8 - (Lik-5) PIARC Litterature Review - Use of Recycled Materials in Pavements (2021)

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2021LR02EN
USE OF RECYCLED MATERIALS

IN PAVEMENTS
PIARC LITERATURE REVIEW
TECHNICAL COMMITTEE 4.1 PAVEMENTS
STATEMENTS
The World Road Association (PIARC) is a nonprofit organisation established in 1909 to improve international
co-operation and to foster progress in the field of roads and road transport.
The study that is the subject of this report was defined in the PIARC Strategic Plan 2020– 2023 and approved
by the Council of the World Road Association, whose members are representatives of the member national
governments. The members of the Technical Committee responsible for this report were nominated by the
member national governments for their special competences.
Any opinions, findings, conclusions and recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors
and do not necessarily reflect the views of their parent organisations or agencies.
This report is available from the internet site of the World Road Association (PIARC): http://www.piarc.org
Copyright by the World Road Association. All rights reserved.
World Road Association (PIARC)

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International Standard Book Number: 978-2-84060-646-8
Front cover © L. Rens, FEBELCEM

PIARC LITERATURE REVIEW
USE OF RECYCLED MATERIALS
IN PAVEMENTS
TECHNICAL COMMITTEE 4.1 PAVEMENTS
USE OF RECYCLED MATERIALS IN PAVEMENTS 2021LR02EN
AUTHORS/ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This literature review has been prepared by the Technical Committee 4.1 Pavements of the World
Road Association (PIARC).
The editors-in-chief of this literature review are:

● Emanuele TORALDO (Italy)
● Didier BODIN (Australia)
The editors of the individual chapters are:

● Didier BODIN (Australia)
● Margo BRIESSINCK (Belgium)
● Serge KRAFFT (France)
● Naailah MIA (South Africa)
● Luc RENS (Belgium)
● Thierry SEDRAN (France)
● Emanuele TORALDO (Italy)
● Curt TURGEON (USA)
The following members also contributed to this literature review: Gina AHLSTROM (USA), Joralf
AURSTAD (Norway), Aïda BERGAOUI SRIHA (Tunisa), Zsolt BOROS (Slovakia), Eugenia Conceiçao das
Neves Silva CORREIA (Portugal), Maurizio CRISPINO (Italy), José DEL CERRO GRAU (Spain), Jesús
DIAZ MINGUELA (Spain), Simona FONTUL (Portugal), Leila HASHEMIAN (Canada), Stefan HÖLLER
(Germany), Mario Roberto JAIR (Argentina), Mario KRMEK (Austria), Andreas LOIZOS (Greece),
Francisco José LUCAS OCHOA (Spain), Pahirangan SIVAPATHAM (Germany), Shigeki TAKAHASHI
(Japan), Sufiyan Bin ZAKARIA (Malaysia).
The language review of the original English version was done by Curt TURGEON (USA). The
translation into French of the original version was produced by Thierry SEDRAN (France). The
translation into Spanish of the original version was produced by Francisco José LUCAS OCHOA
(Spain) and Mario JAIR (Argentina).
Mario KRMEK (Austria) and Pahirangan SIVAPATHAM (Germany) were responsible of the quality
control for the production of this literature review.
The Technical Committee was chaired by Margo BRIESSINCK (Belgium). Gina AHLSTROM (USA), Aïda
BERGAOUI SRIHA (Tunisa) and José DEL CERRO GRAU (Spain) were respectively the English, French
and Spanish-speaking secretaries.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
2021LR02EN
USE OF RECYCLED MATERIALS IN PAVEMENTS

Back in 2003, PIARC published a report from Technical Committee C7/8 on “Pavement Recycling”.
This report contains guidelines for in-place recycling with cement, emulsion or foamed bitumen and
hot mix recycling in a plant.
The current literature review is part of a set of three publications on the “Use of Recycled Materials
in Pavements” expected for the 2020-2023 cycle.
This literature review describes:

● recycling in-place using hydraulic and/or bituminous binders, it also addresses the
preliminary investigations of the existing pavement prior to recycling it;
● recycling or re-using in-plant where the recycled materials are mixed in plant, adding
hydraulic or bituminous binders, to produce a mix for asphalt or concrete pavements, or
for road base layers.
A second publication is a collection of case studies.
This literature review does not contain any conclusions or recommendations on recycling pavement
materials. They will be part of a third publication, which is a briefing note.
2
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................... 4
1.1. OBJECTIVES OF RECYCLING AND RE-USING ............................................. 4
1.2. MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT MIXES .......................................................... 5
1.3. READING GUIDE .................................................................................... 6
1.4. METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 8
2. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION FOR IN-PLACE RECYCLING 9
2.1. GENERAL ............................................................................................. 9
2.2. FIELD INVESTIGATION ............................................................................ 9
2.3. CHARACTERIZATION OF IN PLACE MATERIALS .......................................... 9
2.4. NON DESTRUCTIVE PAVEMENT EVALUATION TECHNIQUES ....................... 11
2.5. IN-PLACE RECYCLING SELECTION CONSIDERATION OVERVIEW ................. 14
3. IN-PLACE RECYCLING - HYDRAULIC BINDERS ................... 16
3.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 16
3.2. MIXTURE AND MIX DESIGN ................................................................... 23
3.3. QUALITY CONTROLS ............................................................................ 27
4. IN-PLACE RECYCLING – BITUMINOUS BINDERS ................. 31
4.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 31
4.2. MIXTURE AND MIX DESIGN ................................................................... 31
4.3. QUALITY CONTROL ............................................................................. 47
4.4. OVERVIEW OF HOT IN-PLACE ASPHALT REUSE (HIPAR) ......................... 48
5. IN PLANT REUSE OF RECLAIMED ASPHALT PAVEMENT
(RAP) ................................................................................................. 53
5.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 53
5.2. RECLAIMED ASPHALT PAVEMENT (RAP) ............................................... 53
5.3. CLASSIFICATION AND TESTING FOR RAP QUALITY ................................. 55
5.4. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS RELATED WITH AMOUNT OF ADDED RECLAIMED
ASPHALT ........................................................................................................ 58
5.5. MIXING PLANT ..................................................................................... 64

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6. RECYCLING OF MATERIALS IN A CONCRETE PAVEMENT

WITH MIXES MADE IN-PLANT ......................................................... 71
6.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 71
6.2. RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATE (RCA) ........................................... 71
6.3. CONCRETE WITH RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATES ........................... 81
6.4. CONCRETE WITH RECYCLED ASPHALT AGGREGATES ............................. 86
6.5. TWO-LAYER CONCRETE PAVEMENTS (OR TWO-LIFT CONSTRUCTION) ....... 87
6.6. ROLLER COMPACTED CONCRETE (RCC) PAVEMENTS ............................ 93
7. RECYCLING OF MATERIALS IN BASE LAYERS WITH MIXES
MADE IN-PLANT ............................................................................... 94
7.1. RECYCLED MATERIALS........................................................................ 94
7.2. BASE LAYERS WITH A BITUMINOUS BINDER .......................................... 98
7.3. BASE LAYERS WITH A HYDRAULIC BINDER ........................................... 98
7.4. UNBOUND BASE LAYERS WITH RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATES ..... 98
8. GLOSSARY .............................................................................. 100
9. REFERENCES .......................................................................... 101
4
1. INTRODUCTION
This literature review gives an overview of how to re-use and recycle road pavement materials and
artificial aggregates. Examples of recycling pavements is the subject of a separate “Collection of
Case Studies”.
1.1. OBJECTIVES OF RECYCLING AND RE-USING

Initially economics was the main driver to recycle pavements or other waste materials. They are
available at low cost, at or nearby the job site and there’s no need to excavate and transport virgin
granular materials. The last decades sustainability, environmental and increased life cycle thinking
have become equally strong drivers for recycling for mainly the same reasons: less transport of
materials, hence less green house gas emissions, lower energy need to prepare the materials for
use and decreased extraction of primary materials. Because of increasing environmental
awareness, there can also be legal reasons to recycle materials, e.g. the European Parliament has
issued a directive which “lays down measures to protect the environment and human health by
preventing or reducing the adverse impacts of the generation and management of waste and by
reducing overall impacts of resource use and improving the efficiency of such use” [1.1].
The life cycle of a pavement consists traditionally of three phases: construction phase, use phase
and disposal phase, sometimes summarized as the "cradle-to-grave" principle of the traditional
linear economy. When the sustainability factor of recycling is added, the term "cradle-to-cradle"
can be used to define a more circular economy. In theory, this cycle can continue indefinitely to
give the pavement materials a 3rd or even more lives. Nevertheless, a reduced quality can be
expected, e.g. regarding the quality of the old bitumen [1.2 - 1.3].
The European waste hierarchy as defined in the “Waste Framework Directive”, identifies five steps
for dealing with waste materials:
• prevention;
• preparing for re-use;
• recycling;
• other recovery;
• disposal.
This hierarchy is also referred to as “Lansink’s Ladder”. The idea is that you first to try to prevent
the generation of waste, then re-use or recycle it, and only then decide on incinerating (with or
without energy recovery) or dumping it in landfills.
Recycling of pavement materials fits in step 3 of this hierarchy, where the existing materials are
recovered from the road pavement and, after some treatment (crushing, sieving, adding extra
materials and/or a binder), is re-used as a pavement layer1 . In the ideal case, the road material is
re-used in the same application, as is the case with re-using reclaimed asphalt pavements in asphalt
mixes. Downcycling is the re-use of material in a mix with a lower quality than the original, e.g. the
1
according to the PIARC dictionary, the pavement consists of the road pavement and the road base
5
re-use of a crushed concrete pavement in an unbound granular base. Recycling of a road pavement
in a base layer, such as the re-use of a crushed concrete pavement in an unbound granular base, is
mostly considered as downcycling. However, it is often the most sustainable way to recycle these
aggregates because of lower associated CO2 emissions.
The use of recycled concrete aggregates can have an additional environmental effect because of
re-carbonation. Cement carbonation refers to the process where CO 2 is re-absorbed by the
hardened concrete (calcium hydroxide in the cement paste reacts with carbon dioxide from the air
and forms calcium carbonate). For concrete pavements, this is a very slow process during their
service life because of the high quality of the concrete. If the concrete is crushed, its exposed
surface area increases, and this facilitates carbonation. The carbonation rate is even greater if
stockpiles of crushed concrete are left exposed to the air prior to re-use. To benefit from the CO2
trapping potential, crushed concrete should be exposed to atmospheric CO2 for a period of several
months before its re-use. Up to 20% of the originally emitted CO2 during the cement
manufacturing can be reabsorbed when proper recycling practices are applied. In addition,
carbonation has another advantage: it improves the quality of the recycled aggregates by plugging
the porosity thus making them even more suitable for re-use. The FastCarb research project [1.4]
aims at accelerating the carbonation process by using CO2 at higher temperature and pressure. It
consists of an experimental approach in the laboratory and an implementation at industrial scale.
However, there are still potential barriers to recycling of pavement materials, including:
• specifications do not permit the use of recycled materials,

• lack of awareness of methods available for recycling, developments in specifications and
successful projects,
• perception that the use of recycled materials and recycling is a high-risk activity with
pavement mixes of a lower quality,
• where cheap natural aggregates are available, recycled materials may not be price
competitive,
• concerns about leaching of contaminants from recycled materials,
• practical difficulties with individual materials and methods, which are often site specific.
Most, if not all, of these concerns can be overcome, as will be become clear in this report.
1.2. MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT MIXES

In theory, different types of wastes can be recycled in pavement layers. However, these guidelines
only deal with the re-use of pavement materials with an asphalt pavement, a concrete pavement
or a road base as its source, or artificial aggregates. Other waste materials, such as concrete from
structures or buildings, bricks, plastics, etc. are not dealt with in these guidelines.
The following terminology is used:
• recycled concrete aggregates (RCA): aggregates from crushing a concrete pavement;

• reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP): aggregates from crushing or milling an asphalt
pavement;
• artificial aggregates: limited to the by-product of the metal production industry.
6
In most cases, the recycled materials are used as inert aggregates. The exception is the re-use of
RAP in a new asphalt mix; in this case the available “old” bitumen can (partially) replace a certain
amount of new bitumen. The cement mortar of RCA has still a latent hydraulic potential, but the
effect is rather limited.
In most cases a new binder is added. Depending on the application the following binders can be
used:
• hydraulic binders:
○ cement,
○ hydraulic road binders,
• bituminous binders:
○ bitumen, polymer modified bitumen (PmB), etc.,
○ bitumen emulsion,
○ foamed bitumen,
• combination of hydraulic and bituminous binders.
The pavement mix with recycled aggregates should ideally comply with the same performance
requirements as mixes with virgin materials, such as stiffness, fatigue properties of asphalt and
concrete mixes, compressive strength of bound road base materials, etc. A dedicated mix design
when using recycled materials is essential. If for some reason it is not possible to reach the same
performance, then an adapted road design might be necessary.
We distinguish between where the mixing is carried out:
• in-place - The aggregates are milled and without further preparation mixed with the binder
at the location of the road itself. The recycled pavement material is usually deriving from
an asphalt pavement or a road base. The materials from the existing pavement are the main
constituents, sometimes with the addition of some new aggregates. The binder is either
spread on the surface of the pavement (e.g. in the case of cement) or pumped into the
recycling equipment from a tanker (e.g. bitumen or bitumen emulsion) or generated in the
equipment itself (e.g. foam bitumen), and then mixed with the milled aggregates. Water, if
necessary, can be added during the mixing process.
• in-plant - The recycled aggregates are stockpiled and then processed to obtain an
appropriate grading. They are finally mixed in a plant to produce a new concrete mix, an
asphalt mix or a cement-treated pavement mix. This mix is transported to the job site and
put in place.
1.3. READING GUIDE

Figure 1-1 gives a summary of the different aspects.
7
Figure 1-1: flowchart [Image: Briessinck, M.]
Chapter 2 gives an overview of some preliminary investigations of the existing pavement prior to
recycling it. Chapters 3 and 4 of these guidelines focus on the in-place recycling process with
hydraulic and bituminous binders respectively. Chapters 5, 6 and 7 deal with the in-plant production
of bituminous, concrete and base layer mixes and its applications.
Table 1-1-1 gives an overview of the possible applications where recycled aggregates can be used.
recycled aggregate binder in-place in-plant
artificial aggregate concrete pavement

hydraulic binder -
road base
asphalt pavement
bituminous binder -
road base
asphalt aggregate concrete pavement

hydraulic binder road base
road base
asphalt pavement asphalt pavement

bituminous binder
road base road base
concrete aggregate hydraulic binder road base concrete pavement

8
road base
bituminous binder - -
road base aggregate hydraulic binder road base road base
bituminous binder road base road base
Table 1-1: possible applications of the use of recycled aggregate
1.4. METHODOLOGY
This literature review continues the work on pavement recycling which started during the 2012-
2015 cycle. Those (unpublished) draft guidelines were updated with the current practice of
recycling pavement materials, as practiced around the world. The literature review reports on the
basic information on the different techniques, while more in-depth information can be found in the
references.
9
2. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION FOR IN-PLACE RECYCLING

2.1. GENERAL
The success of in-place recycling requires a detailed investigation prior to the selection of an
appropriate recycling technique. Information about the pavement composition, subgrade and
drainage conditions are crucial to the understanding of the causes of distress. Finding the original
construction drawings or tender documentation and interviewing long term employees should also
assist in the preparation of the field investigation. When a pavement management system is
operated, information about traffic loadings, pavement condition and deflection testing results will
help with preparation and interpretation of the field investigation. Original pavement design,
structural adequacy for design, and past traffic will help the analysis of the causes of distress and
the in-situ recycling strategy. Reviewing constraints on finished pavement surface level, existing
drainage and public utilities should be done as part of the preliminary investigation as it may affect
methods and techniques used in the testing program.
2.2. FIELD INVESTIGATION

