EUROPEAN CLASSICAL

LITERATURE ASSIGNMENT

NAME: Karman Singh

ROLL NO: 307
SEMESTER: 2nd
CLASS: PGI English Hons
TEACHER: Eva Sharma
Phn no: 8491980935
Email : karmansingh2101@gmail.com
Q1. Discuss in detail the twelve tasks performed by
Heracles?

Ans: Heracles, Greek Herakles, Roman Hercules, one of the most

famous Greco-Roman legendary heroes. Traditionally, Heracles was the
son of Zeus and Alcmene , granddaughter of Perseus. Zeus swore that
the next son born of the Perseid house should become ruler of Greece,
but—by a trick of Zeus’s jealous wife, Hera—another child, the
sickly Eurystheus, was born first and became king. When Heracles grew
up, he had to serve Eurystheus and also suffer the vengeful persecution
of Hera; his first exploit was the strangling of two serpents that she had
sent to kill him in his cradle.

Heracles waged a victorious war against the kingdom of Orchomenus in

Boeotia and married Megara, daughter of Creon, king of Thebes, but he
killed her and their children in a fit of madness sent by Hera and,
consequently, was obliged to become the servant of Eurystheus. It was
Eurystheus who imposed upon Heracles the famous Labours, later
arranged in a cycle of 12, usually as follows: (1) the slaying of the Nemean
lion, whose skin he thereafter wore; (2) the slaying of the nine-
headed Hydra of Lerna; (3) the capture of the elusive hind (or stag) of
Arcadia; (4) the capture of the wild boar of Mount Erymanthus; (5) the
cleansing, in a single day, of the cattle stables of King Augeas of Elis; (6)
the shooting of the monstrous man-eating birds of the Stymphalian
marshes; (7) the capture of the mad bull that terrorized the island of
Crete; (8) the capture of the man-eating mares of King Diomedes of the
Bistones; (9) the taking of the girdle of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons;
(10) the seizing of the cattle of the three-bodied giant Geryon, who ruled
the island Erytheia (meaning red) in the far west; (11) the bringing back
of the golden apples kept at the world’s end by the Hesperides; and (12)
the fetching up from the underworld of the triple-headed dog Cerberus,
guardian of its gates.
Having completed the Labours, Heracles undertook further enterprises,
including warlike campaigns. He also successfully fought the river
god Achelous for the hand of Deianeira. As he was taking her home,
the Centaur Nessus tried to violate her, and Heracles shot him with one
of his poisoned arrows. The Centaur, dying, told Deianeira to preserve
the blood from his wound, for if Heracles wore a garment rubbed with it
he would love none but her forever. Several years later Heracles fell in
love with Iole, daughter of Eurytus, king of Oechalia. Deianeira, realizing
that Iole was a dangerous rival, sent Heracles a garment smeared with
the blood of Nessus. The blood proved to be a powerful poison, and
Heracles died. His body was placed on a pyre on Mount Oeta (Modern
Greek Oiti), his mortal part was consumed, and his divine part ascended
to heaven, becoming a god. There he was reconciled to Hera and
married Hebe. In art and literature, Heracles was represented as an
enormously strong man of moderate height, a huge eater and drinker,
very amorous, and generally kindly but with occasional outbursts of
brutal rage. His characteristic weapon was the bow but frequently also
the club. In Italy he was worshipped as a god of merchants and traders,
although others also prayed to him for his characteristic gifts of good
luck or rescue from danger.

The Twelve Labours of Heracles or Hercules are a series of episodes

concerning a penance carried out by Heracles, the greatest of the Greek
heroes, whose name was later romanised as Hercules. They were
accomplished at the service of King Eurystheus. The episodes were later
connected by a continuous narrative. The establishment of a fixed cycle
of twelve labours was attributed by the Greeks to an epic poem, now lost,
written by Peisander,dated about 600 BC. After Heracles killed his wife
and children, he went to the oracle at Delphi. He prayed to the god
Apollo for guidance. Heracles was told to serve the king of Mycenae,
Eurystheus, for ten years. During this time, he is sent to perform a series
of difficult feats, called labours. It was said that the labours were actually
urged by Hera to Erusytheus and she devised the difficult tasks.

First: Slay the Nemean Lion

This monster of a lion had a hide was so tough that no arrow could
pierce it. Hercules stunned the beast with his olive-wood club and then
strangled it with his bare hands. It is said that he skinned the lion, using
the lion's sharp claws, and ever after wore its hide.

The Nemean lion was a fierce creature which could not be hurt by any
mortal weapon. Heracles finished it by beating it with his club and
strangling it. Upon killing the animal, Hercules used the lion’s claw to
remove the weapon proof skin, providing an impenetrable cloak seen in
many paintings and sculptures of the hero.
 Second: Lernaean Hydra
The evil, snakelike Hydra had nine heads. If one got hurt, two would
grow in its place. But Hercules quickly sliced off the heads, while his
charioteer, Iolaus, sealed the wounds with a torch. Hercules made his
arrows poisonous by dipping them in the Hydra's blood.

The Hydra was a huge serpent which lived in a swamp Lerna. The Hydra
has 9 heads, with very long necks. It has a poisonous bite which was
fatal. Its central head was immortal. When one of the mortal heads was
cut, two additional heads would grow immediately to replace it. Heracles
finishes them off by burning the eight mortal heads, and then with help
of his nephew, lolaus he buried the only immotal head under a huge
rock.
 Third: Ceryneian Hind
The goddess Artemis loved and protected this stubborn little deer, which
had gold horns. Hercules found it a challenge to capture the delicate
hind without hurting it (and making Artemis angry). After following the
hind for an entire year, he safely carried it away . The stag had to
be brought back alive when Heracles could have easily killed it. Heracles
hunted the stag for a whole year before he succeeded. He then captures
the animal, puts in a net and carries it back to king Eurystheus.

