Children and Gender
By Rachel Stewart
What is “gendering”?
   For most of us, gender appears synonymous with our
biological sex and believe that this part of our identity
was formed from birth. However, researchers have
found key differences between the two. Sex is defined
by the physical and biological attributes of a person, XX
chromosomes for girls and XY for boys.1 Gender is
defined by society, based on the characteristics
considered appropriately masculine or feminine.2 Sex is
defined at or before birth, whereas children will begin
to identify with a gender by the age of four. 3 What does
the formation of gender mean in terms of young
children’s identities and futures?
When are children gendered?
   Although children may be four years old before they
begin to define themselves by gender, researchers
found that parents and family members begin to do so
while the child is still in utero, according to one study.
Due to the popularity of ultrasound technology, parents
may know the sex of their child as early as 16 weeks.
After a pregnant woman learns the sex of her fetus,
researchers found that she begins using gendered
language in conversation (“he” or “she”) and towards
her own womb, including naming the fetus. The study
noted that parents will often paint the nursery pink or
blue, buy gendered clothing, and change expectations
for their fetus based on sex.4
   Children begin to understand gender roles as early as
24-months.5 This is the same age as when they begin to
understand the biological differences between males
and females.6 In a recent study, researchers observed
children viewing people performing tasks. They
measured the amount of time each child would spend
looking at the performer. Children who witnessed
gender inconsistent activities spent more time
watching the performer than those who completed
gender consistent activities. 18-month-olds were also
tested, but there was no discernible difference between
times.7
By the age of 3-5, children can identify “boy” and
“girl” toys.8 In a study, children were asked to identify
toys and predict their parents’ approval or disapproval
based on whether the toy was gender-appropriate.
Most often, children predicted approval for gender
appropriate toys and disapproval for cross-gender play.
This was in direct opposition to their parents’ stated
beliefs.9
Who is responsible for applying gender?
Most often, gender stereotypes are enforced, perhaps
unintentionally, by parents. Parents begin assigning
gender to their unborn children by use of blue and pink
and gendered pronouns.10 This continues throughout
adolescence. Parents often adjust the expectations of
their child based on gender.11 Math is one such
example; regardless of test scores, parents often
associate gender with competence in math. These same
researchers found that English and sports were the
same. Parents of daughters were more likely to
attribute competence in English to their children, while
parents of boys expressed a belief of sports ability. 12
Perhaps most obviously, manufacturers perpetuate
gendered stereotypes. Toys that used to be gender-
neutral, such as crayons or building blocks, now come
in “boy” and “girl” styles.13 One expert states that girls’
toys are correlated with domesticity, nurturing, and
physical attractiveness, while boys’ toys are viewed as
competitive and violent.14 Gendered toys have been
increasing in number, since approximately 1915. 15
Fact File
Before 1915, there were no truly gender-specific
toys marketed to children in the Sears catalog,
including dolls.16
Previous to the 19th century, gender-neutral
clothing was normal for children up to age 7.17
When specific gender colors came into fashion in
the early 20th century, pink was considered the
more masculine color and was marketed to boys. 18
In 1985, there was a rebellion against gendered
toys. The Sears catalog advertised girls’ action
figures and boys modeled the toy vacuum
cleaners.19
Interestingly, children themselves often enforce
gender stereotypes. Once children begin to gain a sense
of gender, usually around the age of five, they enter a
period of black and white thinking around gender.20
Later in adolescence, this rigidity loosens. Once
children have an understanding

of gender stereotypes, they begin to apply them to

themselves and their preferences.21

How is gender asserted in early childhood?

Studies have shown that blue is the most often
preferred color for children, regardless of gender.
However, by the age of two for girls and two and a half
for boys, color begins to have a gendered aspect. Girls
began to show preference for pink and boys avoided
it.22
In one study, children showed a gendered preference
for crayons when coloring figures. Researchers found
that boys avoided using pink, even when coloring
female figures, while girls used both masculine and
feminine colors. However, they used fewer feminine
colors on a male figure.23

Is gender stereotyping permanent?