A preliminary evaluation in order to ascertain the existing pavement conditions is required and it
must include:
(I) thickness, composition, and mechanical properties of the pavement layers
(including subgrade);
(II) distresses detection and causes definition;
(III) characterization of the materials composing the layer(s) to be recycled.
Because a recycling project is, in most of cases, part of a pavement rehabilitation that includes other
pavement layers, the preliminary investigation must be devoted to analyse the current thickness,
composition and mechanical properties of the existing pavement, including the subgrade.
In order to ascertain the feasibility of recycling a pavement, it is necessary to identify if distresses
come mainly from poor quality of the pavement (insufficient thickness, granular layers
contaminated with clay, debonded bituminous layers, etc.), if the pavement has reached the end
of its service life, or if there are some problems related to the subgrade and/or embankments. In
the two first cases, hydraulic (and/or bituminous) binder recycling is generally a valuable option.
In place recycling will not address distresses occurring deeper in the structure due to soft, unstable
layers, frost heave, high water table or lack of drainage. The focus should be on the distresses in
the pavement layers and potentially the material immediately below the surface. Distresses that
can be addressed include cracking, ravelling and rutting. Pavements with severe alligator cracking
may not be good candidates for in-place recycling since the profiling equipment may not be
designed to process blocks from severely cracked pavement layers.
2.3. CHARACTERIZATION OF IN PLACE MATERIALS

The success of an in-place recycling project is directly related to the level of detail known about the
existing materials. Historical documents from previous projects should be examined. Interviewing
anyone present during previous projects also adds value. This information rarely quantifies the
variability of the in-place materials. It is critical that extensive sampling and testing be performed.
Material sampled during the preliminary investigation will be used for characterization and mix
10
design. Consideration should be given to the quantity of material necessary to undertake to the
entire testing program.
Regarding the layers to be recycled, a complete characterization of the in-situ available materials is
crucial in order to obtain the expected (and required) performance of the final layer. It is also
essential to determine whether this technique is feasible or not, and, if yes, to define both type and
quantity of the hydraulic or bituminous binder during the following step of mix-design. It is also
important to have in mind that one of the key aspects for the success of recycling is that the
materials obtained from the recycling must be reasonably homogeneous, in both the longitudinal
alignment and in the cross-sections. It should be noted that in-place recycling uses the existing
pavement as a source of aggregates.
2.3.1. Coring
The most common means of sampling the existing pavement is cutting cylindrical cores. Cores can
be cut and patched relatively quickly with minor disruption to road users in most cases. The typical
size of 150 mm diameter limits the ability to obtain significant samples of underlying layers. A
typical sampling rate is one core per 2 km, but should be increased if wide variations appear to be
present. Location and condition of each core should be documented including photographs.
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer testing in each core hole should be considered to determine base
stiffness and subgrade properties. Core samples should be retained for laboratory testing and to be
use in the mix design process.
2.3.2. Test Pit
A test pit is created by sawing a rectangular area of pavement and excavating to the depth of
interest (Figure 2-1). The pavement slab and subsequent layers should be collected separately for
use in the mix design process. This approach is much more disruptive to road users than coring. It
provides much better information about layers and sampling opportunities albeit in a limited
location. It may not be practical to dig multiple test pits across the length of a project.
Ideally, a minimum of three test pits should be excavated in each uniform section; one located
where distress is evident, one where there is no distress and a third where the road condition is
judged to be representative of the average condition. Additional test pits are usually excavated
where the uniform section is in excess of 5 km as well as at locations where specific information is
required.
If it is anticipated that the in-situ recycling will involve a small proportion of subgrade material, it
should also be collected for the subsequent laboratory characterisation testing.
11
Figure 1-1: Example of a Test Pit [Image: Sivapatham, P.]
Test pits are normally excavated to the depth of the subgrade, 1.5 m in length and 1 m wide,
positioned across the outer wheel path. They are sometimes extended across the full lane width to
provide information concerning previous widening exercises and/or for identifying problems in a
specific layer. Samples are taken from each layer encountered and stored separately for laboratory
testing. Where recycling is envisioned, sufficient material for mix designs needs to be taken from
each layer likely to fall within the recycling horizon.
For unbound granular materials fine content and plasticity will be key to inform the preliminary
selection of binders.
2.4. NON DESTRUCTIVE PAVEMENT EVALUATION TECHNIQUES

The following section provides an overview of the most commonly used non-destructive pavement
evaluation techniques. More details can be found in the PIARC state of the art report dedicated to
the pavement condition monitoring technologies [2.1].
2.4.1. Pavement Stiffness – Deflection Measurement.
The uniformity of pavement support is most accurately measured with one of the following
deflection-based devices. Inconsistent support will be an issue for the pavement designer as well
as ensuring constructability considering use of heavy in place recycling equipment.
• Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) – FWD is the most common means to test an asphalt
pavements overall strength. For a complete assessment of the data, analysis should include
deflection bowl parameters such as the maximum deflection and curvature as well as back
calculated layer moduli using known pavement thickness.
• Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) – A LWD is a much smaller and portable pavement
deflection device. Its influence depth is relatively limited but it can be used as part of data
collection. It is better suited for the quality and compaction control during construction.
• Benkelman Beam – Benkelman beam testing is a cost-effective means of testing short
sections of existing roads to determine weak areas requiring rehabilitation treatment.
• Traffic Speed Deflectometer (TSD) – TSD allows for deflection data collection at highway
speeds. This device is relatively rare but will provide a continuous deflection measurement
for the complete length tested. TSD provides a pavement defection profile. The results can
12
facilitate the determination of uniform sections can be related to FWD deflections,

estimated pavement layer moduli [2.2].
When the above mentioned pavement deflection data is not available, the plate loading test can
provide an alternative means of estimation of the bearing capacity of the road length considered
for rehabilitation.
2.4.2. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
GPR consists of an antenna that emits and receives short electromagnetic pulses. The waveforms
from the reflected pulses are collected as the data collection vehicle moves along the surface.
Amplitudes and arrival times of the waveforms are used to determine boundary layers between
differing materials such as asphalt mix and unbound base (Figure 2-2).
Figure 2-2: Ground Penetrating Radar Collection Vehicle and Schematic [2.3]
The data collection vehicle travels at regular roadway speeds. Collection results in a longitudinal
cross section of data. If there is a concern regarding the uniformity of the transverse direction,
multiple scans could be performed or data collected transversely across the roadway. The resulting
scans are shown below (Figure 2-3 and Figure 2-4).
Figure 2-3: Raw GPR Data Sample

13
Figure 2-4: Raw GPR Data Sample with Pavement Depth Denoted
Extensive training and experience are required for accurate data interpretation. Figure 2-4 is the
result of an operator training the software to find the layer interface. (as seen in blue) Borings or
cores should always be taken to provide ground truth of the GPR process (and samples for mix
design).
Existing road pavements are heterogeneous along their layout as a result of: i) different
construction conditions such as: year, structural solution, available materials and ii) systematic
maintenance works along service life: repairs, enlargements, rehabilitations, etc. Therefore, GPR
application to pavement structure assessment previous recycling is crucial for work planning. Using
GPR, continuous information on the layers materials and thicknesses is obtained and the changes
in pavement structure can be located with high precision. Nevertheless, due to significant influence
of water content on dielectric constants, the GPR results should be always validated through coring
and test pits.
2.4.3. Combining pavement investigation techniques
The available destructive and non-destructive testing methods are presented in Sections 2.1 to 2.4.
They provide information about the construction, material composition, load-bearing capacity, the
different distress mechanism and the possible cause of damage. The cost and practical constraints
of each test vary largely, and each technique provides partial information or requires further
calibration.
A thorough division into homogeneous sections can be made based on GPR and pavement stiffness
information. This division supports an improved management of the recycling process by giving a
precise definition of the required milling depth but also informs on potential recycling solutions for
each homogeneous section.
Drilling cores in selected locations is the most cost-effective means to determine the pavement
composition and layer thicknesses and to determine the material properties and damage, keeping
in mind that the characterization is restricted to the location of extraction. Test pits involve higher
cost and traffic disturbance but have the additional benefit to potentially investigate the transverse
profile and extract larger quantities of materials required for characterization and mix design
testing.
When available, the cost and traffic management constraints of GPR and TSD measurements are
significantly lower but the measurements require further calibration from local thickness
evaluation. They provide a full profile of the pavement properties along the length of the project
14
and perfect means of capturing changes in pavement composition or localised lack of bearing
capacity.
The pavement testing plan needs to be tailored with the best combination of individual
investigation techniques so that traffic restrictions and the examination outcome is optimized e.g.
Geo-radar measurements together with cores or test pits in selected locations to provide an overall
evaluation of the imperfections and thickness of the individual layers and imperfections in a section.
It is also possible to combine the measured results of the traffic speed deflectometer with the geo-
radar measurements calibrated with cores data for the best assessment of the existing pavement.
2.5. IN-PLACE RECYCLING SELECTION CONSIDERATION OVERVIEW

In addition to the pavement investigation, the project selection criteria may be affected by a range
of other considerations.
The project, environmental and construction constraints may include:
• Must traffic be maintained during the construction period?
• Road closure and curing time will depend on the recycling technology and local practices.
However, a period between 7 and 30 days is often preferred, or a minimum of 3 weeks when using
hydraulic binders.
• Presence of geotextiles, steel grids (used in Scandinavia to reduce frost heave problems) or
unsuitable in-place materials, such as large rocks, paving stones, blocks, clayey materials etc. may
limit the efficiency of the candidate in-situ recycling techniques. Screening and material
pulverisation and pre-homogenisation are generally required to achieve uniform quality and
consistency along the project length.
• Longitudinal and transverse heterogeneity; variations in material properties will influence

the quality of the final mix. Areas with thin unbound layers may require special mix design
considerations and alternative construction approaches. It may be necessary to decrease the depth
of recycling and/or add unbound material to the top of the section to achieve a uniform product.
• Road geometry related to widening, matching existing drainage structures or limits on

raising the road profile. Road geometry and features such as tight turns, steep grades, castings etc.;
Shear forces from stopping and turning may overwhelm the strength of in place recycle materials.
This is especially true during construction.
• Poor subgrade conditions may limit the use of heavy equipment, working depths,
compaction etc. The subgrade must be able to support the weight of the recycling equipment, and
also the weight of possible pre-surfacing treatment traffic.
• Climatic conditions (temperature and rainfalls) will impact the quality of construction.
When working under wet climates, moisture content of the pre-treated material should be carefully
considered.
Material performance, structural design and economical evaluation considerations generally

include:
15
• Thickness design, required material properties and mechanical performance: Cold-mixed

materials tend have lower elastic modulus, fatigue resistance etc. than hot plant bituminous mixes;
Structural design coefficients or moduli are typically 60% to 80% of the value for plant mixed asphalt
layers.
• Traffic levels involved in the recycling project. Different countries have different
specifications for cold mixtures regarding AADT (average annual daily traffic), ESALs (equivalent
standard axle load, 80kN), percentage of trucks etc.
• Surface treatment to be chosen (according to the technology involved).
• Size of project. In-place recycling involves use of special and heavy equipment, which
usually requires the project to be of a certain volume to make it economical and technically
interesting. The cost and availability of the binder, availability of an established technology will
guide the treatment selection.
• The asset owner should also keep in mind service life expectations and the life cycle cost
analysis to evaluate different possible in-situ recycling options.
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3. IN-PLACE RECYCLING - HYDRAULIC BINDERS

3.1. INTRODUCTION
3.1.1. Technique Definition
In-place recycling with hydraulic binders presents many advantages for the rehabilitation of
fatigued bituminous pavements needing a significant increase in the bearing capacity. In several
cases it is the most economical alternative. Both bituminous and unbound layers can be involved
in the in-place recycling operations.
The technique is currently used for both new construction and rehabilitation activities for several
infrastructures such as roads, airports, and harbours (Figure 3-1).
Figure 3-1: examples of in-place recycling with hydraulic binders for roads, airports and harbours
[Images:Wirtgen, Diaz, J.]
Many countries already have extensive experience in recycling with hydraulic binders [3.1 - 3.9].
Results collected during the last decades through the world indicate that the process is satisfactory
for both low traffic roads, and main highways with a high volume of commercial vehicles and
airports. Thus, the recycling of pavement performed in-place has extensively evolved over past
years. It changes from a basic technology for low trafficked roads to a reliable and trustworthy
technique suitable for reconstruction of heavy trafficked roads and airports. The reason is a
significant headway of machinery that provide better control of all operations due to electronic
devices. The result of machinery development is a higher performance (working width and depth),
milling quality, homogeneity of reclaimed material and more precise dosage of binder and
moisture.
In order to ascertain the feasibility of recycling a pavement, it is necessary to identify if distresses

