the end linitsofv = 4 knots and¢ = 22 = [hour and gt 8 ane 8 ree "4 An, +e ‘The speed is plotted against the time as shown, nition v = ds/d# and integrating. Thus, Boat [at ire "a Sis [fe sefunseo Ane reg hema ve ci sedate eters a rapa i ns moved trough distances = fn (1+) = $n 2 = 0904 ml (teal du sng tee 0 aut @ We choose to integrate to a general value of and its corresponding time £90 that we may obtain the variation of o with 19 208) a $06) Sal A SoaArticle 2/2__Prol PROBLEMS Introductory Problems Problems 2/1 through 27 treat the motion of @ particle wie sues ang he oasis ses ite gure. +4 form Problems 2/1-2/7 mn pee bbe ratsind sh pov 2/2 The position of « particle is given by « = 28° — 4008 + 2004 ~ 80, where is in moters and f isin seconds Plot the position, velocity, and acceleration aa fune- tions of time for the first 12 seconds of motion, Deter- rine the time at which the velocity is zero een meme pS sp 2/4 The displacement ofa particle which moves along the ‘-axl is given by # = (-2 + Se, where si in me- tors and isin seconds. Plot the displacement, velo ity, and acceleration versus time for the first 20 seconds of motion, Determine the time at whieh the acceleration is zero. 2/5 The acceleration of a particle is given by @ = 2 ~ 10, Where a is In meters per second squared and ¢s in seconds. Determine the velocity and displacement as functions of time. The intial displacement att = 0 is 449 = 4m, and the inital voloeity is vp = 3 ms ‘Ans, =3~ 100+ # (ans) ae —5et + Lem) 2/6 The eeceleration of a particle is given by a = —ks#, where « is in meters per second squared, is a con- stant, and # isin meters. Determine the velocity of the particle as a function ofits positon s. Evaluate your expression for s = 5m if k= 0.1m *s and the initial conditions at time = O ate gj = 3m.andy 2/7 The acceleration of « particle which is moving along, 4 straight line is given hy a = ~Ayo, where a is in meters per second squared, & is constant, and v is ‘the velocity in rpeters per second. Determine the ve- locity as a fimétion of both time ¢ and position Evaluate your eepressions for ¢ = 28 and at ¢ = 3m if k = 0.2 ms) and the initial conditions at time Garesy= land = 7 ml ‘Ane. 0 = tog)4 Ann? 0 = foct® — Bete so1?® oo sSafcate ano 6abmicats = 3m 2/8 The velosty of decreasing att ment at an in ‘mine the accel particle moving in a straight line is vate of 3 ma per meter of displace: when the velocity is 10 m/s. Deter- tion @ ofthe particle at this instant. @neassatuleesaascuncexpuaraes peters nbelpeeeteeatey et ee mera orci A ath an Satins aoc 1 10s 20 at Problem 2/92 Chapter 2__Kinematics of Particles aio an 2a wis aN AA ball is thrown vertically up with a velocity of 80 {see at the edge of a 200 elif. Caleulato the Iheight h to which the ball rises and the total time t after release forthe ball to reach the bottom af the lif. Neoloct air resistance and take the downward accoloration to be 82.2 fied Problem 2/10 ‘A rocket is fired vertically up from rest. If itis de Signed to maintain a constent upward acceleration of 15g, caleulate the time ¢ required for it to reach an altitude of 80 km and its velocity at that postion. ‘Ans. = 639 5,0 = 840 mis ‘A.car comes toa complete stop from an inital speed (of 50 midhr in a distance of 100 ft, With the same constant acceleration, what would be the stopping Gistance «from an inital speed of 70 mihx? Caleulate the constant acceleration @ in g's which the catapult of an aircraft carrier must provide to produce a launch velocity of 180 mifhr in a distance (of 900 ft. Assume that the eattier is at anchor, Ans. a= 361g ‘To test the effects of “weightlosnese” for short peri coda of time, a test facility is designed which acceler- ates a test package vertically up from A to B by ‘means of a gasactivated piston and allows it to as- cend and descend from B to C to B under free-fall conditions, The test chamber consists of a decp well and Is evacuated to eliminate any appreciable alr re- stance, If constant acceleration of 40g from A to Bis provided by the plston und Ifthe cval west hme for the “weightless” condition from B to C to B is 10 5, calculate the required working height of the chamber. Upon returning to