http://control.

com/thread/1267218529

The damper (or ammortisseur) winding is a path for circulation of induced currents
when the generator is operating at other than rated speed.
In generators, it does what the name implies - it increases damping

damper winding for self starting of synch. machine

http://eblogbd.com/what-is-damper-winding/

DAMPER WINDING:: STARTING OF SYNHCRONOUS MOTOR

Synchronous motors are not self starting machines. These machines are made self
starting by providing a special winding in the rotor poles, known as damper winding
or squirrel cage windings. The damper winding consists of short circuited copper
bars embedded in the the face of the rotor poles
When an ac supply is provided to stator of a 3-phase synchronous motor, stator
winding produces rotating magnetic field. Due to the damper winding present, it
carries high current ( as damper winding is showrt circuited as squirell cage) in
the rotor winding of the synchronous motor, machine starts as induction motor
(Induction machine works on the principle of induction. Damper windings in
synchronous motor will carryout the same task of induction motor rotor windings.
Therefore due to damper windings synchronous motor starts as induction motor and
continue to accelerate). The exciter for synchronous motor moves along with rotor.
When the motor attains about 95% of the synchronous speed, the rotor windings is
connected to exciter terminals and the rotor is magnetically locked by the rotating
magnetic field of stator and it runs as a synchronous motor.

Functions of Damper Windings:

Damper windings helps the synchronous motor to start on its own (self starting
machine) by providing starting torque
By providing damper windings in the rotor of synchronous motor "Hunting of
machine"can be suppressed.When there is change in load, excitation or change in
other conditions of the systems rotor of the synchronous motor will oscillate to
and fro about an equilibrium position. A relative speed between rotor and stator
will be developed, as a result flux will start flowing in damer winding.
The damper winding will provide flux which will compensate the transient effect and
machine will return back to synchronism.

At times these oscillations becomes more violent and resulting in loss of

synchronism of the motor and comes to halt

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HUNTING:
The word hunting is used because after sudden application of load the rotor has to
search or hunt for its new equilibrium position. That phenomena is referred as
hunting in synchronous motor. Now let us know what is the condition of equilibrium
in synchronous motor.

CAUSES of Hunting in Synchronous Motor

Sudden change in load.

Sudden change in field current.
A load containing harmonic torque.
Fault in supply system.

EFFECTS of Hunting in Synchronous Motor:

It may lead to loss of synchronism.
Produces mechanical stresses.
Increases machine losses and cause temperature rise.
Cause greater surges in current and power flow.

REDUCTION of Hunting in Synchronous Motor

Damper Winding
FLywheel

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FLYWHEEL:

A flywheel is a rotating mechanical device that is used to store rotational energy.

Flywheels have an inertia called the moment of inertia and thus resist changes in
rotational speed. The amount of energy stored in a flywheel is proportional to the
square of its rotational speed.

Providing continuous energy when the energy source is discontinuous.

Delivering energy at rates beyond the ability of a continuous energy source.

REDUCTION in HUNTING Thorugh Through Flywheel:

The prime mover is provided with a large and heavy flywheel. This increases the
inertia of prime mover and helps in maintaining the rotor speed constant.

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SCR:
It is the ratio of two field currents.
Short circuit ratio is the ratio of field current required to produce rated
armature voltage at open circuit to the field current required to produce the rated
armature current at short circuit.
It is the measure of the generator stability characteristics.. Larger SCR often
means larger airgaps, rotor volume, and consequently generator size.
A high SCR will provide a greater area of stable operation in the under-excited
region of the power chart but a higher SCR also means (ultimately) lower
synchronous, transient and subtransient reactances, which will increase the forces
and stresses on end windings under sudden short circuits.
The short circuit ratio (SCr) is different than the X/R ratio. For generator
applications, the SC ratio is the reciprocal of the synchronous reactance Xs===>
SCR= 1/Xs

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Types OF ARMATURE WINDING of D.C MACHINE:

DC Machine==> Field Winding On Stator,, Armature Winding is on Rotor
Wave Winding , Lap Winding
Wave Winding==> Always 2 parallel paths, 2 brush set.. use in High voltage low
current application
Lap Winding===> 'P' no. of parallel paths and brush set.. Use in High Current and
Low Voltage Applciation.. P=no. of Poles
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DC MACHINE:
S==> Field Winding,, R==> Armature Winding

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR/ GENERATOR:

S==> Armature WInidng, R==> Field Winding

INDUCTION MOTOR/ GENERATOR:

S==> Stator Winding, R==> Rotor Winding

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Back EMF,,
When Motor starts working as generator.