come mainly from a low quality of the pavement itself (insufficient thickness, granular layers
contaminated with clay, debonded bituminous layers, etc.), or if the pavement has reached the end
of its service life, or if there are some problems related to the subgrade and/or embankments. In
the two first cases, hydraulic binder recycling is generally a valuable option.
17
Satisfactory results can be obtained if the recycling thickness ranging between 20 cm and 40 cm. In
this range a single pass of the recycling equipment is sufficient. In most cases, the compaction
effectiveness of the roller equipment limits the thickness treated.
In-place recycling with hydraulic binders basically consists in milling pavement layers, the mixing in
situ the milled material with the binder, compacting them and applying the bituminous courses
according to the pavement structure design.
The technique can be applied on the full depth of the pavement structure or only on upper layers,
depending on the thickness of pavement, traffic intensity and type of binder intended to use.
However, this technique is mostly used on asphalt pavements and granular road bases. In the case
of asphalt pavements, this technique is most effective when re-using in place material that has aged
to the point of no longer being viable for other types of recycling due to the bitumen stiffness.
The material obtained by milling pavement layers can be divided into various types according to
the predominant binder:
• bituminous reclaimed material, obtained mostly from bituminous layers (e.g. containing at
least 80 % by weight of particles bound by bituminous binder with the binder content at
least 3,5 % by weight of the mixture);
• mixed reclaimed material, obtained from layers with different types of binder and unbound
layers (e.g. containing from 20 % to 80 % by weight particles bound by bituminous binder
and with a binder content in the range of 0.5 % to 3.5 % by weight of the mixture);
• granular reclaimed material (e.g. containing not more than 20 % by weight of particles
bound by bituminous binder and the content of binder is less than 0,5 % by weight of the
mixture).
The last type is the most typical for in-place recycling with a hydraulic binder. It is an outcome of
milling a part of pavement structure with removed asphalt layers. The reclaimed asphalt (RAP) can
be used for the grain size distribution on the on-site material, even if the first choice is to use RAP
in asphalt layers.
When asphalt layers are thick, mostly only wearing and binder course are removed, and the rest of
asphalt is mixed with underlying layers. Similarly, when a pavement consists of thin bituminous
layer (e.g. lower than 40/50 mm), it can be recycled with the rest of pavement. In the case of very
thin pavements (around 250 mm or less) and a necessity to form a new thicker layer, it is possible
to include the upper part of subgrade into recycled layer. However, quality of subgrade material
must not have a negative effect on the final performance of recycled layer.
Because of a preliminary investigation on the composition of the existing materials involved in the
recycling project, if only granular and/or bituminous materials are involved, cement is a valuable
solution. If also clay and/or silt are included, a combined hydraulic binder made of lime and cement
should be studied.
The following procedure (Figure 3-2) is usually used for in-place recycling with hydraulic binders:
• grading curve adjustment (applied if the sieve size distribution after road milling is not
satisfactory); it is usually performed by applying a layer of a suitable size of aggregate
directly on the surface of pavement before starting milling with a recycler;
18
• dosage of a hydraulic binder on the surface of pavement by spreader before starting milling
with a recycler (used when the cement slurry dosage is not possible via a recycler);
• milling and granulation of pavement layers; it is performed by milling (mixing) cylinder of
recycler to the required depth; at the same time the pre-spread aggregate and hydraulic
binder is mixed into the milled mixture, which adjusts the gradation curve according to the
proposed mix design and disperses the hydraulic binder into the mixture; water is injected
in the necessary quantity during milling directly into the mixing chamber of the recycler;
• spreading and trimming the recycled material; the homogenized recycled mixture is spread
to the required thickness and transverse slope by grader or, in a few cases, by screed of a
finisher-like unit;
• compaction of layer; it is performed according to the rolling scheme by a heavy road roller
equipped with vibration;
• a final treatment can be performed after compaction in order to manage shrinkage leading
to transverse random cracking. These cracks tend to reflect at the surface through the
wearing course with time, thus facilitating the water penetration and affecting the
durability of the pavement. In the case of in-place recycling, the low dosage of hydraulic
binder and the presence of RAP generally lead to have low values of elastic modulus that
limits this risk of cracking (a maximum value of 18 GPa is a general accepted value). For high
traffic or freeze protection concerns, it might be necessary to increase the binder content.
It is then necessary to pre-crack the treated layer to control the cracks pattern. It can be
done on hardening material by saw-cutting or on fresh material by introducing each 2-3
meters a physical separation like plastic sheet. The risk of reflection cracking in the asphalt
overlaying layers needs to be considered and mitigated.
Binder Placement
Mixing
Grading
Compaction
Figure 3-2: main construction phases of in-place recycling with hydraulic binders [Image: Toraldo,
E.]
It is suitable to apply a treatment (spraying) to the compacted surface of the new layer, which will
prevent water evaporation during curing. Subsequently, asphalt layer(s) can be laid. At low traffic
intensity, a thin layer of slurry seal or micro surface layer can be used. In most cases, however,
single or double layer of asphalt concrete is necessary, depending on the traffic intensity and the
19
importance of the road. The overlay thickness is determined according to the results of the road
design.
From an environmental point of view, in-place recycling with hydraulic binders is a very favourable
technology, as its demands on the environment are minimal. Thanks to the main idea and
advantage of this method, there is no extraction of existing structural layers, their removal and
disposal in landfills, which is ultimately reflected in the effective multiple use of natural raw
materials and thus reduces energy consumption and improves the performance of roads. This does
not waste mineral resources or overburden nature, including the dumping of unnecessary material.
Material transport is also associated with less environmental impact from exhaust gases. Of course,
with an order of magnitude smaller volume of transported material, there is less load and damage
to the adjacent road network.
As final remark, it is important to note that in the recent past, the lack of technical specifications or
recommendations has meant that several Road Administrations have not used this technique.
However, several countries (Spain, Belgium, France, United Kingdom, Japan and Australia) have
recently published reports or standards on these topics.
3.1.2. Availability of implementation
Like all the applications in civil engineering, the in-place recycling with hydraulic binder presents
limits and opportunities and must be carefully studied. It can be an effective strategy for a number
of scenarios of pavement distresses: (I) bituminous layers’ distress due to low base failure; (II)
excessive rutting in the pavement surface; (III) fatigue, alligator or block cracking; (IV) flexural
distresses in wheel lanes; (V) excessive patching. It is also a valuable solution when a widening of
the road is needed; or an increase of the pavement structural design is necessary; or to correct the
asphalt pavement cross slope (for instance, in conjunction with other distresses’ correction). Also
for pavements experiencing reduced ride quality with significant bumps and dips, the technique
can be used. Moreover, it also allows agencies to carry out rehabilitation works with fewer
environmental impacts and reduced cost compared with alternative remove-and-replace
construction methods.
Although the in-place recycling with hydraulic binder has undoubted advantages from several point
of views, certain aspects of the roadway project must be considered. For instance, if there are areas
with drainage problems such as saturated subgrade or inadequate drainage systems to divert water
away from the pavement structure, the technology alone is not able solve the problems. Thus,
measures to ensure adequate drainage must be included into the project.
Obviously, the technique is not the solution for all pavement distresses, in fact, case by case, it is
crucial to consider the condition of existing pavement and the reason for the distress. For
pavements with adequate subgrades and bases and existing asphalt pavement in fair or better
condition (minor surface cracking), the need for rehabilitation including the in-place recycling with
hydraulic binder is justified when increased structural capacity is needed to meet future loading
conditions.
Overall, like all reconstruction methods, this process requires an engineering pavement evaluation
as a part of project selection as described in Chapter 2, as well as implementation of established
quality control practices during construction.
20
Most materials in existing pavements can be recycled except those containing harmful substances
such as organic matter, sulfates, etc., susceptible to affect the setting and hydration process of the
hydraulic binder. If the materials contain an amount of clay and/or silt, a combined hydraulic binder
with lime and cement should be studied, in order to counteract the negative effects of the clay
(and/or silt). If a discontinuous grading material is detected, a grading correction is needed.
Overall, the information collected during the preliminary evaluation of the existing materials of the
layer(s) to be recycled will help to verify the feasibility of the recycling, to design rehabilitation
alternatives and to conduct the economic analysis.
Another feasibility aspect to study is the presence of boundary conditions (shoulders, drainage
issues, clearance limitations, etc.), obstacles (manholes, gullies, underground services) or areas
where special treatments would be required (e.g.: isolated spots severely deteriorated).
In Figure 3-3 the main aspects to consider during the preliminary investigation to assess the
feasibility of a hydraulic binder recycled layer are summarized.
21
It includes information about the original pavement design, the various maintenance and upgrading operations,
Collection of as well as the reports of past condition surveys. Other information are related to the composition of the existing
historical data pavement layer, their thicknesses and the characteristics of the materials. It can be helpful to preliminarily
subdivide the road into relatively homogeneous areas.
Existing pavement layers
(including subgrade)
Layers characterization by Evaluations of both the structural condition of the whole pavement and the nature. It is also necessary to
accurately locate and record the depth of all underground utilities. Core extractions and excavation of test pits
core sampling and test pits
are necessary to determine and/or confirm the thickness and the characteristics of the materials composing the
Feasibility of a hydraulic binder recycled layer
pavement, in each carriageway and in the hard shoulders. The number of samples to be extracted depends on
the type and importance of the work.
Distresses
detection According to the distress detection results,
An accurate evaluation of surface
Preliminary Investigations
the causes of distresses ca be defined. It

pavement distresses is necessary.
Causes can help to define the rehabilitation
According to the importance of the road,
visual inspections and/or high-
definition project and to divide the road into
Existing pavement homogenous sections with similar
Distresses
performance tests, can be performed.

bearing capacity characteristics and distresses.
An extended survey of the layers’ bearing capacity is mandatory to establish if the distresses are due to
foundation and/or subgrade problems of are the consequence of pavement deterioration. According to the
Existing layer(s) to be recycled
importance of the road, high performance (e.g. FWD) or very simple tests can be executed.
Materials Pavement samples must be analyzed in a laboratory to identify the materials’ composition (grading and fines
classification especially). The samples should be prepared to simulate as closely as possible the gradation of material achieved
during the actual milling process. The amount and the activity of the fine clayey particles must be identified
Natural moisture either by their plasticity index (PI) or by their methylene blue value (MBV), it allows to establish if it is necessary
content to perform a combined recycling with lime and cement.
The content of natural moisture must be measured in order to identify possible problems of soil and/or
embankments and/or foundation saturation. Then, specific projects must be planned to solve the moisture
Identification of problems.
setting inhibitors
Tests to investigate the presence of substances that may impair the binding action of hydraulic binders are
needed. The materials most likely to have this effect are sulphates (gypsum), sulphides (pyrites) and organic
matter.
Figure 3-3: flow chart of the preliminary investigation to assess the feasibility of a hydraulic binder recycled layer [Image: Toraldo, E.]
22
3.1.3. Whole structure
A recycled layer containing a hydraulic binder can be considered as a base (or sub-base) for either
a semi-rigid or a rigid pavement. Therefore, the new pavement can be viewed as a semi-rigid
pavement with all advantages (e.g. higher stiffness comparing to flexible pavements) and some of
its disadvantages (e.g. it is not easy to repair without specialized equipment). The majority of
recycled layers are designed to be become bituminous pavements covered with layers of asphalt
(hot or cold.). The expected mechanical performance of the recycled layer is a key factor in
determining layer thicknesses in order to meet the design requirements.
In-place recycling with hydraulic binder using modern machinery can involve a number of the
existing layers and produce the new recycled layer with the thickness up to 400 mm (depending on
the thickness of the existing pavement layers and design requirements). Better mechanical
behaviour depending on the properties and dosage of hydraulic binder ensures increasing of the
structural strengthening (bearing capacity) of original pavement with damaged layers.
As for the design of pavement structure with the hydraulic recycled layer, it can in principle be
conducted as the design of semi-rigid pavement. Thichness design can based on the use of
pavement structure catalogues. Mechanisic-Empirical methods are based on a stress analysis
calculation to obtain stresses and/or strains in pavement layers, in which mechanical parameters
of the layers are used (modulus of elasticity, parameters of fatigue behaviour). Apart from the
method used, the pavement including recycled layer must be designed to support stresses/strains
required to meet environmental conditions and traffic loads.
Based on the results of diagnostics (preliminary investigations), it is necessary to determine which

(asphalt) layer(s) will be removed and depth of treatment that determines the thickness of recycled
layer. If subgrade of pavement is stabilized and meets the requirements for parameters, it is
advisable to leave a part of the thickness of the lowest unbound pavement layer. This does not
damage the pavement subgrade during implementation, which is one of the advantages of cold in-
place recycling.
The thickness of recycled layer depends on the bearing capacity requirements of the rehabilitated
pavement, the subgrade parameters, the environmental conditions and the existing pavement
thickness. The thickness of the recycled layer, in conjunction with its strength, has a significant
impact on the required thickness of the overlying asphalt layer(s) in the case of semi-rigid
pavement. Unlike this, the concrete slab thickness is only minimally affected by the strength of the
recycled cement-treated base layer. With a rigid pavement, the primary purpose of this layer is to
minimize erosion potential and enhance uniformity of the support.
The main uncertainty in the design stage of pavement relates to parameters of recycled layer. The
design parameters are determined in a laboratory using the milled material from a short trial
section. These design parameter values must be considered with care due to the variability in
thickness (and sometimes in composition) of recycled layers along the section resulting in the
difference in the composition and sieve size distribution of milled material. Therefore, applying a
pavement layer produced by recycling technology with a higher thickness compared to a layer
produced in plant is strongly recommend, which will still be significantly economically
advantageous, especially from the increasing of expected pavement lifetime.
23
As it is common practice in the case of hydraulically bound base layers of pavement, special care
must be taken in the design and implementation (especially for thicker layers or higher strength
layers) and appropriate measures must be taken to reduce the potential of crack formation in the
recycled layer containing the hydraulic binder. It is favourable to design the recycled layer with
hydraulic binder that has not extreme high strength. Attempting to create a high strength in place
recycled layer will likely result in a poorly performing concrete-type layer with associated high
maintenance and short life. Load capacity issues should be handled elsewhere in the pavement
design process.
To reach the design parameters of the recycled layer, all steps in technology have to be performed
thoroughly. The objective is to obtain a uniformly mixed and homogeneous, adequately compacted
and cured material containing the correct amount of cement.
The dosage of added aggregate and binder must correspond to the mix-design made in the
laboratory. Proper pulverization, mixing and compaction of the existing asphalt pavement and
underlying materials is critical to the success of in-place recycling. These points are discussed in the
next sections.
3.2. MIXTURE AND MIX DESIGN

3.2.1. Binder
Cement or cement and hydrated lime are the hydraulic binders mainly used through the world for
in-place recycling applications. In most of cases cement is the sole binder used; a blend of cement
and lime or hydraulic road binder (HRB) can be successful used if the existing materials to be
recycled contain clay and/or silt.
In recycling, the type of cement is less important than the content and density obtained. Most of
the cements available on the market can be used and in many cases the choice depends on their
availability and price. Depending on the local experience and availability of products and materials,
different cement types are used for roads, railways, airports and other types of infrastructure.
In most cases, the cement type depends on the project location because there are regions where
cement is preblended with ashes, slags or other pozzolans. There are others regions where the
cement contains primarily clinker which drastically increases CO2 emissions for the process. The
cements most suitable for recycling (and, in general, for all cement-bound materials compacted by
rolling) are those with a high content of additives. However, composite cements hydrate slowly and
consequently their rate of water evaporation is higher. This is one of the reasons why special
attention must be devoted to the curing of the recycled layer. In addition, damages from work
traffic must be avoided, thus a thin covering layer (e.g. made of bituminous emulsion) is needed,
eventually adding another thin layer of sand.
Generally, cements of medium strength are preferred for recycling (e.g. 32.5 class of European
Standard EN 197: Part 1). This type of cement, with a medium strength, facilitates the mixtures’
workability duration, increases the amount of cement used and reduces the heat of hydration, it
helps to reduce the number of shrinkage cracks. Attempting to uniformly add a small dose of a
higher strength cement should be avoided since the equipment and practices may not be able to
properly mix and distribute the binder. Strong and weak areas will result. Therefore, the minimum
24
content of hydraulic binder must be taken conveniently high, normally not less than 3% by weight.
However, the binder content usually ranges from 4 to 7 %.
There is a harmonized standard in Europe that include cements conforming to EN 197-1 (or ASTM
C 150), or other binders especially suitable for pavement recycling, called Hydraulic Road Binder
(HRB). The HRBs are finished products, made in a factory and supplied ready to use. They are
differentiated according to their strength development in normal or rapid hardening hydraulic road
binders, while it is defined the conformity assessment procedure for hydraulic binders in EN 13282.
The Standard includes the mechanical, physical and chemical requirements and the classification of
these binders based on their compressive strength at 7 days and 28 days. It also includes the
conformity criteria and evaluation procedures to be applied by the manufacturer.
A hydraulic road binder HRB consists of a powder made from a blend of different constituents and
statistically homogeneous in composition made in a factory, supplied ready for use. If it is mixed
with water, it hardens both in the air and under water and remains solid. The main constituents
are:
• Portland cement clinker;