Fourth: Capture Erymanthian Boarr

The people of Mount Erymanthus lived in fear of this deadly animal.

Hercules chased the wild boar up the mountain and into a snowdrift. He
then took it in a net and brought it to King Eurystheus, who was so
frightened of the beast that he hid in a huge bronze jar. Heracles chased
the boar from one place to another for a long time and finally succeeded
when he drove the boar into deep snow and trapped it there.

Heracles and the Erymanthian Boar

Eurystheus was disappointed that Heracles had overcome yet another

creature and was humiliated by the hind's escape, so he assigned
Heracles another dangerous task. By some accounts, the fourth labour
was to bring the fearsome Erymanthian Boar back to Eurystheus alive
(there is no single definitive telling of the labours). On the way to Mount
Erymanthos where the boar lived, Heracles visited Pholus ("caveman"), a
kind and hospitable centaur and old friend. Heracles ate with Pholus in
his cavern (though the centaur devoured his meat raw) and asked for
wine. Pholus had only one jar of wine, a gift from Dionysus to all the
centaurs on Mount Erymanthos. Heracles convinced him to open it, and
the smell attracted the other centaurs. They did not understand that
wine needs to be tempered with water, became drunk, and attacked
Heracles. Heracles shot at them with his poisonous arrows, killing many,
and the centaurs retreated all the way to Chiron's cave.
Pholus was curious why the arrows caused so much death. He picked one
up but dropped it, and the arrow stabbed his hoof, poisoning him. One
version states that a stray arrow hit Chiron as well. He was immortal, but
he still felt the pain. Chiron's pain was so great that he volunteered to
give up his immortality and take the place of Prometheus, who had been
chained to the top of a mountain to have his liver eaten daily by an eagle.
Prometheus' torturer, the eagle, continued its torture on Chiron, so
Heracles shot it dead with an arrow. It is generally accepted that the tale
was meant to show Heracles as being the recipient of Chiron's
surrendered immortality. However, this tale contradicts the fact that
Chiron later taught Achilles. The tale of the centaurs sometimes appears
in other parts of the twelve labours, as does the freeing of Prometheus.
Heracles had visited Chiron to gain advice on how to catch the boar, and
Chiron had told him to drive it into thick snow, which sets this labour in
mid-winter. Heracles caught the boar, bound it, and carried it back to
Eurystheus, who was frightened of it and ducked down in his half-buried
storage pithos, begging Heracles to get rid of the beast.
Fifth: Augean stables
Thousands of cows lived in these stables belonging to King Augeas. They
had not been cleaned in 30 years, but Hercules was told to clean them
completely in a single day. To do so he made two rivers bend so that they
flowed into the stables, sweeping out the filth.

Hercules cleans the Augean stables by redirecting the river

The fifth labour was to clean the stables of King Augeas. This assignment was
intended to be both humiliating (rather than impressive, as the previous
labours had been) and impossible, since the livestock were divinely healthy (and
immortal) and therefore produced an enormous quantity of dung. The Augean
Stables had not been cleaned in over 30 years, and over 1,000 cattle lived there.
However, Heracles succeeded by re-routing the rivers Alpheus and Peneus to
wash out the filth.
Before starting on the task, Heracles had asked Augeas for one-tenth of the
cattle if he finished the task in one day, and Augeas agreed. But afterwards
Augeas refused to honour the agreement on the grounds that Heracles had
been ordered to carry out the task by Eurystheus anyway. Heracles claimed his
reward in court, and was supported by Augeas' son Phyleus. Augeas banished
them both before the court had ruled. Heracles returned, slew Augeas, and gave
his kingdom to Phyleus. Heracles then founded the Olympic Games. The
success of this labour was ultimately discounted as the rushing waters had
done the work of cleaning the stables and because Heracles was paid for doing
the labour. Eurystheus said that Heracles still had seven labours to perform.
 Sixth: Stymphalian birds
These murderous birds lived around Lake Stymphalos. Their claws and
beaks were sharp as metal and their feathers flew like darts. Hercules
scared them out of their nests with a rattle and then killed them with the
poison arrows he had made from the Hydra's blood.

Hercules and the Stymphalian birds

The sixth labour was to defeat the Stymphalian birds, man-eating birds

with beaks made of bronze and sharp metallic feathers they could
launch at their victims. They were sacred to Ares, the god of war.
Furthermore, their dung was highly toxic. They had migrated to Lake
Stymphalia in Arcadia, where they bred quickly and took over the
countryside, destroying local crops, fruit trees, and townspeople. Heracles
could not go too far into the swamp, for it would not support his
weight. Athena, noticing the hero's plight, gave Heracles a rattle
which Hephaestus had made especially for the occasion. Heracles shook
the rattle and frightened the birds into the air. Heracles then shot many
of them with his arrows. The rest flew far away, never to return.
The Argonauts would later encounter them.
Seventh: Cretan Bull
This savage bull, kept by King Minos of Crete, was said to be insane and
breathe fire. Hercules wrestled the mad beast to the ground and brought
it back to King Eurystheus. Unfortunately, the king set it free, and it
roamed Greece, causing terror wherever it went.