Motor==> Back EMf= Generated EMF - Ia Ra

Generator==> Generated EMF= Terminal Voltage + Ia Ra
At Start of Motor, Back EMF is Zero,, Therefore current is huge

The construction of DC Motor and Generator is exactly same.. Sometimes, even the
workers dont know that whetther they are assembling d.c motor or d.c generator.
Theoretically, if you detach a dc generator from a load and give it a supply , it
will function as a motor

In both d.c motor & d.c generator emf is generated in armature but in generator
generated emf is more than terminal voltage & in d.c motor there is emf in
armature which is always less than terminal voltage.

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Voltage Regulation: ==> http://www.slideshare.net/vishalgohel12195/determination-
of-voltage-regulation-method-of-synchronous-machine
Change in Voltage from No Load (or sending End Voltage) to Full load (or Receiving
Enf Voltage)...,
~For Lagging p.f, V.R is +ve, (bcoz sending End Voltage> Receivng End) (Can be
explained thorugh Vector Diagram)
~For Leading p.f, V.R is -ve
~For unity p.f, V.R is small

Methods For Finding V.R (of synch machines)

1) EMF Method or Synchronous Impedance Method
2) MMF Method or Ampere Turn Method
3) Zero p.f Method

To find V.R we need to find 3 things..

i) Armature/Stator Winding Resistance
ii) Open Circuit characteristics (Terminal Voltage vs Field Current)
iii) Short Circuit characterisitics (SHort Circuit Current vs Field Current)

Armature Resistance Ra is found by D.C Test

While O.C.C and S.C.C are used to find Synchronous Impedance Zs

Armature Resistance:
The resistance of armature or stator winding per phase can be determined by using
voltmeter- ammeter method or by using wheastone bridge. � The effective stator
winding resistance (a.c value) is always greater than (1.2~1.3 times) dc value due
to skin effect.
Synhchrnonous Impedance Zs:
the synchronous impedance has two components, armature resistance and synchronous
reactance. Now synchronous reactance also has two components, armature leakage
reactance and armature reaction reactance

Open Circuit Test:

� The generator is turned at the rated speed
� The terminals are disconnected from all loads, and the field current is set to
zero.
� Then the field current is gradually increased in steps,
and the terminal voltage is measured at each step along the way

Short-circuit test
� Adjust the field current to zero and short-circuit the terminals of the generator
through a set of ammeters.
� Record the armature current Isc as the field current is increased

EMF Method:
Ra and Zs are used to compute Eph
V.R= Eph-V/V *100

MMF Method:
i) Find If1 (required to produced rated Vt) from OCC
ii) Find If2 (required to produce rated armature current) from SCC
iii) Find vector sum, If=If1+If2
iv) Find V corresponding If from OCC and let it Eph
v) V.R= Eph-Vt/Vt *100

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LENZ LAW AND RIGHT HAND RULE:

Lenz's law obeys the law of conservation of energy.

=>EMf or eventually "the current" is induced in a conductor due to "the change in
magnetic field" (that change in magnetic field can be increasing or decreasing)
=> the current that is induced has it's own magnetic field too. The direction of
current is such that this magnetic field opposes the intial magnetic field (or the
cause)*
==> And this is the Lenz Law==>> If an induced current flows, its direction is
always such that it will oppose the change which produced it.

Curl Fingers (cw/ccw) <==> Thumbs Direction (up/down/left/right/in/out)

===> One Thing represents the Direction of Field,, and the Another Thing Represents
DIrection of Current

Point:: when there is relative motion between Field and Current carrying
COnductor.. (i.e either field is moving or conductor)
==> If the Magnetic Field is Decreasing, the Direction of current will be same as
determined by the RHL,
and if the Magnetic Fiel is Increasing, the Direction of current will be opposite
as of determined by the RHL

1. When the (sinusoidal) flux increases, that means that the magnetic field induced
is going the opposite direction of the initial magnetic field.
2. When the flux decreases, the magnetic field induced is following the same
direction of the initial magnetic field. (i.e it opposes the decreases or in other
words strenghtens it)
**Flux increase in opposite direction is also taken as the increasing flux...**
Another View of Lenz's Law:
==> The amount of induced current depends on the negative of the rate of change of
flux
(example of a shaded Motor)
External Supply is given to Stator WInding (A) ,, Flux is induced in Stator core
(B).. This Flux crosses the shaded Copper at poles (C) and there current is
induced..
FLux in B follows the current in A, and induced current in 'C' depends on the
negative of the rate of change of flux in 'B'
when rate of change of flux is zero, no current is inducd in shaded part

HOW DOES A SHADED POLE MOTOR WORKS:

Shaded pole Motor is a Single Phase Induction Motor.. with Copper shadings on the
narrow portion of poles.. Shading is a single turn of heavy copper wire which is
short-circuited and carries only induced current...
The idea of shaded pole motor is to produce a rotating magnetic flux wihtout using
capacitors. so as to make it self starting
Because of the copper shading, it makes a short ciruit path to that portion. and
hence the distribution of flux through the poles is greatly influenced.