• granulated blast furnace slag;
• pozzolanic materials: natural pozzolanas or natural calcined pozzolanas;
• fly ash: siliceous fly ash of circulating fluidized bed resulting from coal combustion or
calcareous fly ash containing at least 15 % reactive calcium oxide;
• burnt shale;
• limestone
• hydrated calcium lime and natural hydraulic lime.
• paper sludge ash coming from incineration of paper
• crystallized basic oxygen furnace slag resulting from the transformation of pig iron into
steel through an oxygen treatment process
• calcium lime and natural hydraulic lime that may be either in the form of quicklime or
hydrated lime.
Minor additional constituents may be added in a proportion not exceeding 10 % by mass in total.
According to the EN standards, any HRB shall conform to the requirements given in the EN 13282-
1 (rapid hardening) and 2 (normal hardening).
3.2.2. Mix Design
A complete laboratory and on-site (if necessary) investigations are mandatory in order to define
the dosage of key materials into the final mixture and to assess the final volumetric and mechanical
performance.
As a first stage of the investigation, the results deriving from the preliminary survey described
before must be studied in order to ascertain the quality and the homogeneity of the on-site
materials, because they will be the aggregates of the new recycled mixture. According to the various
standards available through the world, the recycled aggregates homogeneity must be guaranteed
and, if necessary, a correction with the use of new aggregates can be done.
25
It is also important because the presence of silt and/or clay present in the layers to be recycled can
change the water sensitivity of the final mixture; thus, it addresses the choices of the hydraulic
binder. Both sieve size distribution of the materials to be recycled and the water sensitivity of their
fine part must be considered as the starting point of the following steps of the mix design.
Another key factor to be assessed before starting the mix design is the natural moisture content of
the layers to be recycled because it affects the following steps of the mix design. Indeed, if the
natural moisture content is excessive it can be an alert regarding the presence of a ground water
affecting the road layers or other geotechnical problems. The natural moisture content must
especially be assessed in cold regions and, in general, when freeze and thaw cycles can be expected.
Moisture content should be compared with the optimum moisture content determined by the
Proctor or similar methods. The optimum moisture content provides the best condition to compact
the material to a stable configuration. More or less moisture decreases the likelihood achieving the
maximum density. The optimum water content must be established and compared with the natural
moisture content in order to evaluate the residual moisture content to be added (or removed)
during in-place recycling operations.
The hydraulic binder type and content is established according to the results of the investigation
previous described. In particular, cement is used if clay and/or silt are not included in the fine
particles of recycled aggregates, on the contrary the use of both lime and cement can be considered
a suitable solution if water sensitive fine materials are included. Apart of that, the hydraulic binder
content should be the optimum amount, which will economically achieve the required strength and
will keep the shrinkage cracks as fine as possible. To determine the optimum hydraulic binder
content at least three series of specimens are needed. These will be made from material obtained
from the existing pavement, with the addition of new aggregates if deemed necessary, and with a
range of hydraulic contents. The specimens should be compacted to the maximum density required
on the site, using the optimum moisture content (as determined by the relevant moisture-density
test) and tested to achieve the mechanical performance. Compressive and/or Indirect Tensile
Strength tests are currently used across the world to determine the mixtures’ performance. To
consider the hardening effects of the hydraulic binders, a curing time must be fixed before starting
the mechanical tests (e.g. 7 days, even if 28, 56 or 90 days with some HRB can be used).
Once a preliminary hydraulic binder content has been chosen, sensitivity analysis should be carried
out on specimens compacted to binder content varying by ± 2 % from the one previously used.
In wet and/or cold climates, also the resistance of the recycled layer against water and frost can be
a criterion. This is mostly expressed as a resistance against immersion:
fc,immersed/fc,reference x 100 ≥ 70 %
with fc,immersed = average compressive strength of samples after 7 days stored in humid environment
(≥ 90% RH), followed by 7 days of immersion under water, and fc,reference = average compressive
strength of reference samples, after 14 days stored in humid environment (≥ 90% RH).
When the criterion is not met, the cement content should be increased.
This method will allow the minimum hydraulic binder content that will sufficiently guarantee that
the strength requirements will be met on the site. For large works it is advisable to carry out also
compressive strength tests at 28 and 90 days. The Elastic Modulus in compression will also be useful
26
information as an input to the pavement layer design. Depending on the importance of the project,
a real scale trial test can be arranged to assess if real scale mixing and compaction procedures
provide the expected volumetric and mechanical performance.
In Figure 3-4 an example of the mix-design flow chart is reported.
RECYCLED Main tests NATURAL HYDRAULIC BINDER

AGGREGATES • Sieve size distribution MOISTURE
• Fine particles moisture sensitivity CONTENT (%wnat)
Hydraulic binder type
OPTIMUM Cement or
MOISTURE On-site moisture content Cement and lime
CONTENT (%wopt) to be added (or removed)
(e.g. Proctor test)
Hydraulic binder content
MIXTURE #1 (first tentative)
MIXTURE #2 MIXTURE #3
(e.g. first tentative binder content -2%) (e.g. first tentative binder content +2%)
MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT

(e. g. Compressive strength; Indirect Tensile Strength; Elastic Modulus)
FINAL MIXTURE
REAL SCALE
TRIAL TEST
Figure 3-4: mix-design flow chart [Image: Toraldo, E.]
3.2.3. Recycled Layer
The in-place recycled layer with hydraulic binder has to guarantee the required performance,
according to the expectations of the structural design of the whole pavement. Moreover, such a
performance must be maintained during the service life of the pavement. To do this, homogeneity,
volumetric characteristics and mechanical performance are the driving factors during the whole
process, from design, to construction and maintenance.
To guarantee the layer’s homogeneity and meet the required minimum resistance, the hydraulic
binder content must be almost constant on the working area at the target defined during the mix
design (in most cases it exceed a minimum value of 3% by weight). In addition, low dosages of
binder can generate later problems regarding both bearing capacity reduction and cracks during
the pavement service life. These problems are much more expensive to solve afterwards.
Both quality and homogeneity of the in-place materials must be assessed, as discussed in the next
Section.
In-place laying and compaction are also very important, in fact, a strict relationship between the
bearing capacity and the bulk density of the compacted layer (volumetric characteristics) can be
verified, although a certain equation cannot be established due to many factors as the variability of
the characteristics of the recycled material, the dependence of several parameters such as particle
size, the type and content of fines or the percentage of particles with bituminous coating. This
relationship occurs considering both on-site tests (e.g. Static Plate Load Test; Light Weight Drop
27
Tests, etc.) and laboratory tests (on cores extracted from the compacted layer after curing) such as
Compressive Strength, Indirect Tensile Strength and Elastic Modulus.
Another key point in assuring the recycled layer’s quality is the time of curing, because in that time
the hardening effects of the hydraulic binder increase the layers’ bearing capacity. As mentioned
before, a lot of attention must be devoted to preserve the recycled layer during this period, the
duration of which is affected by many factors such as weather conditions, type and content of
binder, the use of a thin layer of bituminous emulsion coat (eventually with sand) to cover the layer.
In this view, some relationship between the mechanical performance of the recycled mixture/layer
and the curing time can be defined (it also depends on the nature of binder) [3.10 - 3.13]:
RC,90d = 1,5 RC,7d
RC,LP = 2 RC,7d
Rti,90d = 2 Rti,7d
Rti,90d = 0.1 RC,90d = 0.15 RC,7d
Rf,90d = 2 Rf,7d
Rf,LT = 1/[0.442802+(2,822844/RC,7d)]
where RC,Xd is the compressive strength at X days (LT means long term); Rti,Xd is the tensile strength
at X days and Rf,Xd is a flexural strength at X days.
Service life of the pavement and, obviously, of the recycled layer is crucial. According the literature
available, the in-place recycled layers with hydraulic binders (it is also true for in-plant mixing) may
experience two different phases, the first in which the mixture behave as a bound material,
followed by a second stage characterized by debounding effects (because of the low amount of
links formed by the binder), in which the mixture degrade to a granular behaviour. Obviously the
first stage is preferable and it is the reason why it is important to study the mixture’s fatigue life, in
order to postpone the second stage during the pavement lifetime. The fatigue life of an in-place
recycled mixtures with hydraulic binder can be described according to the following equations [3.10
- 3.13]:
σ/Rf = 1 – 0,058 log(N)
σ = 0.65 Rf (N/106)-0.035
Where 𝜎 is the flexural stress caused by an axle load equal to P (kN); Rf is the flexural strength (kN)
and N is the allowable number of repetitions of the P (kN) axle load.
The lower slope of the fatigue law and the smaller module of the recycled material (e.g. E=5,000
MPa) compared to other mixtures with cement, ensure a better fatigue behaviour of the recycled
material, with a greater recoverable elastic deformation due to the set of fines that form the
bituminous mortar.
Moreover, some countries worldwide have catalogues of sections of pavements recycled with
cement, in which thickness layers are reported.
3.3. QUALITY CONTROLS

28
Quality control is a key issue to obtain satisfactory results from any process. The control of the
recycling layer can be performed in two stages: the progress for works and to check whether the
final result adequately complies with all the specifications.
As previously mentioned, it is necessary to construct a test section, in order to adjust the recycling’s
equipment operating parameters, in particular, to check that the machines are adequate for the
required cement content, depth of recycling and effectiveness of mixing, its speed, as well as those
of the compaction equipment (composition, number of passes etc.).
The dosage of added aggregate and binder must correspond to the mix-design made in the
laboratory. Proper pulverization and mixing of the existing asphalt pavement and underlying
materials are critical to the success of in-place recycling. The pulverization ensures the reclaimed
material is a homogenous mixture of the specified gradation. The fineness of grinding by the
recycler's cutter should be consistent and the added aggregate and binder should be mixed evenly
into the pulverized layer. Next important thing is that the compaction means must be effective to
achieve the required degree of compaction.
Then the choice of efficient machinery is a key factor for good quality retreatment.
The performance of a spreader can be judged by its ability to distribute the binder precisely and
homogeneously, both longitudinally and transversely. For example, in French guidelines [3.14 –
3.15], the quality of the surface dosage is assessed by a coefficient of variation of the longitudinal
dosage "CVL" and transversal dosage "CVT". These coefficients are provided by the manufacturers
of this type of equipment but can be inspected on site for Implementation (see next paragraph).
They allow a classification of the spreader according to the following Table 3-1.
Table 3-1: performances and LTV classification criteria for spreaders [3.15]
Criterion value 3 3 1
CVL CVL ≤5% 5%≤CVL ≤10% 10%<CVL
CVT CVT≤10% 10≤CVT≤20% 20%<CVL
V (possibility to extend
Yes No No
the width of spread)
In the same way, the mixing machinery is qualified through the 5 criteria ‘HEPIL’ system where:
− H describes the homogenisation system (transverse and/or vertical mixing);

− E the coefficient of variation of treated thickness;
− P the power available for mixing per linear meter of pavement;
− I possibility to inject water during mixing slaved to translation;
− L possibility to inject a binder under liquid form.
Each criterion having a value between 3 (the best) to 1(the worst).
Depending on the final quality of the treatment required, different levels of LTV and HEPIL are
imposed by the French guidelines [3.14 – 3.15].
3.3.1. Quality control during construction

29
The quality of production must be controlled, in these aspects at least:
• materials: the quality and quantity of all the materials (aggregates, hydraulic binder, water
and any additives) must be verified, including their correct application on the working
surface; each material must comply with the specification;
• binder content: when the hydraulic binder is spread on the working area in powder, its
application rate can be verified by means of a tray or something similar of known weight
and area placed on the surface before spreading, and then weighed; when the hydraulic
binder is introduced into the recycler mixing chamber as a suspension, the operation of the
injection nozzles and the information provided by the microprocessor controller must be
verified often against current binder consumption; In both cases, the simple observation of
the surface before and after recycling allows a general evaluation of the dispersion
uniformity but it only is a visual test;
• moisture content: it plays a major role in compaction and, consequently, in the mechanical
strength values that can be achieved; the added water must be controlled by the metering
unit of the recycling machine, in order to maintain the optimum moisture content during
the whole construction operations;
• sieve size distribution: grading analysis makes possible to assess the homogeneity of the
recycled layer and to control if the recycling machine is operating at an adequate speed;
• mixture homogeneity: it should be assessed visually, as well as on samples taken randomly
both in the longitudinal and transverse direction (in that direction is more difficult to
achieve);
• level of compaction: checking the bulk density is a complicated procedure but it must be
necessary during the construction operations; bulk density is correlated with the
compaction process (i.e. the number of roller passes, the time between mixing and final
compaction, etc.);
• mechanical performance: samples must be taken from the construction area and, then,
used to compact laboratory specimens to assess the required performance (e.g.
Compressive Strength, Indirect Tensile Strength; Elastic Modulus, etc.) at a defined curing
time;
• appearance and geometry (depth of recycling): the finished surface should be checked for
compliance with all the geometrical requirements (dimensions) and uniformity of
appearance (without segregation); the thickness of the treated layer during the
construction must be also checked; thus, it is advisable to make test pits in order to check
the recycled material before compaction; the actual thickness must not be lower than the
design value: in that case, the only direct measurement possible is from cores extracted
after sufficient time has elapsed.
All the aspects mentioned in the previous bullet point must be evaluated according to a defined
test frequency. It depends on the importance of the work site, ranging from 500 m2 to 5000 m2. At
least a daily test set must be planned.
3.3.2. Quality after construction
A quality control campaign after the end of the construction operation must be planned. At least,
the following aspect must be investigated:
30
• recycled thickness: at least, one core should be extracted per kilometre; the average
thickness of recycled material should be equal to or higher than specified and the minimum
thickness, at any point should not be lower; these cores can also be used to check for
density, modulus of elasticity (if it is calculated) and compressive strength;
• mechanical strength: test specimens of recycled material should be cast with a density as
close as possible to that required on the site; the number of specimens will vary depending
on several conditions but, at least two series should be prepared every day (in the morning
and in the afternoon);
• geometry: from the design level or projected level, the level of the finished surface must
not vary anywhere by a reference value (e.g. ± 15 mm); the surface of the recycled layer
should have an even texture without segregations; it should not retain water;
• bearing capacity and deflections: the first is currently measured using various test methods
depending on the different standards through the world (e.g. Static Plate Load Test, Light
Weight Deflectometer, etc.); deflection measures are not usual, even if can be used:
o In the short term (three to seven days after recycling), they make it possible to check
the homogeneity of the treatment and to detect any abnormally weak zone;
o In the long term (more than twenty-eight days after recycling), to evaluate the bearing
capacity of the recycled pavement;
• reflective cracks: in the monitoring of recycled pavement, a visual inspection should be
included to detect the presence of reflective cracks; if these cracks occur, they should be
treated when necessary with bituminous sealing to prevent moisture aggression,
particularly in the curing period before laying upper layer(s).
31
4. IN-PLACE RECYCLING – BITUMINOUS BINDERS

4.1. INTRODUCTION
In place recycling with bituminous (or asphalt, according to the PIARC dictionary) binders of an
existing bituminous pavement provides an excellent opportunity to reuse the past materials
investment while obliterating current distresses without the expense of obtaining more materials
and the related transportation costs. Asphalt binders currently used through the world are asphalt
emulsions, engineered emulsions and foamed asphalt.
This Chapter describes: both characteristics and performance of the mixtures and key materials,
the mix design methods, the field equipment, and the quality controls of the construction works.
Some quick definitions can be clarifying the in-place activities:
- Full Depth Reclamation (FDR): grinding the existing asphalt pavement and the underlying
layer into a homogenous base material; Stabilized Full Depth Reclamation (SFDR)
incorporates a binding agent such as asphalt emulsion, foamed asphalt and/or hydrated
cement;
- Cold In-place Recycling (CIR): grinding the existing asphalt layer without incorporating the
underlying base material and stabilizing with asphalt emulsion or foamed asphalt;
- Reclaimer: a single unit of equipment equipped with an up-cutting drum of hardened steel
teeth; when a stabilizing agent is used, it is added within the cutting drum chamber;
- Recycling Train: typically, a down cutting cold plaining type milling machine removes the
material; the removed material is further screened, crushed and mixed in a chamber to
achieve the desired stabilization.
4.2. MIXTURE AND MIX DESIGN