Children are influenced by the books they are
exposed to, concludes one study. Researchers found
that when children read stories that contain “gender-
atypical” behavior, there is an increased desire to play
with atypical toys and displays of
atypical behaviors. Children continue this behavior
beyond the immediate time frame of the stories,
including affecting future goals and plans.24
Additionally, children are affected by their parents’
attitudes toward gender. Though parents claimed to
support their children in cross-gender play, more than
one fourth said that they would not hire a male
babysitter.25 In the same questionnaire, only 46% of
respondents said they would buy the same toys for
both sons and daughters, and only 10% more claimed
they would purchase their son a doll. Through their
responses, these parents expressed some level of
discomfort in boys performing “feminine” activities,
more so than girls performing “masculine” activities.26
In households where parents equally share housework
and childcare, children show less gender stereotyping
in preschool years than those from traditional
families.27 This suggests that parents have the ability to
form their children’s responses to gender.
In sum, children’s gender identity is a flexible and
delicate thing that creates ripples into the future. We as
a society are responsible for each child’s experience of
gender and must take care to create a positive
environment that fosters possibilities for all.
1
Notes
Gender Identity Development in Children. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-
stages/gradeschool/Pages/Gender-Identity-and-Gender-Confusion-In-Children.aspx
2
Crawford, M. (2012). Transformations: Women, Gender & Psychology (2nd Ed.).  New York, NY; McGraw Hill.
3
Gender Identity Development in Children. (2015).
4
Barnes, M.W. (2014). Anticipatory Socialization of Pregnant Women: Learning Fetal Sex and Gendered Interactions.
Sociological Perspectives, 58:2. doi: 10.1177/0731121414564883
5
Hill, S.E. & Flom, R. (2007). 18- and 24-month-olds’ discrimination of gender consistent and inconsistent activities.
Infant Behavior and Development, 30:1, 168-173. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2006.08.003
6
Gender Identity Development in Children. (2015).
7
Ibid.
8
Freeman, N. K. (2007). Preschoolers' Perceptions of Gender Appropriate Toys and Their Parents' Beliefs about
Genderized Behaviors: Miscommunication, Mixed Messages, or Hidden Truths? Early Childhood Education Journal,
35, 357-366. http://dx.doi.org.libproxy.sdsu.edu/10.1007/s10643-006-0123-x
9
Ibid.
10
Barnes, M.W. (2014).
11
Eccles, J. S., Jacobs, J. E. and Harold, R. D. (1990), Gender Role Stereotypes, Expectancy Effects, and Parents'
Socialization of Gender Differences. Journal of Social Issues, 46: 183–201. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.1990.tb01929.x
12
Ibid.
13
Sweet, E. (2011). The “Gendering” of Our Kids’ Toys, and What We Can Do About It. Retrieved from
https://www.newdream.org/blog/2011-10-gendering-of-kids-toys
14
Ibid.
15
Ibid.
16
Sweet, E. (2011).
17
Maglaty, J. (2011). When Did Girls Start Wearing Pink? Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved from
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/when-did-girls-start-wearing-pink-1370097/?no-ist
18
Ibid.
19
Sweet, E. (2011).
20
Martin, C. L., & Ruble, D.. (2004). Children's Search for Gender Cues: Cognitive Perspectives on Gender
Development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13:2, 67–70. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20182912
21
Ibid.
22
LoBue, V. & DeLoache, J. S. (2011), Pretty in pink: The early development of gender-stereotyped colour
preferences. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 29: 656–667. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-835X.2011.02027.x
23
Karniol, R. (2011). The Color of Children’s Gender Stereotypes. Sex Roles, 65, 119-132. doi: 10.1007/s11199-011-
9989-1
24
Abad, C., & Pruden, S. M. (2013). Do storybooks really break children’s gender stereotypes? Frontiers in
Psychology, 4, 986. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00986
25
Freeman, N. K. (2007).
26
Ibid.
27
Crawford, M. (2012).