THe rotating Magentic field s developed by continously shifting the Magnetic axis
which is equivalent to the Rotating magnetic field.
Now How the Magnetic Pole axis are shifted..

THe A.C supply Produces The Alternating FLux.. COnsider the 1 single cycle of
sinusoidal A.C that is the flux.

1.==> At start , the current is increasing and so is the main flux which induces
the current in shaded coil, (the direction of current in shaded coil is such that)
the flux produced by it opposes the mainn flux. And since the main flux was
increasing , the flux in shaded coil decreases.. So the mostly flux is crowded
over unshaded part.. (magnetic axis shifted at one direction) ---(a)
2.==>WHen the current is a its peak, and so is the the flux, at that point the flux
is niether increasing nor decreasing, or we can say that the rate of change of flux
is zero, hence no current is induced in copper shadings, and the flux is evenly
distributed (the magnetic axis is at centre) ------- (b)
3.==>After the Peak, current and so the main flux starts decreasing, and therefore
the flux that will be induced in Copper shading will oppose this decerement in main
flux, i.e. the flux in Cu shading will increase and so the flux will crowd over the
shaded part. (magnetic axis shifted at another direction) ---- (c)

Then the Negative cycle comes...and this process continues.. Note that **Flux
increase in opposite direction is also taken as the increasing flux..., therefore
the flux in shading will decrease as to oppose it. and flux will be crowded at
unshaded part**
The (a) , (b) , (c) and furthur in negative cycle will clearly show that the poles
will be rotating ..

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SOLAR POND:
An Efficient Way to ENtrapped the solar heat energy in Pond
Large Pond is made up of three layers of water.
Bottom Layer- is the high salinty water, thus denser
Mid Layer- low salinity water,
Top layer- Almost fresh water
These three layers forms a kind of salt gradient.

Pond Phenomenon. In natural ponds, The Sun rays strikes the bottom of pond and
heats them, the bottom water thus gets lighter and moves upward. and then natural
convection process takes place, though which that heat is released out. and
therefore the pond temperature remains constant.
But by adding the salt gradients we somehow trap this heat at the lower layer.
because of high in density this water wouldnt go up. and hence the enrgy is stored.

The mid layer acts as an insulation between top and bottom layer.
This hot water of bottom layer can be pumped to heat exchanger where liquid is
vaporize to run the turbine.

The bottom layer of solar pond can be heated upto 70degrees in 30days and furthur
upto 90degrees.
The energy can be stored for months.

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REACTIVE POWER:
*Reactive power is a practical real-life constraint that we face with electrical
systems.
Reactive power is needed in inductive load. they help in controlling voltages and
also aid the active power to flow. ( Analogy to fill the tank with one water bucket
at a time by climbing the ladder)
Therefore power factor of inductive loads are at 0.8
Machines produces Reactive power that depends on the input excitation.
Input exciation controls both voltage and reactive power
The average of the active power is the net energy transmitted. But the average of
reactive power is zero, no net energy is transmitted

*The amount of Mvar used by a transmission line is a function of the current flow
(I) and inductive reactance ( Xl)
MVAR used= I^2 Xl
*Transmission lines produce reactive power (Mvar) due to their natural capacitance.
The amount of Mvar produced is dependent on the transmission line's capacitive
reactance (Xc) and the voltage (kV) at which the line is energized.
MVAR Produced= kV^2/ Xc
*With the increase in line load, the reactive power requirement also increases.

SIL===> It is simply the MW loading (at a unity power factor) at which the line's
Mvar usage is equal to the line's Mvar production.

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SCHRAGE MOTOR:::

The Schrage motor is a variable speed motor that was commonly used in applications
related to yarn and carpet making.
It is a polyphase commutator motor with shunt characteristic
The rotor carries two 3phase delta windings. One 3phase winding receives current
from the supply by means of collector rings, while the other 3phase delta winding
is connected to the commutator.
On the stator, there are three discrete windings separated by 120 degrees. The two
ends of each windings are connected to the commutator by two sets of brushes such
that one set of brushes connects to the starts of the stator windings and the other
set connects to the ends of the stator windings
i.e => The commutator carries two adjustable sets of brushes and supplies each of
the separate phases on the stator with adjustable voltages, in order to obtain a
variation of speed.
i.e => Speed is controlled by varying the position of sets of brushes on the
commutator