Heracles forces the Cretan Bull to the ground

The seventh labour was to capture the Cretan Bull, father of

the Minotaur. Heracles sailed to Crete, where King Minos gave Heracles
permission to take the bull away and even offered him assistance (which
Heracles declined, plausibly because he did not want the labour to be
[12]
discounted as before).  The bull had been wreaking havoc on Crete by
uprooting crops and leveling orchard walls. Heracles sneaked up behind
the bull and then used his hands to throttle it (stopping before it was
killed), and then shipped it back to Tiryns. Eurystheus, who hid in
his pithos at first sight of the creature, wanted to sacrifice the bull to
Hera, who hated Heracles. She refused the sacrifice because it reflected
glory on Heracles. The bull was released and wandered into Marathon,
[12]
becoming known as the Marathonian Bull.  Theseus would later
sacrifice the bull to Athena and/or Apollo.
Eighth: Mares of Diomedes
King Diomedes, leader of the Bistones, fed his bloodthirsty horses on
human flesh. Hercules and his men fought and killed King Diomedes
and fed the king to his horses. This made the horses tame, so that
Hercules was able to lead them to King Eurystheus.
- Diomedes King of Thrace Killed by Hercules and Devoured by his own
Horses, 1752
As the eighth of his Twelve Labours, also categorised as the second of the
Non-Peloponneisan labours, Heracles was sent by King Eurystheus to
steal the Mares from Diomedes. The mares’ madness was attributed to
their unnatural diet which consisted of the flesh of unsuspecting guests
or strangers to the island. Some versions of the myth say that the mares
also expelled fire when they breathed. The Mares, which were the terror
of Thrace, were kept tethered by iron chains to a bronze manger in the
now vanished city of Tiridaand were named Podargos (the swift),
Lampon (the shining), Xanthos (the yellow) and Deinos (or Deinus, the
terrible). Although very similar, there are slight variances in the exact
details regarding the mares’ capture.
In one version, Heracles brought a number of volunteers to help him
capture the giant horses. After overpowering Diomedes’ men, Heracles
broke the chains that tethered the horses and drove the mares down to
sea. Unaware that the mares were man-eating and uncontrollable,
Heracles left them in the charge of his favored companion, Abderus,
while he left to fight Diomedes. Upon his return, Heracles found that the
boy was eaten. As revenge, Heracles fed Diomedes to his own horses and
then founded Abdera next to the boy's tomb.
In another version, Heracles, who was visiting the island, stayed awake so
that he didn't have his throat cut by Diomedes in the night, and cut the
chains binding the horses once everyone was asleep. Having scared the
horses onto the high ground of a knoll, Heracles quickly dug a trench
through the peninsula, filling it with water and thus flooding the low-
lying plain. When Diomedes and his men turned to flee, Heracles killed
them with an axe (or a club), and fed Diomedes’ body to the horses to
calm them.
In yet another version, Heracles first captured Diomedes and fed him to
the mares before releasing them. Only after realizing that their King was
dead did his men, the Bistonians, attack Heracles. Upon seeing the
mares charging at them, led in a chariot by Abderus, the Bistonians
turned and fled.
All versions have eating human flesh make the horses calmer, giving
Heracles the opportunity to bind their mouths shut, and easily take them
back to King Eurystheus, who dedicated the horses to Hera. In some
versions, they were allowed to roam freely around Argos, having become
permanently calm, but in others, Eurystheus ordered the horses taken to
Olympus to be sacrificed to Zeus, but Zeus refused them, and sent
wolves, lions, and bears to kill them. Roger Lancelyn Green states in
his Tales of the Greek Heroes that the mares’ descendants were used in
the Trojan War, and survived even to the time of Alexander the Great.
After the incident, Eurystheus sent Heracles to bring back Hippolyta's
Girdle.
Ninth: Belt of Hippolyta
Hercules went to the land of the Amazons, where the queen welcomed
him and agreed to give him her girdle for Eurystheus's daughter.
But Hera spread the rumor that Hercules came as an enemy. In the end
he had to conquer the Amazons and steal the golden belt.

Tenth: Capture the cattle of Geryon

Geryon a winged monster with three human bodies, had a herd of

beautiful red cattle. He guarded his prized herd with the help of a giant
and a vicious two-headed dog. Hercules killed Geryon, the giant, and the
dog and brought the cattle to King Eurystheus.

The magic girdle of Hippolyta, queen of the Amazons

Eurystheus' daughter Admete wanted the Belt of Hippolyta, queen of
the Amazons, a gift from her father Ares. To please his daughter,
Eurystheus ordered Heracles to retrieve the belt as his ninth labour.
Taking a band of friends with him, Heracles set sail, stopping at the
island of Paros, which was inhabited by some sons of Minos. The sons
killed two of Heracles' companions, an act which set Heracles on a
rampage. He killed two of the sons of Minos and threatened the other
inhabitants until he was offered two men to replace his fallen
companions. Heracles agreed and took two of Minos'
grandsons, Alcaeus and Sthenelus. They continued their voyage and
landed at the court of Lycus, whom Heracles defended in a battle against
King Mygdon of Bebryces. After killing King Mygdon, Heracles gave
much of the land to his friend Lycus. Lycus called the land Heraclea. The
crew then set off for Themiscyra, where Hippolyta lived.
All would have gone well for Heracles had it not been for Hera.
Hippolyta, impressed with Heracles and his exploits, agreed to give him
the belt and would have done so had Hera not disguised herself and
walked among the Amazons sowing seeds of distrust. She claimed the
strangers were plotting to carry off the queen of the Amazons. Alarmed,
the women set off on horseback to confront Heracles. When Heracles saw
them, he thought Hippolyta had been plotting such treachery all along
and had never meant to hand over the belt, so he killed her, took the belt
and returned to Eurystheus.
Tenth: Cattle of Geryon
Hercules and the Cattle of Geryones