Project design, pavement design and mix design is an iterative process. The movement of traffic
during construction, traffic based structural pavement need, final pavement surfacing, equipment
availability and ability to formulate a mix design that meets minimum standards are
interdependent.
Mix design for plant produced bituminous mixtures is a precise process resulting in a recipe that
can be produced by the plant to within extremely tight tolerances. Mix design for in place recycling
should be approached with less of a precise intent keeping in mind a few basic concepts:
1. Is the binding agent (bituminous emulsion, foamed bituminous, hydrated cement or
other) compatible with the in-place materials?
2. What quantity of binding agent is required to achieve the targeted design parameter such
as strength, stiffness, modulus or resistance to environmental impacts?
3. If is cost effective to proceed with in place recycling at the needed binder addition verses
using a different approach to achieve the same structural result.
Most often, the pavement samples come from solid cores or slabs that are crushed in the
laboratory. In some instances, a small milling machine may be used to collect pavement samples.
It is extremely rare that the actual equipment to be used in construction is used to obtain the mix
design samples. Therefore, the gradation of the mix design recycled pavement samples will be an
approximation of the true gradation created in the field.
32
Equipment availability is also a mix design consideration. Typical reclaimers have an up-cut
orientation that requires the equipment to cut completely through the pavement into the
underlying material. The amount of fines or clay like material will impact the binder options.
Emulsions tend to bind the fines first. Low fines content is preferred when using bituminous
emulsion in order to be cost effective. A small amount of fines is needed for the foamed bituminous
process to work, with at least one recommendation of a minimum of 4%. Higher fines content may
require the use of hydrated cement binders.
Reclaimers operate within the depth range of 150 mm to 300 mm. Less than this range will not
provide enough material in the mixing chamber for proper sizing. Above this range will greatly slow
production and may require re-handling the material to achieve compactible lifts. A review of the
pre-construction material characterization may lead to the decision to remove some depth of the
bituminous pavement via cold planning to achieve the desired thickness to recycle in place.
4.2.1. Mix Design Components
Recycled Asphalt Pavement (RAP) - Primary characterization of the RAP includes understanding the
stiffness of the bitumen, testing the aggregates properties and determining the gradation of the
crushed samples.
Unbound layers - Quality and gradation are the primary parameters of interest. Aggregate shape
should also be considered since angular crushed particles provide relatively better stiffness or
higher modulus than predominately round particles. It is recommended that the Plasticity Index of
the fine fraction of aggregates be less than 6% when using emulsion or foamed bituminous as a
binder.
4.2.1.1. Binding agents
The bituminous binding agents for in-place recycling used through the world are:
• Emulsified Bituminous – Emulsions are a mixture of bitumen and water that is created by
milling the bitumen into tiny droplets, coating with an emulsifying agent then suspending
in water. This allows the simplified transport and handling at temperatures far below that
of standard bitumen. There is a myriad of standard grades including anionic, cationic, set
rate classifications, and polymer modifications to the base bitumen. High Float (HF)
emulsions contain a small amount of solvent or fluxing agent to soften the old binder [4.1].
HF emulsions are designed so the emulsifier forms a gel structure in the bitumen residue.
The thicker asphalt film allows these emulsions to perform in a wider temperature range.
• Engineered Emulsions – An emulsion’s properties or performance requirements can be
adjusted for a specific application or project. These types of emulsions were first used in
slurry and microsurfacing applications with attention to modifying their mixing, coating,
break times, curing times, moisture resistance, softening ability and stiffness of residual
binder [4.1].
• Foamed Bituminous – A small amount of water (2-3%) is injected into an expansion
chamber containing paving grade bituminous at 170 to 180 ⁰C. The resulting bubbles are
used to convey the bitumen into the mixture and provide particle coating prior to their
collapse.
33
In Figure 4-1 an outline of the expansion chamber for foamed bitumen is shown.
Figure 4-1: Expansion Chamber for Foamed Bitumen [4.2]
Other emerging technologies include the Bio-based additives and bitumen: fast pyrolysis is used to
convert agricultural or forestry organic wastes into bio-oil. The nature of bio-oils allows them to be
used as a bitumen extender, modifier or potential complete replacement. Most of the work with
these products has been experimental in nature [4.3].
4.2.1.2. Active FIller
The Southern African Bitumen Association (SABITA) coined the term Active Filler to include
materials that chemically alter the mix properties such as hydrated cement, fly ash and lime based
materials. Several sources suggest capping their addition at 1% by weight or less to eliminate the
possibility of creating a rigid, crack-prone layer. [4.3], [4.1], [4.4], [4.5] Active fillers consumer some
of the free moisture. This increases initial stiffness and decreases the time for curing.
4.2.1.3. Supplemental Aggregates
Thin layers of underlying base material may be supplemented by placing new aggregate on the
existing surface prior to recycling. The new aggregate may also be of a size and angularity that it
increases the overall stiffness of the resulting mixture.
4.2.2. Mix Design Process and Parameters
Selecting the optimal binder content occurs in a variety of ways. Differences occur in how the
samples are compacted, cured and tested. Several European approaches were documented in the
Direct-Mat Project [4.6] as shown in 4-1.
34
Optimum binder content

Optimum determination
Country/Institution water content Mechanical testing
Test specimens
determination Compaction
curing
2 days @ 20ºC
Void content;
and 95 %
Indirect tensile strength (5ºC) after 7
Static Static relative
days 28 days;
Germany [4.7] compaction (50 compaction humidity + 26
Water sensitivity;
kN) (50 kN) days @ 20ºC, 55
Stiffness modulus (indirect tensile
±15% relative
test)
humidity
Compatibility;
Resistance to compression;
14 days@ 35ºC Wet strength;
Static
and 20 % Indirect tensile stiffness modulus
Ireland - compaction
relative (dry);
(130 kN)
humidity Indirect tensile strength (wet and
dry);
Unconfined compressive strength;
Static 1 day @ room

Portugal [4.8] Water sensitivity;
Modified compaction temperature + 3
(Recycling with Uniaxial compression strength
Proctor (21 MPa/8 days @50ºC
bitumen emulsion) (v=5.08 mm/min.);
MPa) (after 2009)
Static
Water sensitivity;
Spain [4.9] compaction
Modified Uniaxial compression strength
(Recycling with (170 3 days @ 50ºC
Proctor (v=5.08 mm/min.);
bitumen emulsion) MPa/60MPa)
Indirect tensile strength;
gyratory
Indirect tensile stiffness modulus

United Kingdom Proctor Proctor 3 days @ 60ºC testing as per BS-EN 12697-26, SATS
(EN 12697-45)
Indirect tensile stiffness modulus

(dry);
Impact
Modified Indirect tensile strength (wet and
Wirtgen [4.10] compaction 3 days @ 40ºC
Proctor dry);
2x75 blows
Unconfined compressive strength;
Table 4-1: Mix Design Parameters Documented in Direct-Mat Project [4.11]
In the USA, Marshall and Superpave Gyratory sample compaction methods are used [4.12]. Curing
and testing of samples varies by climate. An example of an emulsion stabilized SFDR mix design
requirement from a wet-freeze climate in Minnesota USA is shown in Table 4-2 [4.13]. Several
agencies in the USA rely on the contractor to perform the mix design.
35
Test Property Criteria

Superpave Gyratory Compaction, 1.16° internal angle, 600 kPa, gyrations 30
Short-term strength test, 1 hour – modified cohesiometer, ASTM D 1560-92
175 min.
(Part 13), g/25mm of width (see “F. Short-Term Strength (STS) Test
Cured Marshall Stability*, ASTM D 1559, Part 5, 40°C, min., lb.
Report
Criteria 1,250 lbs. min.
Retained Marshall Stability* after soaking based on cured stability, min., Criteria
Report
70% £
Indirect Strength Test (ITS), ASTM D 4867, part 8.11.1, 25°C, psi 40 min
Conditioned ITS, ASTM D 4867 (See Note 1), psi 25 min.
Resilient Modulus, ASTM D 7369, 25°C, psi 150 min.
Thermal Cracking (IDT), AASHTO T 322

Report
(Based on LTPPBind for Climate)
*Cured stability determined on 60°C curing to constant weight (<72 hours). Retained stability
determined after 23-hour water soak at 25°C followed by 40°C soak for one hour.
£ The Tensile Strength Ratio/Retained Stability Ratio may be reduced to 0.60, provided the
moisture condition indirect tensile strength or conditioned Marshall Stability exceeds the
minimum dry strength/stability requirement.
Table 4-2: Mix Design Parameters for Wet-Freeze Climate in Minnesota USA [4.14, 4.15]
The mix design method used in Australia for foamed bitumen stabilised granular materials is based
on resilient modulus testing of Marshall compacted cores including cured specimens tested dry and
in soaked conditions [4.15]. Minimum modulus requirement is depending on traffic levels. Mix
design modulus is an input of the structural design of the pavement including foamed bitumen
stabilised layer [4.16].
The laboratory preparation of foamed bitumen involves mixing bitumen or lime and water at high
temperatures. This is dangerous when not properly controlled. Production of mix design samples
requires the use of specialized equipment as shown in 4-2.
36
Figure 4-2: Wirtgen Laboratory Bitumen Foaming Equipment [4.2]
The result of the mix design process may not lead to a successful outcome: the amount of binder
needed to achieve the desired performance values may not be cost effective or the binder does not
increase significantly the properties of the in-place materials.
In place recycling can be performed without a stabilizing agent to improve the uniformity of the
base and can be further improved by adjustment to the material grading (e.g. mechanical
stabilisation). Increasing the base uniformity may result in positive long term performance for the
rehabilitated roadway.
4.2.3. Construction Equipment
Recycling machines (Figures 4-3 and 4-4) have evolved over the years from modified milling
machines and basic soil stabilizers to the specialized recyclers of today. Modern recyclers tend to
be large powerful machines mounted either on tracks or on high flotation pneumatic tyres.
Recycling is undertaken by coupling bulk supply tankers to the recycler. The recycler pushes or pulls
the tankers supplying the additives required in the mix (e. g. bitumen emulsion).
Figure 4-3: Pavement recycler, single unit machine with bitumen emulsion tanker [4.2]
37
Figure 4-4: Typical recycling train with separate binder and water tankers [Image: Asphalt
Wirtgen]
The heart of all in-place recycling is the cutting drum, which is fitted with a large number of point-
attack tools. Here the pulverisation (e.g. milling) takes place, a mechanised process that transforms
the existing flexible pavement surface layer and a portion of the underlying granular layer into a
uniform granular layer material suitable for use as base layer.
The drum rotates upwards and, as the machine advances, the in situ pavement material is
pulverized by the tools and lifted into the mixing chamber that encloses the drum (Figure 4-5).
Figure 4-5: Recycler milling drum, with dual addition of water and foamed bitumen, by separate
spray bars in the chamber [4.2]
Modern recyclers (Figure 4-6) are equipped with at least one pumping system for adding fluid (e. g.
water) to the recovered material. The rate of delivery of the fluid is metered accurately by means
of a micro-processor that regulates the flow in accordance with the volume of material in the mixing
chamber. The fluid is injected into the mixing chamber through a series of nozzles spaced
equidistant on a spraybar that spans the full width of the chamber.
38
Figure 4-6: Micro-processor control for injection system Wirtgen WR 2500 S [4.2]
4.2.3.1. Critical working tasks
A variety of equipment can be found for cold in-place recycling operations. The actual choice of
machinery will depend on the condition of the existing road/job site and the expected output of
the strengthening operation.
Several factors will influence the overall durability of a treated pavement; traffic (volume,
composition, speed), drainage efficiency, climate etc. But in all cases, homogeneity and good
quality of works is a premise for a long-lasting and cost-effective result.
The optimal technical solution should be decided from the different tasks of work that need to be
executed. These could be:
• Removal of the old bituminous surface layer. A separate pre-milling operation is often
relevant when there is surface irregularity. It may be convenient to break down oversize
blocks in pavements with severe distresses, for example, crocodile cracking. In other cases,
the old bituminous layer may be too thick for optimal milling and mixing with underlying
base course materials. The old bituminous mixture may also be brought to a stockpile for
use as RAP for other projects.
• Correction of the geometric profile. If the existing road is severely out of shape, the existing
pavement should be pulverised and reshaped, before importing and placing new materials.
• Addition of aggregate and correction of the grading. When the particle size distribution of
the material in-place must be corrected or in order to correct a poor surface shape or to
increase the thickness of the recycled layer without affecting the underlying materials, one
needs to import new aggregates. This addition of material can be done by:
- spreading virgin aggregate (or bitumen coated aggregate) on the existing pavement and
shaping with a grader before pulverization;
39
- discharging the aggregates in a hopper of the mixing machine in the recycling train.
• Addition of active filler. Where active filler (hydrated lime, cement) is needed, it should be
placed immediately before the recycler. It is very important to guarantee an accurate
spreading and distribution. One other option if it is injected a slurry suspension (active filler
+ water) into the mixing chamber, which will also eliminate dust problems. The spreaders
should incorporate control systems to ensure that the achievable rate of spread is within ±
0.5 % of the specified spread rate. The associated construction tolerance for the spread
rate would be ± 10% of the specified value.
• Pulverisation. The cutting tools influence directly the grading of the recycled material and
the quality of the mix. Different tools are available to suit different cutting conditions
(harness, abrasiveness etc.). The linear speed of the tools, their shape, their number, their
position on the milling drum and their wear also intervene in the result of the pulverization
of the pavement materials.
• Recycling depth. The recycling depth will vary from project to project, depending on
materials, equipment etc., but should in all cases be controlled. The variation of the
recycled depth should be within ± 1.5 cm.
• Addition of water. The rate of water addition should be micro-processor controlled
attending to the volume in the mixing chamber to achieve a high level of density after
compaction. This must be considered in combination with the water coming from the
emulsion or the foamed bitumen. Tankers should be sized to the scope of the work and the
alignment of the road in order to minimize disruption of the work of the recycler.
• Addition of binder. The spray bar system should allow variable widths of binder to be
applied. The rate of spread must be controlled with the forward velocity of the mixing
machine (when pulverization and mixing are made by a single unit machine) or with the
weight of recycled material. If conventional techniques are to be used and not recycling
machines, this could have an influence on type of binder. Some combinations are less
suitable for foamed bitumen than for bitumen emulsion for instance.
• Mixing. This should be seen in connection with the homogeneity of the old construction.
For instance, if the in-situ materials vary a lot in composition both transversely and
vertically, some special handling may be needed before or during the mixing process. This
may again influence on what technique is best suitable.
• Placing. Segregation while paving must be avoided. The placing and shaping of the recycled
material can be performed in various ways. Even though modern recyclers have replaced
conventional equipment in most places, this kind of equipment (graders etc.) is still an
option for many projects. But be aware of limitations that may again influence on other
factors, for instance is the combination of grader and foamed bitumen is not possible due
to the short set time.
• Compaction. Cold in-place recycled materials are in general more difficult to compact than
the traditional hot bituminous mixes, thus require a high level of energy of compaction. It
is consequently necessary to use powerful rollers. Many reports emphasise a combination
of vibratory rollers and heavy pneumatic-tyred rollers, especially when compacting thick
layers. The use of vibratory pad foot rollers is common in the USA.
The use of Intelligent Compaction (IC) techniques, AASHTO PP81, has increased in recent
years. A typical IC compactor is shown in Figure 4-7. These compactors employ GPS location
data to track speed and pass count as well as accelerometers to measure the average
40
relative stiffness across the width of the drum. The thermal sensors are not typically
needed for in place recycling applications. Each manufacture provides a slightly different
stiffness value. Stiffness values can be used to establish a rolling pattern. Research
continues to relate these stiffness values to fundamental engineering properties. Retrofit
systems are available for single and double drum compactors.
Figure 4-7: Intelligent Compaction Components [Image: Trimble]
Stiffness values can be used to establish a rolling pattern verses pass count for use in quality control
as is shown in Figure 4-8. Research continues to relate these stiffness values to fundamental
engineering properties [4.12, 4.15]. Stiffness can be mapped as in Figure 4-9 for further analysis.
Figure 4-8: Use of IC Stiffness Value to Establish Rolling Pattern [unpublished MnDOT study]
41
Figure 4-9: colour-coded relative stiffness map. Areas in orange and red identify low stiffness
values and should garner further testing and investigation. (MnDOT project analysis) (Veta
Software available free at intelligentcompaction.com)
4.2.3.2. In-place recycling machines
As mentioned, in-situ recycling involves a number of different operations, including at least milling,
crushing, mixing, placing and compaction of the recycled materials.
These operations can be conducted by one machine performing all functions, by a set of several
connected machines, or separate machines working alone.
This results in many possible configurations corresponding to different costs of investment and
operation as well as differences in performance and quality of the works. Their advantages and
limitations have to be considered in any case, compared to the actual job.
4.2.3.3. “All-in-one” (milling, mixing and paving recyclers)
These machines (Figure 4-10) are capable of milling the old pavement, giving the materials a fully
cross-blending in a pugmill mixer with accurate addition of stabilising agents and water and pave
the material on the road to the required profile by a paving screed, with both tampers and vibration
for pre-compaction.
42
Figure 4-10: Track-mounted recycler with paving screed (WIRTGEN W200 CR) and paver (Wirtgen
W380 CR) [Images: Wirtgen]
4.2.3.4. Tyre-mounted recyclers (milling and mixing)
These machines (Figure 4-11) are designed primarily for recycling, and have a very high capacity.
Combined with simplicity and robustness this gives high degree of cost efficiency.
There is no integrated placing equipment, the mixed material is left in place and shaped by a trap
door in exit.
43
Figure 4-11: Pavement recycler (WR 240), single unit machine [Image: Wirtgen]
As shown in the sketch in Figure 4-12, a roller normally follows behind the recycler to compact the
material before a grader is used to cut final levels. The final compaction and finishing process should
be done by a combination of vibratory and heavy pneumatic-tyred rollers. It may be most efficient
to deploy two passes of this equipment; the first pass to size the material with the second pass used
to add the binder.
Figure 4-12: Sequence of machines in use together with the pavement recycler [4.2]
Even more units can be added to this sequence, as shown on Figure 4-13. In many cases it is
necessary to improve the geometric conditions or increase the structural capacity of the pavement
by adding new aggregates (either for obtaining a better grading curve or to increase the layer
thickness). These materials are spread out on the surface up-stream the recycling machine, and
may be pre-levelled with a grader before milling and mixing.
Figure 4-13: Mechanical modification achieved by spreading new material before recycling [4.2]
44
The advantages of this type of equipment are:
• Capable of pulverising thick layers of both bound and unbound materials;