B, the test package is recovered in a basket filed with polystyrene pellets Inserted in the Tin of fl 2s 26 any ane Accelerator pion and — fylinder “Pevorg west fits Problem 2/18 ‘The pilot ofa jot transport brings the engines to full ‘takeoff power before releasing the brakes as the ai- craft is standing on the runway. The jet thrust re: ‘mains constant, and the aircraft has a near-constant scceeration of 0.4. I the takeoff speed is 200 kan, calculate the distance sand time’ from rest to takeof™. ‘Ana. ¢ = 308m,1 = 14.16 8 A jet aircraft with a landing speed of 200 km/h has @ ‘maximum of 600 m of available runway aftor touch down in which to reduce its ground speed to 30 km/h. Compute the average acceleration a required ofthe aircraft during braking. [A particle traveling in a straight line encounters a retarding force which causes its velocity to decrease according to v = 20e~" fUsee, whore isthe time in seconds during which the foree acta. Detarmine the tceeleration a of the particle when ¢ = 10 sce and find the corresponding distance s which the particle hhas moved during the 10.second interval. Plot was a funetion of for the fret 10 seconds ‘Ans. a= ~0.736 fesce!,¢ = 126.4 ipthwtin anne saxo indie steheaemet tle descends under retrathrst of dosent engine tovithinh = Sma the lunar surface where thas Aovnvardvelocty af if the decent engin le ettan east rancnern marmite locy of he landing gear with the oon Lanar praviyis ofthe carths gravity.r aE Problem 2/18 2/19 A particle moves nlong the stivection with constant accaleration. The displacomont, measured from a convenient postion, is 2m at time t = O and is 2er0 whe 6— 10 5, If ae velucty of the paste issue zmentarily zero when t~ 6 5, determine the accel tion a and the velocity v when ¢ = 10 ‘Ans.a= 02mi,0 8 mis Representative Problems 2/20 The main elevator A of the CN Tower in Toronto ‘acs ut 360m and for moa ofr ran has coe Stat sped of 22k, Assume that bah he ace (yu nl dose as aaa gre of igen dtomine Une tine drain ofthe le ine Problem 2/20 Article 2/2_Prol ms 33 2/21 A particle ovellates along a straght line with a sinu- soidally varying velocity in millimotors per second fiven by v = 16 sin 2t/6, where tis in seconds. Ifthe displacement of the particle Is 8 mm when = 0, de- tormine its masimum displacement Sa and plot = versus! for one eamplete cycle. Ane gq, = 69-1 mam 2/22 A-wehicle enters atest section of straight road at = ‘with a speed of 40 lam It then undergoes an acoler- ation which varies with displacement as shown. De- teemine the velocity v ofthe wehlele as it passes the position s = 0.2 km mist i Problem 2/22 2/25 Small steel balls fall from rest through the opening. at A at the steady rate of two per second, Find the vertical separation A of two ennseentive balla when. the lower one has dropped 3 meters. Neglect air resistanc Ans, b= 261m2/28 A retarding force acts on a particle moving initially witha velocity of 100 m/s and gives ita deceleration ts recorded by the oscilloscope record shown. Ap- proximate the velocity ofthe particle at ¢= 4 and men Bax Deseeration ‘Timet,s Problem 2/28 2/25 A gil rolls @ ball up an incline and allows it to re- tura to her. Ror the angle # and ball involved, the ac- celeration of the ball along the incline is constant at (0.25g, directed down the incline. Ifthe ball is re- leased with a speed of 4 mis, determine the distance ‘it moves up the incline before reversing its direc- tom and the total time # roquired for tho ball to re tum tothe child's hand. Ans. ¢ = 326m, t= 3268 Problem 2/25 2/26 A body moves ina straight line with a velocity whose square deereases linearly with the displacement be- toreen two pointe A and B, which are 300 ft apart as shown. Determine the displacement As of the body during the last 2 seconds before arrival at B. Problem 2/26 is compressed to an Sin. length, rom rest and accelerates the ed then decreases linerly with the the block, reaching zero when the -—w—4 probe 2727 2/28 A motoreyco starts from rest with an initial acoler- ation of 3 ms%, and the acceleration then changes with distanee # as shown. Determine the velocity » of ‘the motoreycle when s = 200 m, At this point also determine the a othe drat