The tenth labour was to obtain the Cattle of the three-bodied

giant Geryon. In the fullest account in the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-
Apollodorus, Heracles had to go to the island of Erytheia in the far west
(sometimes identified with the Hesperides, or with the island which
forms the city of Cádiz) to get the cattle. On the way there, he crossed
the Libyan desert and became so frustrated at the heat that he shot an
arrow at the Sun. The sun-god Helios "in admiration of his courage" gave
Heracles the golden cup Helios used to sail across the sea from west to
east each night. Heracles rode the cup to Erytheia; Heracles in the cup
was a favorite motif on black-figure pottery. Such a magical conveyance
undercuts any literal geography for Erytheia, the "red island" of the
sunset.
When Heracles landed at Erytheia, he was confronted by the two-headed
dog Orthrus. With one blow from his olive-wood club, Heracles killed
Orthrus. Eurytion the herdsman came to assist Orthrus, but Heracles
dealt with him the same way.
On hearing the commotion, Geryon sprang into action, carrying three
shields and three spears, and wearing three helmets. He attacked
Heracles at the River Anthemus, but was slain by one of Heracles'
poisoned arrows. Heracles shot so forcefully that the arrow pierced
Geryon's forehead, "and Geryon bent his neck over to one side, like a
[24]
poppy that spoils its delicate shapes, shedding its petals all at once."
Heracles then had to herd the cattle back to Eurystheus.
In Roman versions of the narrative, Heracles drove the cattle over
the Aventine Hill on the future site of Rome. The giant Cacus, who lived
there, stole some of the cattle as Heracles slept, making the cattle walk
backwards so that they left no trail, a repetition of the trick of the
young Hermes. According to some versions, Heracles drove his
remaining cattle past the cave, where Cacus had hidden the stolen
animals, and they began calling out to each other. In other versions,
Cacus' sister Caca told Heracles where he was. Heracles then killed
Cacus, and set up an altar on the spot, later the site of Rome's Forum
Boarium (the cattle market).
To annoy Heracles, Hera sent a gadfly to bite the cattle, irritate them, and
scatter them. Within a year, Heracles retrieved them. Hera then sent a
flood which raised the level of a river so much that Heracles could not
cross with the cattle. He piled stones into the river to make the water
shallower. When he finally reached the court of Eurystheus, the cattle
were sacrificed to Hera.
Eleventh: Golden Apples of the Hesperides
The Hesperides were nymphs. In their garden grew golden apples
protected by Ladon, a dragon with a hundred heads. Hercules struck a
bargain with Atlas, who held up the earth. Hercules shouldered the earth
while Atlas, the nymphs' father, fetched the apples.

Atlas and Hercules

Hercules stealing the apples from the Hesperides

After Heracles completed the first ten labours, Eurystheus gave him two
more, claiming that slaying the Hydra did not count
(because Iolaus helped Heracles), neither did cleaning the Augean
Stables (either because he was paid for the job or because the rivers did
the work).The first additional labour was to steal three of the golden
apples from the garden of the Hesperides. Heracles first caught the Old
Man of the Sea, the shapeshifting sea god, to learn where the Garden of
the Hesperides was located.
In some variations, Heracles, either at the start or at the end of this task,
meets Antaeus, who was invincible as long as he touched his
mother, Gaia, the Earth. Heracles killed Antaeus by holding him aloft
and crushing him in a bear hug.
Herodotus claims that Heracles stopped in Egypt, where
King Busiris decided to make him the yearly sacrifice, but Heracles burst
out of his chains.
Heracles finally made his way to the garden of the Hesperides, where he
encountered Atlas holding up the heavens on his shoulders. Heracles
persuaded Atlas to get the three golden Apples for him by offering to
hold up the heavens in his place for a little while. Atlas could get the
apples because, in this version, he was the father or otherwise related to
the Hesperides. This would have made the labour – like the Hydra and
the Augean stables – void because Heracles had received help. When
Atlas returned, he decided that he did not want to take the heavens back,
and instead offered to deliver the apples himself, but Heracles tricked
him by agreeing to remain in place of Atlas on the condition that Atlas
relieve him temporarily while Heracles adjusted his cloak. Atlas agreed,
but Heracles reneged and walked away with the apples. According to an
alternative version, Heracles slew Ladon, the dragon who guarded the
apples instead. Eurystheus was furious that Heracles had accomplished
something that Eurystheus thought could not possibly be done.
 Twelfth: Cerberus

Hercules was ordered to capture Cerberus, the three-headed guard dog

of the underworld, without using weapons. Hercules wrestled down the
dog's wild heads, and it agreed to go with him to King Eurystheus.
Cerberus was soon returned unharmed to the underworld.

After he completed the 12 Labors, Hercules didn't just sit back and rest

on his laurels. He had many more adventures. One was to rescue the
princess of Troy from a hungry sea-monster. Another was to help Zeus
defeat the Giants in a great battle for the control of Olympus. After
finishing the twelve labours Heracles felt peace and tranquility with his
life because he had repented from killing his wife and children. But
Heracles never was never peaceful after the labours.
Q2. Explain the various themes of Homer's 'The
Trojan War?'

Ans: The Trojan War, fought between Greeks and the defenders of

the city of Troy in Anatolia sometime in the late Bronze Age, has grabbed
the imagination for millennia. A conflict between Mycenaeans
and Hittites may well have occurred, but its representation in
epic literature such as Homer’s Iliad is almost certainly more myth than
reality. Nevertheless, it has defined and shaped the way
ancient Greek culture has been viewed right up to the 21st century CE.
The story of gods and heroic warriors is perhaps one of the richest single
surviving sources from antiquity and offers insights into
the warfare, religion, customs, and attitudes of the ancient Greeks.
The main source for our knowledge of the Trojan War is
Homer’s Iliad (written sometime in the 8th century BCE) where he
recounts 52 days during the final year of the ten-year conflict. The Greeks
imagined the war to have occurred sometime in the 13th century BCE.
However, the war was also the subject of a long oral tradition prior to
Homer’s work, and this, combined with other sources such as the
fragmentary Epic Cycle poems, give us a more complete picture of what
exactly the Greeks thought of as the Trojan War.