• Milling and mixing can be executed without or with addition of water or binders;
• A “dry” pre-milling/pre-mixing of the old pavement may be relevant, often combined with
blending of extra aggregates spread out on the surface. This can so be followed by a second
run, where stabilising agents/binders are added.
The limitations of this type of equipment are:
• No transverse homogenisation;
• No pre-compaction.
4.2.3.5. Track-mounted recyclers (milling and mixing)
In a track-mounted recycler (Figure 4-14) the point attack tools in the cutting drum are mounted in
a helical pattern to windrow the material to the centre of the drum. By that the material here also
can get a transverse blending, which is favourable if the materials are inhomogeneous.
The recovered material exits through a door in the rear of the milling chamber and passes between
the rear tracks to be spread by a variable screen fitted with individual left and right feed augers.
45
Figure 4-14: Track-mounded recycling machine, with standard milling drum (Wirtgen W380 CR)
[4.2]
The required surface levels and shape may also be achieved by this screed, eliminating the need for
a grader to cut the final levels.
Track-mounted recyclers are very stable and can cut and mill thick and hard bituminous layers very
efficiently, thus also suitable for 100 % asphalt recycling.
Like for tyre-mounted machines the pumping and spraybar/fluid additive system in the milling
chamber is precisely micro-processor controlled.
4.2.3.6. Train of separate machines
There is a variety of machine combinations (“single pass recycling trains”) on the market. Usually,
these will involve a separate strong power milling machine, a screening and crusher unit, a mixing
device, a paver and a number of rollers/compaction units. The blended mix may be fed into the
paver hopper either directly by a belt or by a windrow elevator picking up the materials from a
windrow left from the mixer on the surface.
Some of these units can be combined, for instance are there a number of different
pulverisation/crushing + mixing devices available (Figure 4-15). Latest Recyclers are able to run the
milling and mixing drum in “Downcut mode” to ensure a continuously graded material and rear
loading the recycled material straight into a paver. After paving the layer is finally compacted with
a number of rollers/compaction units.
Figure 4-15: Full in-place recycling train [Image: Wirtgen)

4.2.3.7. Conventional equipment
Although recyclers have generally replaced conventional equipment for these types of works, the
use of conventional equipment for mixing and treating of materials remains an option and is still
commonly used on projects in many countries.
46
Conventional equipment (Figure 4-16) can only be used for bitumen emulsion treatment. This is
because mixing takes place over an extended period of time, far longer than the half-life of foamed
bitumen.
The operation can be conducted in the following steps:
• milling: a milling machine will normally be more cost-effective than a grader to break up a
thick bituminous layer and/or a strongly cemented material to produce a material suitable
for bitumen emulsion treatment. When in-situ material is to be augmented with imported
material, a milling machine can also be effectively used to blend the two materials after the
additional material has been levelled out on top of the in situ material;
• emulsion and water addition: self-propelled water tankers are used to apply the bitumen
emulsion. Standard bitumen emulsion should be diluted with the compaction water to a
residual bitumen content of 30 – 40 % and applied in several applications onto the material
after the active filler has been mixed into the material. Coating of all the granular particles
within the layer will not take place if the bitumen emulsion breaks too early which can
depend on the air temperature and humidity. Obtaining a uniform distribution of the
bituminous binder is important and a poorly treated layer will lead to early failure;
• grader mixing: a heavy-duty motor grader is the key item in a “conventional recycling”
process. The grader mixing is undertaken by using the blade to move the material from side
to side. The grader(s) must travel directly behind the water tanker, immediately covering
the freshly sprayed bitumen emulsion with material, thereby preventing the bitumen
emulsion from breaking. This mixing process may be supplemented with the use of ploughs
and/or rotavators;
• compaction: once mixed, the stabilised layer should then be processed in the same way as
an untreated material. It is vital that the moisture content of the material being compacted
is in the required range relative to the OMC (optimum moisture content) of the material.
Any compaction should be based on trial sections.
47
Figure 4-16: Sequential cold in-place recycling, partly conventional (Troms, Norway) [Image:
NPRA]
4.3. QUALITY CONTROL

4.3.1. General
The primary focus of production control is controlling segregation, verifying correct depths,
meeting gradation requirements and monitoring the addition of binder and other incorporated
materials. Gradation requirements typically focus on maximum particle size. Equipment that does
not incorporate internal crushing controls gradation by varying forward speed (4.2.3.4). Gradation
can be impacted with varying material temperatures. Gradation samples should be taken
completely through the reclaimed layer since some equipment will push larger chunks to the
bottom of the layer.
Binders are controlled by weight in equipment that incorporates a pug mill. A volume based
computation is used for tyre based reclaimers since the material is not lifted or weighed.
A simple Ball Test can be used to determine if the proper binder amount has been added.
When the mixture is cool enough to handle, grab a fist sized amount of material. Squeeze the
material into a ball. The mixture should retain its shape without being overly sticky. Your hands
should have speckles of bitumen. If your hands are clean, the mixture is too lean; an overt amount
of coating suggests the need to reduce the binder content [4.15].
Moisture content and density are other parameters to document.
Minimum and maximum ambient temperatures for proper processing and placing should be
determined.
Once the material is placed, a curing period commences. If ravelling occurs during this phase, the
application of an emulsion fog seal should be considered.
The National Cooperative Highway Research Program has recently published, Proposed AASHTO
Practice and Tests for Process Control and Product Acceptance of Asphalt Treated Cold Recycled
Pavements. This comprehensive multi-phase efforts provides guide specifications, standard
practices, and test methods [4.17].
4.3.2. Curing
48
Moisture is present in the materials prior to beginning work, moisture is added to keep the
reclaiming/milling equipment cool and moisture is part of the emulsion and foaming addition.
Some specifications require the moisture content drop to a maximum percentage prior to a surface
application. This can become problematic since the material is somewhat porous and will accept
moisture from precipitation. Sealing the surface can trap moisture and deter curing.
4.3.3. Final Surfacing
Climate, traffic volume and pavement design will determine the type of final surfacing required.
Final surfacing may be as simple as a fog seal with bituminous emulsion to multiple layers of plant
produced bituminous mixture. Final surfacing should not be placed prior to meeting the desired
level of curing. The in place recycling process may result in a surface with cross slope and
longitudinal deviations that are more noticeable than standard plant mix paving. In place recycle
layers are less resilient to damage from snow and ice removal equipment. A least one lift of plant
mixed bituminous mixture is highly recommended in a wet freeze climate to protect the in place
recycled material. The overlay thickness is determined according to the results of the road design.
4.4. OVERVIEW OF HOT IN-PLACE ASPHALT REUSE (HIPAR)

The reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) can be reused not only in mixing plants but also on-site, with
the hot in-place method (HIPAR) using mobile special equipment with heater, scarifier, milling and
mixing facilities. Generally, the heater consists of infrared panels, which can heat the surface at
temperatures between 120 °C to 160 °C. To preheat the surface and eliminate moisture, one or
more panels can be deployed depending on the depth of the recycling.
Thereby, the reclaimed asphalt pavement is broken down to its nearly original state and reused to
produce hot asphalt mixes with equal or better performance compared to the conventional mixes
on-site. HIPAR provides a very low cost maintenance method and is based on four steps:
• heating and softening of the asphalt pavement surface with high-performance heaters,
• gently scarifying and/or loosening up of the surface materials,
• blending the obtained loosened mix with bitumen, rejuvenators or virgin asphalt and
• paving and compacting of the newly prepared mix with and without a new wearing course
layer on top
Figure 4-17 shows the mobile equipment for hot in-place operations
49
Figure 4-17: Wirtgen remixer 4500 [Image: Wirtgen]
HIPAR can be performed with or without supplementary material such as virgin hot mix asphalt,
bitumen or in special cases aggregates or rejuvenators to correct the mix design associated with
the deterioration of the determined asphalt. Therefore, depending on the surface distress different
types of HIPAR methods can be implemented to restore the properties of the wearing course. A
HIPAR layer has most of the advantages of a virgin asphalt layer and can be used by traffic directly
after the newly paved layer has cooled down. As a result, HIPAR has been adopted in many
countries as the economically and ecologically preferred method in pavement rehabilitation.
Worldwide several HIPAR methods are applied depending on the bearing capacity of the base layer:
• Reshape - hot in place asphalt reuse without changes in the asphalt mix formulation;
• Remix - hot in place asphalt reuse with changes in the asphalt mix formulation;
• Remix compact - hot in place asphalt reuse with changes in the asphalt mix formulation and
simultaneous paving of a new asphalt surface course on top.
4.4.1. Working Conditions
The primary purpose of the HIPAR is the improvement of surface distresses limited to depths of up
to 50 mm. Structural distresses initiated in the pavement deeper than 50 mm can be eliminated
only by the rehabilitation in full depth. Due to that the HIPAR method is suitable for pavement in
good structural condition, where pavement distresses are limited to the wearing course with no
major structural distresses. The base course of the pavement must be sufficiently stable and
possess satisfactory load bearing capacity, because with these methods only a slight improvement
in load bearing capacity can be achieved by overlaying a thin layer or by improving the asphalt mix
and paving quality. In addition, the pavement must have sufficient strength to bear the paving train
/ equipment. The wide, curve radius and longitudinal slope of the roadway have to be taken into
account. Furthermore, the type, number and size of fixtures as well as installations (e.g. road gullies)
must be considered. In the case of installations in the roadway (e.g. drainage shaft), their partial
removal or lowering them below the lower edge of the layer is necessary.
4.4.2. Reshape
The primary purpose of the Reshape method is to repair surface distresses such as minor cracking
and rutting. This method has a limited effect on improving skid resistance. Minor cracks with
depths limited to 50 mm can also be repaired. In addition, this method is suitable to eliminate
paving defects such as a low compaction degree, air voids and unevenness. During the process of
the Reshape method the treated course is heated up in the required thickness with the help of
infrared or another type of heating equipment so that the asphalt mix can be gently scarified and
loosened in the required depth without fragmentation of aggregates. The reclaimed asphalt is then
transferred into the onboard pugmill and mixed in it. Afterwards, the reused asphalt mixture is
distributed transversely with augers, paved by means of screed and compacted by conventional
roller.
In Figure 4-18 the schematic of a reshape process is shown.

50
Figure 4-18: Schematic of Reshape process [Pavement Recycling Guidelines for State and local
Goverments, 1997]
4.4.3. Remix
The Remix method is similar to the Reshape method. The difference of the Remix method is that,
in order to modify the asphalt mix formulation and characteristics, a specially formulated asphalt
mixture or binder is added into the mixer in the desired proportion and mixed with the reclaimed
asphalt. Afterwards, the reused asphalt mixture is paved and compacted. To eliminate the effect of
hardened bitumen due to the long term aging and heating during the recycling process, and to
improve the workability and performance behaviour rejuvenators can be supplemented to the
pavement during the scarifying.
This method is suitable to rehabilitate deterioration such as minor transversal and longitudinal
evenness, minor cracks, ravelling and grain break-out and to improve the surface frictional
resistance caused by bleeding and polished stone.
In Figure 4-19 the schematic of a remix process is reported.
Figure 4-19: Schematic of Remix process [4.2]
4.4.4. Remix compact / Repaving
HIPAR can be carried out in a single-pass operation as mentioned above or in a multiple-pass

operation, where the surface recycling layer is topped by a simultaneous overlay of new hot mix
asphalt. This method is used, when the Reshape or Remix methods are not suitable for restoring
the pavement conditions. This method requires an additional hot mix asphalt overlay of 25-50 mm
on top of the Reshape or Remix.
Pavement deterioration such as minor rutting and cracks, ravelling, longitudinal evenness and grain
break out can be eliminated. In addition, a low skid resistance caused by bleeding and polished
stones can be improved. In the multiple-pass repaving two screeds are used – one is used for the
Reshape or Remix method and the other one is used to place the new hot mix asphalt from the
51
hopper onto the recycled layer. Both courses are compacted together. This method allows to
reduce the thickness of the paved surface course.
Figure 4-20 illustrates the schematic of a remix-compact process.
Figure 4-20: Shematic of Remix-compact process [4.2]
4.4.5. Material Evaluation

The suitability of the deteriorated asphalt pavement for the application of the HIPAR process
must be assessed by means of preliminary investigations. The objective of the material evaluation
process is to sample the aged mix (Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement, RAP), investigate and determine
the important properties. These samples represent the initial conditions of the pavement. The
process consists of following investigations:
• Thickness of the layer to be rehabilitated

• Depth and causes of the deterioration (for example cracks or/and rut depth)
• Bond to the layer below (base course)
• Presence of proportions of hazardous material (tar / tar pitch components, presence of
deposits in the form of, for example, grids or fabrics, etc.)
• Type of the asphalt mix and bitumen
• Grain size distribution and binder content of the asphalt mix
• Determination of physical properties of aged bitumen, for example PEN / Ring and ball
softening point / PG Grade
• Patches, type and proportion
• Markings, type and proportion
• Installations, type and number
• Surface treatments / protective layers, type and proportion.
On the basis of the results of the preliminary investigations the suitable HIPAR method has to be
selected. The thickness of the HIPAR layer must be determined depending on the bond between
the wearing course and the layer below it (base course). If the bond is not good enough, the wearing
course must be recycled up to the layer boundary. In the case of rutting, the HIPAR layer must reach
at least 1 cm below the deepest point of the rutting. If this is not possible, preliminary work such as
partial milling has to be conducted.
In the scope of the preliminary work and planning the following positions have to be taken into
account:
52
• Removal of patches (otherwise segregation is possible)

• Removal of markings (milling of hot or cold plastic marking material)
• Removal of surface treatments
• Additional milling in the rutting area (bulge)
4.4.6. Mix design
A HIPAR layer can be constructed with equal or better performance compared to the
conventional mixes on-site. Therefore, the recycled mixtures have to be designed properly
according to project specifications to obtain the required performance and durability.
Performance oriented or Superpave Mix Design or Marshall Mix Design can be conducted using
asphalt mix samples taken from existing pavement and supplementary virgin materials such as
bitumen, aggregates and rejuvenators. For example, the following asphalt mix design parameters
can be determined with respect to the Marshall Mix Design:
• Determination of volumetric properties of the mixture;