The Trojan War, in Greek tradition, started as a way for Zeus to reduce

the ever-increasing population of humanity and, more practically, as an
expedition to reclaim Helen, wife of Menelaus, King of Sparta and
brother of Agamemnon. Helen was abducted by the Trojan prince Paris
(also known as Alexandros) and taken as his prize for
choosing Aphrodite as the most beautiful goddess in a competition
with Athena and Hera at the wedding of Peleus and
Thetis. Menelaos and the Greeks wanted her back and to avenge Trojan
impudence.

The coalition of Greek forces (or Archaians as Homer often calls them)
was led by King Agamemnon of Mycenae. Amongst the cities or regions
represented were Boiotia, Phocia, Euboea, Athens, Argos, Corinth,
Arcadia, Sparta, Kephalonia, Crete, Rhodes, Magnesia, and the Cyclades.
Just how many men these totalled is unclear. Homer states an army of
‘tens of thousands’ or rather more poetically ‘as many [men] as the leaves
and flowers that come in springtime’.

Amongst the Greek warriors were some extra special heroes, leaders who
were the greatest fighters and displayed the greatest courage on the
battlefield. Also, they often had a divine mother or father whilst the other
parent was a mortal, thereby creating a genealogical link between the
gods and ordinary men. Amongst the most important
were Achilles, Odysseus, Ajax, Diomedes, Patroklos, Antilokus,
Menestheus, and Idomenus. 

The Greeks were aided by several of the Olympian gods of Greek religion.
Athena, Poseidon, Hera, Hephaistos, Hermes, and Thetis all gave direct
or indirect help to the Greeks in Homer’s account of the war. The gods
had their favourites amongst the men fighting down on the plains of
Troy and they often protected them by deflecting spears and even
spiriting them away in the heat of battle to put them down somewhere
safe, far from danger. 

The Trojan army defending the great city of Troy, led by their king
Priam, had assistance from a long list of allies. These included the
Carians, Halizones, Kaukones, Kikones, Lycians, Maionians, Mysians,
Paionians, Paphlagonians, Pelasgians, Phrygians, and Thracians. The
Trojans, too, had their semi-divine heroes and these included Hektor
(son of Priam), Aeneas, Sarpedon, Glaukos, Phorkys, Poulydamas, and
Rhesos. The Trojans also had help from the gods, receiving assistance
during the battle from Apollo, Aphrodite, Ares, and Leto.

Most of the Trojan War was in a fact a protracted siege, and the city was
able to resist the invaders for so long principally because its fortifications
were so magnificent. Indeed, in Greek mythology, the walls of Troy were
said to have been built by Poseidon and Apollo who, after an act of
impiety, were compelled by Zeus to serve the Trojan King Laomedon for
one year. There were, though, battles outside the city where armies
fought, sometimes with chariots, but mostly by men on foot using spears
and swords and protected by a shield, helmet, and armour for the chest
and legs. War waged back and forth across the plains of Troy over the
years, but the really exciting battles seem to have been reserved for the
final year of the siege and the following are a selection of the highlights.

Themes relate to universal human emotions, relations, and

expressions. There are many themes in The Iliad by Homer. These
themes are not only unique but also universal. Some of the major
themes have been explained and analyzed below.

War

A war testing every character, their humanity, and finer feelings are in

this epic. Although Achilles proves himself a hero, he seeks revenge and
glory without a war. The others continue to fight for their lives on the
battlefield, and violence goes on between two warring sides. It shows that
war and peace have been parts of the social fabric of Homeric times.
Hence, he made war resonate even with the names of the characters.
Gods, too, have not been left immune to this poetic representation. They
are fighting in that war, favoring one hero and going against the other,
making deus ex machina an integral part of the poetry.

Homer did not glorify war. In fact, Hector rather seems to echo Homer
when he says that life or death are returns of a war. Although it glorifies
some, it shows some in bad light and others in poor light. On the other
hand, it also makes heroes weep. The death of Patroclus, the wrath of
Agamemnon, and the life of other characters show how war changes
human beings.

Humanity

Humanity means the demonstration of human passions, compassions,

and finer feelings. Amid war brutality, characters such as Diomedes and
Glaucus find themselves where their forefathers have been friends. The
act of Achilles about the couriers of Agamemnon to take Briseis shows
his humane behavior. However, the seamy side of his character emerges
when he rages on the battlefield and treats Hector’s dead body
mercilessly. At the same time, when Priam appears and appeals to his
emotions to let him treat the same body with honor, he accepts his pleas.
It shows that humanity has not lost amid the ravages of war.

Honor and Pride

Honor and pride are two other major themes of the epic as they get
mixed up with each other at various places. Although honor is quite
distinct from pride and glory, two negative things, if put into feelings, an
honor for the Greeks was of supreme importance. There important
warriors of the epic, Hector, Achilles, and Agamemnon, have honor in
the sight when they are going to the battlefield. Hector and Achilles show
that they prefer to honor and glory to a long life. However, when pride
enters, it shows the real character of a man that does not deserve the
honor. When Achilles and Agamemnon fight with each other, they do
not show humility in treating each other. Agamemnon’s capture of the
woman is a dishonor for Achilles. It hurts his pride.In the same way,
Agamemnon takes pride in his exploits and does not think to seek an
apology for his lowly behavior. Achilles also goes too far to avenge
Patroclus. Hence, Priam has to show humility to get his body back.

Fate

Though humans act as if they possess an unexpected power, gods

determine the fates of different characters. Hence, fate always intervenes
to help some and defeat others. For example, Athena intervenes and
stops Achilles from murdering Agamemnon. At other times, they
intervene to save their favorite heroes, such as in the case of Achilles.
However, such choices and actions where gods do not directly intervene
with the handiwork of the greater gods who do not favor anyone. Fate
then depends on the choice that a person makes in his life. For example,
Achilles acts in a way that he confronts fate, but then gods intervene and
set the course right.
Mortality

Battles are shown between soldiers to determine the morality of one

against the other. A character, Glaucus, clearly states that the mortal
lives of the generations are like leaves that fly away in the wind. Although
gods sometimes give immortal powers to people like Hector and
Diomedes, yet they do not bless them with ultimate immortality. Gods
didn’t want humans to turn against them. The fragility of human life has
been stressed. For example, Achilles was invincible but not immortal
despite being a divine descendant. It happens that his mother leaves his
heel that becomes famous for his vulnerability.

Love and Friendship

Every character shows these virtues in different ways. For example, Little
Ajax becomes a hero when he meets Great Ajax on account of their love
and friendship. The Trojan War erupts on account of Paris’ love for
Helen and Helen’s choice to leave with Paris, rejecting Menelaus. The
mutilation of Patroclus’s dead body by Achilles shows the unpleasant
side of the Grecian hero. However, it gives rise to sympathy and love of
Priam who appeals to Achilles to stop and hand him over his dead body.
Even gods have a love for their children as in the case of Thetis who
pleads the case of Achilles before Zeus.

Pursuit of Glory

The pursuit of glory is closely related to military honor or military

exploits. The epic admires the families having demonstrated military
exploits and feats in the wars. For example, Achilles, Hector, and other
heroes are constantly mentioned as readying for a likely battle.
Andromache appeals to Hector that he should not orphan his son and
leave the battleground. However, Hector knows that he must honor his
father’s name. However, Paris, who chose to say with Helen, does not seek
glory. He is a pacifist without any military qualities, and hence he is not a
seeker of glory.

Duty

Duty and sense of responsibility force Hector to make major decisions

that lead to the war. He insults his brother Paris, who elopes with Helen,
instead of fighting the invading enemy. He terms his responsibility for
bringing devastation to the Trojan merely because he loves a woman.
Although Hector does not hate the Grecians, he believes that their cause
might be right. Yet he takes it as his responsibility to defend the city from
the invading Greeks.

Glorification of War
One can make a strong argument that The Iliad seems to celebrate war.
Characters emerge as worthy or despicable based on their degree of
competence and bravery in battle. Paris, for example, doesn’t like to
fight, and correspondingly receives the scorn of both his family and his
lover. Achilles, on the other hand, wins eternal glory by explicitly
rejecting the option of a long, comfortable, uneventful life at home. The
text itself seems to support this means of judging character and extends
it even to the gods. The epic holds up warlike deities such as Athena for
the reader’s admiration while it makes fun of gods who run from
aggression, using the timidity of Aphrodite and Artemis to create a scene
of comic relief. To fight is to prove one’s honor and integrity, while to
avoid warfare is to demonstrate laziness, ignoble fear, or misaligned
priorities.War is glorified in the epic. Paris presents the unmanly
character as he puts everyone in danger for love. On the other hand,
Hector, Achilles, and Ajax believe in the war as a sense of duty. As they
glorify war and hope to achieve respect, honor. They show wrath against
the enemies. These qualities show a person having virtues even on the
battlefield is considered a hero.

Vulnerability of Human Life

Although The Iliad chronicles a very brief period in a very long war, it

remains acutely conscious of the specific ends awaiting each of the people
involved. Troy is destined to fall, as Hector explains to his wife in Book 6.
The text announces that Priam and all of his children will die—Hector
dies even before the close of the poem. Achilles will meet an early end as
well, although not within the pages of The Iliad. Homer constantly
alludes to this event, especially toward the end of the epic, making clear
that even the greatest of men cannot escape death. Indeed, he suggests
that the very greatest—the noblest and bravest—may yield to death
sooner than others. Similarly, The Iliad recognizes, and repeatedly
reminds its readers, that the creations of mortals have a mortality of
their own. The glory of men does not live on in their constructions,
institutions, or cities. The prophecy of Calchas, as well as Hector’s tender
words with Andromache and the debates of the gods, constantly remind
the reader that Troy’s lofty ramparts will fall. But the Greek fortifications
will not last much longer. Though the Greeks erect their bulwarks only
partway into the epic, Apollo and Poseidon plan their destruction as
early as Book 12. The poem thus emphasizes the ephemeral nature of
human beings and their world, suggesting that mortals should try to live
their lives as honorably as possible, so that they will be remembered well.
For if mortals’ physical bodies and material creations cannot survive
them, perhaps their words and deeds can. Certainly the existence of
Homer’s poem would attest to this notion.
Fragility and vulnerability of human life is another minor theme. When
Patroclus is killed, Agamemnon is filled with wrath and goes on a killing
spree. He cannot bring back Patroclus. Similarly, Achilles, despite being
a demi-god, dies during the war.