• Optimization of the asphalt mix composition by addition of fresh aggregates and bitumen
or hot mix asphalt;
• Determination of the addition of rejuvenators;
• Determination of mechanical properties like stability, Flow and Indirect tensile strength;
• Moisture susceptibility by means of tensile strength ratio and retained strength.
4.4.7. Quality control and quality assurance (QC/QA)
Good quality control and quality assurance processes are essential to obtain satisfactory HIPAR.
Quality control tests are usually conducted by the contractors. Quality assurance tests are carried
out by the client to check the quality of the HIPAR subject with regard to the mix design and
required paving quality according to project specifications. In general, most of the QC/QA tests of
conventional asphalt pavement in combination with some additional tests can be conducted for
the HIPAR. The following tests of paved material are of prime importance:
• Mix composition;
• Binder content;
• Binder properties (PEN / Softening point ring and ball / PG Grade);
• Volumetric parameters (compaction degree, air voids, VFA,VMA. etc);
• Thickness of the HIPAR layer;
• Longitudinal and transverse evenness;
• Texture properties;
• Surface friction;
• Moisture susceptibility by means of tensile strength ratio and retained strength.
53
5. IN PLANT REUSE OF RECLAIMED ASPHALT PAVEMENT

(RAP)
5.1. INTRODUCTION
Today, the use of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) in asphalt mixes has more than thirty years of
experience [5.1 – 5.3]. We distinguish between low-rate reuse (< 30 %) and high-rate reuse (30 to
60%). In single cases addition of high RAP content (> 60 %) is also possible. The RAP content of a
mix can be defined as the total mass of RAP expressed as a percentage of the total mix mass. The
RAP percentage limitation is defined by the amount bitumen in the RAP as a proportion of the total
bitumen content in the mixture – the “RAP bitumen replacement”. These limitations will be
determined by the virgin bitumen properties as well as the final bitumen requirements to meet
performance criteria according to asphalt specifications.
5.2. RECLAIMED ASPHALT PAVEMENT (RAP)

5.2.1. Reclamation
Most RAP is obtained through the use of milling machines – rather than by breaking out the
asphalt in existing pavement layers using excavators or bulldozers – and then transporting this
material to the crushing plant. RAP is generally processed by crushing and screening before it is
used in the recycled asphalt mix, there are no special restrictions on the milling process itself,
such as milling speed, or milling drum and cutting tool configuration. Practical limitations
regarding the milling process should however be taken into account, such as the likelihood of
contaminating the RAP with the underlying granular base when attempting to mill off asphalt
surfacing with a thickness of less than 30 mm. An end-product specification, limiting the
maximum size of the milled material to 37.5 mm, is advisable.
5.2.2. Processing RAP prior to recycling: crushing, screening and fractionating
Processing RAP includes crushing, screening, and placing it in separate stockpiles. The aim is to
produce a free-flowing material of uniform quality with a defined range of particle sizes in each
stockpile. The processing of asphalt results in RAP suitable and ready to be used as constituent
material for asphalt, after being tested, assessed and classified according to the relevant standards.
Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) may be used as a constituent material for bituminous mixtures
manufactured in an asphalt plant, in accordance with the specifications for those mixtures.
It is strongly recommended that all RAP destined for use in recycled asphalt should be fractionated
to enhance the level of control at the mixing plant. However, in the case of low RAP content recycled
asphalt mixes – with RAP binder replacement proportions of less than 15% – it is usually only
necessary to remove oversize lumps by passing the RAP over a scalping screen.
When mixes are produced with RAP binder replacement values above 15%, it is necessary to screen
and fractionate the RAP to ensure a consistent product that will not impair the quality of the
recycled asphalt mix. It is common practice to crush the aggregate in the RAP to a top sieve size of
one sieve size smaller than that of the top size of the aggregate used in a particular mix.
The preference should be given for separate milling and separate storage of different asphalt layers
and mixtures. It is highly recommended to store RAP from surface course or surface and binder
54
course separately. RAP also should be store separately referring on final aim of use: production of
hot asphalt mixtures, production of mixtures for unbound base course, cold asphalt mixtures.
During the reclamation and processing of the RAP the change in particle size distribution (in terms
of fragmentation) is inevitable. This issue shall be taken into account during the type testing.
5.2.3. RAP storage
Storage of RAP requires particular attention to ensure a consistent and reliable RAP product. RAP
stockpiles need careful handling to ensure that they remain useable. Stockpiles need to be kept
below 2 meters high. Heavy vehicles must not be allowed to drive over the RAP, to minimize
consolidation of the material. The RAP must be protected from the elements. Indications are that
the moisture content increases while in storage, particularly if exposed to rain. During periods of
extensive rainfall, the moisture content of some RAP stockpiles may be as high as 7 to 8%. Lengthy
stockpiling of RAP should, therefore, be kept to a minimum. For the easy later use of reclaimed
asphalt, it should be stored dry.
Reclaimed asphalt could be stored also on the open area, but it causes increase of moisture content,
what leads to more energy consumption and higher costs of production and it may result in a lower
amount of RAP to be used in the mix.
Therefore it is highly recommended to store reclaimed asphalt under the roof (for example in a
storage depot) or to use other suitable measures as covering of piles with sheets.
5.2.4. Proportion of RAP in a Recycled mixture
The aim of the mix design is to determine the proportions of new aggregate, new binder and RAP,
as well as the total binder content that will fulfil the requirements of the asphalt specification. The
RAP content of a mix can be defined as the total mass of RAP expressed as a percentage of the
total mix mass. The total RAP content should be determined by limitations imposed by the
amount binder in the RAP as a proportion of the total binder content – the “RAP binder
replacement”. These limitations will be determined by the virgin binder properties as well as the
final binder requirements to meet performance criteria.
The RAP binder replacement is calculated as follows [5.4]:
(𝑅𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡)𝑖 (𝑅𝐴 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡)𝑖

Total RAP binder in the mix, BinderRAP=∑𝑛𝑖=1( × × 100)𝑓𝑡
100 100
Where: n is the total number of processed RAP fractions used in the RAP mix design; ft is the RAP
fraction number, e.g. f1, f2 etc.; 𝐵𝑇 is the 𝑇𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑡 (𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚) 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝑖.𝑒.𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝐵𝑅𝐴
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝐴 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟; RAP binder replacement, 𝐵𝑅 = × 100; Virgin binder
𝐵𝑇
required in mix, 𝐵𝑉=𝐵𝑇−𝐵𝑅𝐴.
5.2.5. Suitability of reclaimed asphalt
In a production of hot mix asphalt, only clean RAP can be used that does not contain harmful binders
or constituent materials such as coal tars. In case of contamination of reclaimed asphalt by harmful
materials, national technical regulations and laws shall be followed.
55
In general, RAP can be used without any special testing if:
• Bitumen in RAP is categorized according to the Penetration as P15 ˗ the penetration of

the binder of each of the samples is at least 10 mm × 0,1 mm and the mean penetration of
all of the samples is at least 15 mm × 0,1 mm, or
• Bitumen in RAP is categorized according to the softening point as S70 ˗ the softening
point of the binder of each of the samples is no greater than 77 °C and the mean softening
point of all of the samples is no greater than 70 °C, or
• Bitumen in RAP can be also categorized according to performance grade parameters (PG
Grade): G*, G*, δ, JNR, using the dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) and S and m value using the
bending beam rheometer (BBR).
Suitability of using various types of reclaimed asphalt in a different types of hot asphalt mixtures
is shown in Table 5-1.
Suitability to use in
Origin of the reclaimed
Asphalt surface Asphalt binder Asphalt base
asphalt
course course course
1)
Asphalt surface course preferance preference suitable
Asphalt surface and suitable with
preference suitable
binder course precondition 2)
suitable with
Asphalt binder course preference suitable
precondition 2)
Asphalt base course Not suitable Not suitable preference
preference – the highest added value is assured,
suitable – not all technical and economic benefits are exploited,
suitable with precondition – only referring on a special test,
ns – not suitable.
1)
normally only for asphalt concrete mixtures AC
2)
after special processing
Table 5-1: suitability for using reclaimed asphalt
5.3. CLASSIFICATION AND TESTING FOR RAP QUALITY

The quality of the RAP is a function of the properties of the aggregate and the bitumen in the
RAP. The proportion of the RAP aggregate to the total aggregate in the mix is closely related to
the RAP content.
Reclaimed asphalt shall be classified referring on constituent materials and performance

characteristics. These characteristics may be obtained from:
• information about origin of the bituminous mixture, when it was used first, including
information about characteristics of aggregates and bitumen,
• reports of the testing, performed during the production,
• reports of the testing, performed on the samples taken from the site before milling,
• reports of the testing of RAP itself.
One the most important characteristics, such as homogeneity, can only be determined by testing
reclaimed asphalt.
56
When reclaimed asphalt is used for hot asphalt mixtures, the homogeneity of it shall be
declared.
The homogeneity of the feedstock shall be determined from the variability of the percentages
of coarse and fine aggregates and of fines in the RAP, the bitumen content of the reclaimed
asphalt and either the penetration or the softening point or PG Grade of the bitumen recovered
from the reclaimed asphalt.
It is recommended to express the homogeneity referring on these characteristics:
• bitumen content,
• penetration or/and the softening point or/and PG Grade of the bitumen,
• particle size distribution after the extraction of bitumen,
• including the amount of aggregates fractions (for example):
o ≤ 0,063 mm,
o 0,063 – 2 mm,
o > 2 mm
When a measure of homogeneity is necessary it shall be expressed as the maximum range or
standard deviation of the test-results of the required number of tests.
For example, according to European Standard EN 13108-8 “Bituminous mixtures — Material

specifications ˗ Part 8: Reclaimed Asphalt” the test frequency to determine the number of samples
(n) for the testing can be taken from Table 5-2, with level Z being the minimum test frequency under
all circumstances.
The level should take into account the source of the reclaimed asphalt, its intended use (courses
and type) and the intended addition percentage.
Level Tones/test
X 500
Y 1 000
Z 2 000
Table 5-2: Minimum frequency for testing the reclaimed asphalt
The minimum number of samples (n) per feedstock shall be 5.
When the reclaimed asphalt is intended for use only at addition percentage of less than 20 % in
base and binder courses and a percentage less than 10 % in surface courses, a single sample per
feedstock may be specified.
In case of planning to use reclaimed asphalt from different sources or different origin, the tests shall
be performed only after processing, mixing them together and homogenization.
The classification of reclaimed asphalt is recommended to perform on a basis of following tests and
characteristics:
• origin of the aggregates,

• maximum aggregates particle size D,
• particle size distribution and maximum range,
• particle shape index SI,
57
• percentage of crushed particles C,

• resistance to fragmentation – Los Angeles coefficient
• polished stone value PSV,
• resistance to freezing and thawing,
• bitumen content,
• bitumen type,
• penetration P and/or softening point S according to EU approach, or PG Grade according
USA approach.
The guideline for tests on the quality of aggregate recovered from each RAP fraction is based on
the RAP content and is presented in Table 5-3.
RAP content in mix Recovered RAP Aggregate Tests

• Check intrinsic aggregate properties
≤ 30%
• Aggregate grading
• Check intrinsic aggregate properties
> 30%
• Aggregate grading
• Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) / resistance to
fragmentation – Los Angeles coefficient
• 10% Fines Aggregate Crushing Value (10% FACT) or
• Flakiness Index
• Polished stone value PSV (if requied)
• resistance to freezing and thawing (if requied)
Table 5-3: Guideline for tests on quality of the recovered RAP aggregate
The RAP bitumen replacement (i.e. the proportion of the RAP bitumen to the total bitumen
in the mix) is the basis for guideline for tests on the quality of bitumen recovered as
presented in Table 5-4. In the case of use of polymer modified bitumen (SBS) the elastic
recovery test according to European Standard EN 13398 can be used to determine the
relative polymer content. The test methods or test values: penetration, softening point and
ring and balls, elastic recovery and performance grade parameters are suitable to describe
the properties of virgin and extracted bitumen. As standard test method and/or decisive
bitumen parameters can be selected according to local experience or available
Specification.
RAP bitumen replacement Recovered RAP Bitumen Tests
≤ 15% • Bitumen Content
• Contaminants (presence of coal tar)
> 15% • Bitumen Content
• Contaminants (presence of coal tar)
• Softening Point or
• Penetration or
58
• Performance grade parameters:
- G*, δ, JNR, using the dynamic shear rheometer (DSR)
- S and m value using the bending beam rheometer (BBR)
Table 5-41: Guidelines for tests for quality of the recovered RAP bitumen
5.4. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS RELATED WITH AMOUNT OF ADDED RECLAIMED ASPHALT

5.4.1. Preliminary design
Analysis of the aggregate grading, bitumen content, bitumen properties and determination of the
RAP bitumen replacement should provide guidance on steps involved in the RAP mix design
procedure. The procedure for such a study is broadly as follows [5.4]:
• Mill the RAP sample from the designated site.

• Process the RAP into at least the minimum required fractions (full scale processing – at an
asphalt plant).
• Determine the average percentage yield of each processed RAP fraction.
• Conduct bitumen content tests on each RAP fraction.
• Conduct aggregate grading tests on each RAP fraction.
• Calculate the (nominal) RAP bitumen replacement to be specified.
• To allow the consultant to better understand the possible influence of the RAP on the final
bitumen specification, determine the following recovered RAP bitumen properties:
o Softening Point and/or
o Penetration and/or
o PG Bitumen Tests (JNR, G*, δ, etc.).
• Representative samples of RAP should be taken using a milling machine.
Recommendations on the procedure for the design of RAP mixes are categorised by three tiers and
are summarised in Table 5-5.
59
RA Bitumen Minimum no. Tests on processed Recommendations Determine blended