Military Glory over Family Life

A theme in The Iliad closely related to the glory of war is the
predominance of military glory over family. The text clearly admires the
reciprocal bonds of deference and obligation that bind Homeric families
together, but it respects much more highly the pursuit of kleos, the
“glory” or “renown” that one wins in the eyes of others by performing
great deeds. Homer constantly forces his characters to choose between
their loved ones and the quest for kleos, and the most heroic characters
invariably choose the latter. Andromache pleads with Hector not to risk
orphaning his son, but Hector knows that fighting among the front
ranks represents the only means of “winning my father great glory.”
Paris, on the other hand, chooses to spend time with Helen rather than
fight in the war; accordingly, both the text and the other characters treat
him with derision. Achilles debates returning home to live in ease with
his aging father, but he remains at Troy to win glory by killing Hector
and avenging Patroclus. The gravity of the decisions that Hector and
Achilles make is emphasized by the fact that each knows his fate ahead
of time. The characters prize so highly the martial values of honor, noble
bravery, and glory that they willingly sacrifice the chance to live a long
life with those they love

Q3 Justify 'Orpheus and Eurydice' as a tragic love

story?
Ans: Orpheus was the son of Apollo and he was a very gifted musician
whose music could charm mortals, animals and the trees. Eurydice was
the wife of Orpheus and one day Eurydice was wandering with the
nymphs and a shepherd named Aristaeus attempted to make advance
toward Eurydice and she ran off. While running she was bitten by a
snake and died. Being so grief stricken Orpheus played his sorrows in his
music which was heard by gods and men.

In such need for his love he went in search Eurydice in the underworld.
In the underworld he sang his sorrow with such perfection that Pluto,
Proserpine and all of the ghosts of the underworld stopped. Orpheus’s
song made Proserpine and Pluto grant him his desire. They let Eurydice
leave with him under one condition; he could not look at her until they
left the underworld.When they nearly left the underworld Orpheus had
forgotten his promise and wanted to assure that Eurydice was following
him he looked at her and she was instantly gone. Orpheus didn’t even
have a chance to hug his love. In such love for his wife Orpheus wanted to
follow her in death. He wandered back into the underworld and kept
playing his heartbreaking song. Orpheus’s singing had caused the
Thracian maidens to get angry and screamed to drown out his
overpowering music. The maidens ripped him apart and placed his
remains at Libethra. Now in death Orpheus and Eurydice walk the fields
together in true happiness. 

The story of Orpheus and Eurydice is the ultimate tragic love story.
Perhaps one of the most famous Greek myths, it has inspired many
important painters, such as Peter Paul Rubens and Nicolas Poussin.
Moreover, many operas, songs and plays have been composed to honour
these two great lovers who tragically lost the chance to enjoy their love.
The story of Orpheus and Eurydice has been told in many versions with a
few differences between them. The earliest account comes from Ibycus
(circa 530 BC), a Greek lyric poet. Hereby we present you a mixture of
these various versions.

Orpheus, talented at playing music:

Orpheus is known as the most talented music player of the ancient times.
It is said that god Apollo was his father, from whom took his extreme
talent in music, and the Muse Calliope was his mother. He was living in
Thrace, on the northeastern part of Greece. Orpheus had a divinely gifted
voice that could charm everyone who heard it. When he was presented
first the lyre as a boy, he had it mastered in no time at all. The myth says
that no god or mortal could resist his music and even the rocks and trees
would move themselves to be near him.

According to some ancient texts, Orpheus is accredited to have taught

agriculture, writing and medicine to the mankind. He is also attributed
with having been an astrologer, a seer and founder of many mystic rites.
The strange and ecstatic music of Orpheus would intrigue the mind of
people to things over natural and had the power to broaden the mind to
new unusual theories.

However, apart from a musical talent, Orpheus also had an adventurous

character. He was believed to have taken part in the Argonautic
expedition, which is the voyage of Jason and his fellow Argonauts to get
to Colchis and steal the Golden Fleece. In fact, Orpheus played a vital role
during the expedition because, playing his music, he put to sleep the
"sleepless dragon" that was guarding the Golden Fleece and thus Jason
managed to get the Fleece. Moreover, the music of Orpheus saved the
Argonauts from the Sirens, the strange female-like creatures who were
seducing men with their nice voice and then they were killing them.
Love at first sight

Orpheus used to spend much of his early years in the idyllic pursuits of
music and poetry. His skill had far surpassed the fame and respect of his
music. Humans and beasts alike would be enchanted by it and often
even the most inanimate of objects would yearn to be near him. Well into
his youth he had mastered the lyre and his melodious voice garnered
him audiences from near and afar. It was at one such gathering of
humans and beasts that his eyes fell on a wood nymph. The girl was
called Eurydice, she was beautiful and shy. She had been drawn to
Orpheus enamored by his voice and such was the spell of beauty in
music and appearance that neither could cast their eyes off each other.
Something inexplicable tugged the hearts of the two young people and
soon they feltl dearly in love, unable to spend a single moment apart.
After a while, they decided to get married.
Their wedding day dawned bright and clear. Hymenaios, the god of
marriage, blessed their marriage and then a great feast followed. The
surroundings were filled with laughter and gaiety. Soon the shadows
grew large, signaling an end to the revelry that had lasted much of the
day and the wedding guests all took leave of the newly-weds, who were
still sitting hand-in-hand and starry eyed. They soon both realized that it
was time they were on their way and departed for home.

The snake-bite

However, things would soon change and grief would ensue happiness.
There was one man who was despising Orpheus and desired Eurydice for
his own. Aristaeus, a shepherd, had plotted a plan to conquer the
beautiful nymph. And there he was, waiting in the bushes for the young
couple to pass by. Seeing that the lovers were approaching, he intended
to jump on them and kill Orpheus. As the shepherd made his move,
Orpheus grabbed Eurydice by the hand and started running pell-mell
through the forest.

The chase was long and Aristaeus showed no signs of giving up or

slowing down. On and on they ran and suddenly, Orpheus felt Eurydice
stumble and fall, her hand slipping from his grasp. Unable to
comprehend what had just happened, he rushed to her side but stopped
short in dismay, for his eyes perceived the deathly pallor that suffused
her cheeks. Looking around, he saw no trace of the shepherd for
Aristaeus had witnessed the event and had left. Few steps away, Eurydice
had stepped on a nest of snakes and had been bitten by a deadly viper.
Knowing that there was no chance of survival, Aristaeus had abandoned
his try, cursing his luck and Orpheus.
A supernatural plan

After the death of his beloved wife, Orpheus was no more the same
carefree person he used to be. His life without Eurydice seemed endless
and could do nothing more than grief for her. This is when he had a
great but yet crazy idea: he decided to go to Underworld and try to get
his wife back. Apollo, his father, would talk to Hades, the god of the
Underworld, to accept him and hear his plea.

Armed with his weapons, the lyre and voice, Orpheus approached Hades
and demanded entry into the underworld. None challenged him.
Standing in front of the rulers of the dead, Orpheus said why he was
there, in a voice both mellifluous and disquieting. He played his lyre and
sang out to King Hades and Queen Persephone that Eurydice was
returned to him. Not even the most stone-hearted of people or Gods
could have neglected the hurt in his voice.
Hades openly wept, Persephone's heart melted and even Cerberus, the
gigantic three-headed hound guarding the entry to the underworld,
covered his many ears with his paws and howled in despair. The voice of
Orpheus was so moving that Hades promised to this desperate man that
Eurydice would follow him to the Upper World, the world of the living.
However, he warned Orpheus that for no reason must he look back while
his wife was still in the dark, for that would undo everything he hoped
for. He should wait for Eurydice to get into the light before he looked at
her.

With great faith in his heart and joy in his song, Orpheus began his
journey out of the underworld, joyful that he would once again be
reunited with his love. As Orpheus was reaching the exit of the
Underworld, he could hear the footfalls of his wife approaching him. He
wanted to turn around and hug her immediately but managed to control
his feelings. As his was approaching the exit, his heart was beating faster
and faster. The moment he stepped on the world of the living, he turned
his head to hug his wife. Unfortunately, he got only a glimpse of
Eurydice before she was once again drawn back into the underworld.

When Orpheus turned his head, Eurydice was still in the dark, she
hadn't seen the sun and, as Hades had warned Orpheus, his sweet wife
was drowned back to the dark world of the dead. Waves of anguish and
despair swept over him and shuddering with grief he approached the
Underworld again but this time, he was denied entry, the gates were
standing shut and god Hermes, sent by Zeus, wouldn't let him in.

The death of Orpheus

From then on, the heart-broken musician was wandering disoriented,

day after day, night after night, in total despair. He could find no
consolation in anything. His misfortune tormented him, forcing him to
abstain from contact with any other woman and slowly but surely he
found himself shunning their company completely. His songs were no
more joyful but extremely sad. His only comfort was to lay on a huge
rock and feel the caress of the breeze, his only vision were the open skies.

And so it was that a group of irate women, furious for his scorn towards
them, chanced upon him. Orpheus was so desperate that he did not even
try to repulse their advances. The women killed him, cut his body into
pieces and threw them and his lyre into a river. It is said that his head
and his lyre floated downriver to the island of Lesvos. There the Muses
found them and gave Orpheus a proper burial ceremony. People believed
that his grave emanated music, plaintive yet beautiful. His soul
descended down to Hades where he was finally reunited with his beloved
Eurydice.
The comparison to a Bible scene

If you observe the above myth closely, you will find a comparison between
this ancient Greek myth and a scene from the Bible. The myth of
Orpheus and Eurydice is similar to the story of Lot. The analogy of "not
looking back" is of great importance to both stories.

In the Book of Genesis, when God decided to destroy Sodom and

Gomorrah, two cities drowned in sins, he ordered a good man, Lot, to
take his family and leave the area. God told them to head for the
mountains without looking back the city being destroyed. While they
were leaving the city, Lot's wife couldn't resist and turned around to see
the burning cities. She was immediately transformed into a pillar of salt!
This may be inferred as a direct and terrifying consequence of
disobedience towards God.
Hercules and Cerberus

The twelfth and final labour was the capture of Cerberus, the three-
headed, dragon-tailed dog that was the guardian of the gates of
the Underworld. To prepare for his descent into the Underworld,
Heracles went to Eleusis (or Athens) to be initiated in the Eleusinian
Mysteries. He entered the Underworld, and Hermes and Athena were his
guides.
While in the Underworld, Heracles met Theseus and Pirithous. The two
companions had been imprisoned by Hades for attempting to
kidnap Persephone. One tradition tells of snakes coiling around their
legs, then turning into stone; another that Hades feigned hospitality and
prepared a feast inviting them to sit. They unknowingly sat in chairs of
forgetfulness and were permanently ensnared. When Heracles had
pulled Theseus first from his chair, some of his thigh stuck to it (this
explains the supposedly lean thighs of Athenians), but the Earth shook
at the attempt to liberate Pirithous, whose desire to have the goddess for
himself was so insulting he was doomed to stay behind.
Heracles found Hades and asked permission to bring Cerberus to the
surface, which Hades agreed to if Heracles could subdue the beast
without using weapons. Heracles overpowered Cerberus with his bare
hands and slung the beast over his back. He carried Cerberus out of the
Underworld through a cavern entrance in the Peloponnese and brought
it to Eurystheus, who again fled into his pithos. Eurystheus begged
Heracles to return Cerberus to the Underworld, offering in return to
release him from any further labours when Cerberus disappeared back
to his master.