replacement of processed RA fractions for achieving the end bitumen properties
RA fractions bitumen
specification
≤ 15 % One Bitumen
- bitumen content None Not required
- contaminants
Aggregate
- Grading
- intrinsic properties
15 – 30% Two Bitumen Use softer bitumen Use blending charts to
- bitumen content grade determine appropriate
- contaminants softer bitumen grade
-Softening point Report blended bitumen
or/and properties
penetration
30 – 60% Two Or/and Use softer bitumen Use blending charts to
- G*, δ, JNR, S & m grade determine appropriate
Or/and rejuvenator dosage rate
Aggregate Use Rejuvenator Report blended bitumen
- Grading property tests
- intrinsic properties
- ACV, 10% FACT
- Flakiness index
Table 5-5: Recommendations for the RAP Mix Design Procedure [5.4]
60
In Figure 5-1 the basic steps of the asphalt recycling process is reported.
Figure 5-1: Basic Steps of the Asphalt Recycling Process in North America [5.4]
61
5.4.2. Surface courses with reclaimed asphalt
When using more than 15 % by mass of the total mixture of reclaimed asphalt from mixtures in
which only paving grade bitumen has been used and when the bitumen added to the mixture is a
paving grade bitumen and the grade of the bitumen is selected, the following requirements may be
specified.
The penetration or the softening point of the bitumen in the resulting mixture, calculated from the
penetrations or the softening points of the added bitumen and the recovered binder from the
reclaimed asphalt, shall meet the penetration or softening point requirements of the specified
grade. The calculation shall be executed according to Equation 1 or Equation 2 (Section 5.4.4.).
Either the penetration or the softening point requirement shall be selected. Furthermore, the
performance grade (PG) characteristics of bitumen can be also utilized alternatively compared to
the penetration or softening point ring and balls.
When using RAP from mixtures in which a modified bitumen and/or a modifier additive has been
used, and/or the mixture itself contains a modified bitumen or a modifier, the amount of RAP
content may be limited to a maximum of 20 % by mass of the total mixture. In the case of addition
of more than 20 % RAP performance oriented type test/job mix design could be conducted. By
means of the elastic recovery test the relative polymer content (SBS) in the extracted bitumen can
be determined.
The choice for this specification depends on the choice of requirements with in relevant standard.
For more performance designed mixes there may be no need to apply bitumen tests.
When applying an empirical approach to the mixture using a too great a proportion of modified
bitumen or modifier could probably lead to an incorrect decision in respect to the addition of the
new bitumen.
In the case of addition of high amount of RAP, rejuvenators could be used to restore the
characteristics of aged bitumen in the RAP [5.5].
5.4.3. Regulating courses, binder courses and bases with RAP
When using more than 20 % by mass of the total mixture of reclaimed asphalt from mixtures in
which only paving grade bitumen has been used and when the binder added to the mixture is a
paving grade bitumen and the grade of the bitumen is selected, the following requirement may be
specified.
The penetration or the softening point of the bitumen in the resulting mixture, calculated from the
penetrations or the softening points of the added bitumen and the recovered bitumen from the
RAP, shall meet the penetration or softening point requirements of the selected grade. The
calculation shall be executed according to Equation 1 or Equation 2 described in the following.
Either the penetration or the softening point requirement shall be selected. The performance grade
(PG) characteristics of bitumen can be also applied alternatively compared to the penetration or
softening point ring and balls.
When using reclaimed asphalt from mixtures in which a modified bitumen and/or a modifier
additive has been used, and/or the mixture itself contains a modified bitumen or a modifier, the
amount of reclaimed asphalt for regulating courses, binder courses and base courses may be limited
62
to a maximum of 20 % by mass of the total mixture. In the case of addition of more than 30 % RAP
content performance oriented type test/job mix could be conducted. By means of the elastic
recovery test the relative polymer content (SBS) in the extracted bitumen can be determined.
The choice for this specification depends on the choice of requirements within relevant standard.
For more performance designed mixes there may be no need to apply the bitumen tests. (It should
however be noted that the pen or softening point rule is only valid for unmodified bitumen).
When applying an empirical approach to the mixture using a too great a proportion of modified
bitumen or modifier could probably lead to an incorrect decision in respect to the addition of the
new bitumen.
In the case of addition of high amount of RAP, rejuvenators could be used to restore the
characteristics of aged bitumen in the RAP [5.4].
5.4.4. Determination of maximum added quantities
When using reclaimed asphalt, the maximum added amount is determined depending on:
• suitability of reclaimed asphalt use in a new hot asphalt mix (mix formulation),
• homogeneity of reclaimed asphalt,
• technical capacities of asphalt mixing plants.
The minimal amount of reclaimed asphalt shall be used, calculated out of the three indicated above.
During the asphalt mix formulation attention shall be paid in order to fulfil the same requirements
of the technical specifications, which are applied also for asphalt mixes from the virgin constituents.
5.4.5. Calculation of the penetration of the bitumen of a mixture when RAP is used
These calculations shall only be applied when paving grade bitumen has been used in the reclaimed
asphalt and will be used as added bitumen. Following calculation shall be used (EN 13108-1 – Annex
A.2):
𝑎 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑝𝑒𝑛1 ) + 𝑏 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑝𝑒𝑛2 ) = (𝑎 + 𝑏) ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑥 )
Equation 1
Where:
𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑥 : is the calculated penetration of the bitumen in the mixture containing RAP;
𝑝𝑒𝑛1 : is the penetration of the bitumen recovered from the RAP;
𝑝𝑒𝑛2 : is the penetration of the added bitumen;
𝑎 and 𝑏 are the portions by mass of the bitumen from the reclaimed asphalt (𝑎) and from the added
bitumen (𝑏) in the mixture; 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 100%.
Example:
𝑝𝑒𝑛1 = 20; 𝑝𝑒𝑛2 = 90; 𝑎 = 25%; 𝑏 = 75%
0,25 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (20) + 0,75 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (90) = (1) ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑥 )
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑥 ) = 1,79094

63
Therefore:
𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 62
5.4.6. Calculation of the softening point of the bitumen of a mixture when RAP is used
These calculations shall only be applied when paving grade bitumen has been used in the reclaimed
asphalt and will be used as added bitumen. Following calculation shall be used (EN 13108-1 – Annex
A.2):
𝑇𝑅&𝐵𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑇𝑅&𝐵1 + 𝑏 ∙ 𝑇𝑅&𝐵2
Equation 2
Where:
𝑇𝑅&𝐵𝑚𝑖𝑥 : is the calculated softening point of the bitumen in the mixture containing RAP;
𝑇𝑅&𝐵1 : is the softening point of the bitumen recovered from the RAP;
𝑇𝑅&𝐵2 : is the softening point of the added binder;
𝑎 and 𝑏 are the portions by mass of the bitumen from the reclaimed asphalt (𝑎) and from the added
bitumen (𝑏) in the mixture; 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 100%.
Example:
𝑇𝑅&𝐵1 = 62°𝐶; 𝑇𝑅&𝐵1 = 48°𝐶; 𝑎 = 25%; 𝑏 = 75%
𝑇𝑅&𝐵𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 0,25 ∙ 62 + 0,75 ∙ 48
Therefore:
𝑇𝑅&𝐵𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 51,5°𝐶
5.4.7. Type testing / Job mix design
Type testing / job mix design shall be performed for each asphalt mix formulation. That proofs
suitability of asphalt mixture for the certain scope of application and is a basis for the declaration
of performance characteristics.
Product Type Determination is the complete set of tests or other procedures, determining the
performance of samples of bituminous mixtures representative of the product type.
Product Type Determination shall be performed to show conformity with the product standard on
first use for bituminous mixtures being put onto the market.
Where raw materials are used whose characteristics have already been determined by the material
supplier on the basis of conformity with other technical specifications, these characteristics need
not be reassessed provided that the raw material’s performance remain the same.
When using reclaimed asphalt some additional test shall be performed for the design of mix
formulation:
• determination of particles size distribution of aggregates of the RAP,

64
• bitumen content of the reclaimed asphalt,

• softening point and penetration of the bitumen of the reclaimed asphalt.
5.4.8. Type testing report
The following information shall be supplied about constituents:
• each aggregate size: source and type,

• bitumen: type and grade,
• filler: source and type,
• additives: source and type
• reclaimed asphalt: statement of permissible range of properties and control methods,
• all constituents: tests results in accordance with the appropriate specifications.
The following information shall be supplied about mix formulation:
• input target composition shall be declared when laboratory validation is being used,
o percentage of each aggregates,
o particle size distribution of aggregates mix,
o bitumen content,
o additive content.
• maximum and minimum mix temperatures for mixtures with modified or hard grade
bitumen or additives where these are different from the default values in the product
standards,
• preparation temperature when additives are added to reduce the mixing- and laying-
temperature.
The following information shall be supplied about characteristics of asphalt mixture:
• volumetric characteristics:
o air void content,
o void content filled with bitumen,
o void content in a mineral aggregates,
• water sensitivity,
• resistance to permanent deformation,
• sophisticated functional characteristics (in case of special research):
o stiffness,
o resistance to fatigue,
o low temperature properties,
• other relevant characteristics depending on type of asphalt mixture.
The ratio of all the constituents is determined according to the normal asphalt mix design. The
choice of the binder (normal road bitumen, polymer modified bitumen, ecc) depends on the
application of the mix (type of mix, traffic load, etc.). In Spain, emulsion is used for half-warm mixes
and high ratios of RAP.
5.5. MIXING PLANT

This chapter describes the main types of mixing plants for producing hot mix asphalt. More details
are available in manuals and reports. Reclaimed asphalt should be used mainly for the production
65
hot asphalt mixtures. This type of reuse creates the highest added value. Reclaimed asphalt can be
reheated by hot aggregates (batch or continuous method), together with aggregates or in a
dedicated separate equipment (drum).
5.5.1. Types and number of mixing plants
There are different types of mixing plants available throughout the world:
• batch plants with a separate heating drum (hot addition),

• batch plants without a separate heating drum (cold addition),
• drum mixers,
• mixing plants suitable for producing hot asphalt mixtures out of almost 100 % reclaimed
asphalt.
Batch plant with a separate heating drum is the most popular and effective technique, due to the
advantages discussed below.
5.5.2. Batch plants

5.5.2.1. Heating of reclaimed asphalt by hot aggregates - batch method
Reclaimed asphalt by this method is added into the mixer using temporary hopper and aggregates
weigher (option 1) or using separate batch weigher (option 2). Reclaimed asphalt in the mixer is
reheated by hot aggregates, which temperature is proportionally raised compared to conventional
mixing process. Sieving of hot aggregates and precise dosing of them is not influenced by reclaimed
asphalt.
Transmission of the heat from hot aggregates to reclaimed asphalt is very rapid, so a large quantity
of expanding steam is formed that has to be emitted away via the dust collection system. Proper
attention should be paid in order not to overheat added bitumen and avoid rapid aging. Therefore
it is recommended premix hot aggregates and reclaimed asphalt first before adding new bitumen.
Using this method up 30 % of reclaimed asphalt may be added.
Figure 5-2 shows the outline of a batch mix plant in which the batch method is used.
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Figure 5-2: Batch mixing plant – heating reclaimed asphalt with hot aggregates, batchwise
addition (1: addition to aggregate scale; 2: addition to mixer) [5.6]
5.5.2.2. Heating of reclaimed asphalt by hot aggregates - continuous method
Continuous addition of the reclaimed asphalt is performed in a process between the end of the
heating of aggregates and batch weighing. The options are as follows: at a discharge opening of the
drum (option 1), at hot lifting conveyer (option 2), at a sieves by-pass hopper (option 3). The
addition of the reclaimed asphalt is managed using belt weigher, which is properly coupled with
aggregates dosing equipment.
For the transmission of the heat from hot aggregates to reclaimed asphalt there is much more time,
so formation of the water steam is also spread over the longer time and can be easier processed by
asphalt plant dust collection system. The hot sieving of aggregates and reclaimed asphalt mixture
is not possible anymore due to clogging of the sieves. Therefore, the correction of particle size
distribution is not possible.
Figure 5-3 shows the outline of a batch mix plant in which the continuous method is used.
Figure 5-3: Batch mixing plant – heating of reclaimed asphalt by the hot aggregates, continuous
addition (1: Addition to drying drum outlet; 2: Addition to hot elevator; 3: Addition to screen
bypass) [5.6]
5.5.2.3. Heating of reclaimed asphalt together with aggregates
Using this method reclaimed asphalt is heated together with the virgin aggregate in a drying drum,
which has special facilities for addition of reclaimed asphalt. The dosing of the reclaimed asphalt
and virgin aggregates is continuous and is managed using belt weigher. Issues related with
formation of water steam using this method as a rule are not relevant.
The hot sieving of aggregates and reclaimed asphalt mixture is not possible anymore due to clogging
of the sieves. Therefore the correction of particle size distribution is not possible.

67
Figure 5-4 shows the outline of a batch mix plant in which reclaimed asphalt is heated together with
the aggregates.
Figure 5-4: Batch mixing plant – heating of reclaimed asphalt together with the aggregates,
continuous addition (1: drying drum – central feed system; 2: Addition to drying drum via front
wall on burner side, e.g. slinger conveyor) [5.6]
5.5.2.4. Heating of reclaimed asphalt in a separate device (parallel drum)
Using this method RAP is heated in a separate equipment – parallel drying drum, and is added into
aggregates weigher (option 1) or into the mixer using temporary hopper and separate batch
weigher (option 2). Using parallel heating and drying drum allows to add very high amount of RAP
into the asphalt mix. Theoretically this amount can reach 100 % of RAP. Another advantage is, that
hot aggregates can be sieved and precisely dosed.
For the reheating of RAP, it is recommended to use parallel drying drum equipped with burner
working downstream. In order to not adversely impact bitumen properties and to reduce harmful
emissions, reclaimed asphalt shall be heated to no more than 130°C. The storage of reheated
reclaimed asphalt in a thermo insulated hopper is also an option.
The addition of the RAP is managed using batch weigher, which is properly coupled with aggregates
dosing equipment.
The maximum added amount of reclaimed asphalt depends on the reclaimed asphalt homogeneity
and relevant performance characteristics. By adding very high amount of reclaimed asphalt,
possibility to influence asphalt mix formulation, by adding virgin aggregates ant bitumen are very
limited. Therefore, the reclaimed asphalt and its characteristics should correspond the intended
target application.
Figure 5-5 shows the outline of a batch mix plant in which reclaimed asphalt is heated in separate
device.
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Figure 5-5: Batch mixing plant – Heating of reclaimed asphalt in separate device (parallel drum)
(1: Addition to aggregate scale; 2: Addition to mixer), [5.6]
5.5.3. Continuous plants
When it comes to continuous drum-type mixing plants, two basic configurations are available:
parallel flow and counter flow. The most basic parallel flow drum mixer utilises a cold feed bin for
the metering of RAP and then feeding it into the drum via an inclined belt, in the same way that
virgin aggregate is fed into the drier drum. The percentage of RAP that can be used with this type
of mixer is still limited by the level of emissions caused by the effect of high temperatures on the
bitumen that is added during the recycling process. A maximum of 25% RAP content is usually
achievable with this type of plant.
The use of a separate rotating mixing drum or continuous pugmill, known as an “after-mixer” or
“coater”, where the heated mixture of virgin aggregate and RAP is mixed together with the
bitumen, reduces emissions, as the hot gasses from the mixing drum do not come into direct
contact with the bitumen and the RAP content can consequently be increased to at least 30%.
The design of counter-flow drum mixers, where the burner is located at the opposite end of the
drum to that into which the virgin aggregate is fed, enables excessively high process gas
temperatures to be reduced by the cooler, moisture laden aggregate as the gasses evacuate the
dryer. Steam is typically exhausted at the burner end of the dryer while hydrocarbons carried in the
air stream are destroyed by the high temperatures that prevail in this part of the drum.
Various different types of counter-flow drum mixers exist:
• counter-flow drum with a RAP ring. Mixing takes place in the drum on the burner side of
the RA ring;
• counter-flow drum with an after-mixer (or coater) where mixing takes place;
• counter-flow drum with a RAP ring and after mixer/coater .
• twin drums, which consist basically of a counter-flow drum where drying and heating of the
virgin material takes place, and a second drum (or in certain instances a barrel wrapped
around the first drum) where mixing takes place. Typically, the percentage of RAP that can
be used is substantially higher when double/twin drum mixers are used.
69
In a continuous plants the mixing process happens in a drying and heating drum (Figure 5-6) or in a
subsequent mixer (Figure 5-7). The dosing of all constituents using this method is continuous.
Homogeneity of the asphalt mix highly depends on homogeneity of all constituents – aggregates
and reclaimed asphalt. After the preliminary dosing, the correction of homogeneity is not possible
anymore.
Figure 5-6: Heating, drying and mixing drum [5.6]
Figure 5-7: Continuous mixer on continuous asphalt plant [Image: Krafft, S.]
5.5.3.1. Heating of reclaimed asphalt by hot aggregates
By the continuous reheating of reclaimed asphalt together with aggregates (Figure 5-8), the
reclaimed asphalt is added into the drum together with virgin aggregates (option 1) or at the middle
of the drum (option 2). Virgin aggregates and reclaimed asphalt are dosed using separated belt
weigher, in the drum dried and heated together and mixed with the bitumen in one single process.
Using this method up 50 % of RAP may be added.

70
Figure 5-8: Continuous mixing plant – heating of reclaimed asphalt together with aggregates (1:
Addition together with aggregates; 2: Separate addition in centre of drum mixer) [5.6]
5.5.3.2. Heating of reclaimed asphalt in a separate equipment (parallel drum)
Using continuous plants, a separate continuous reheating of reclaimed asphalt in a second parallel
drum is possible option (Figure 5-9). In order not adversely impact bitumen properties and to
reduce harmful emissions, reclaimed asphalt shall be heated to no more than 130°C.
Using parallel heating and drying drum allows to add very high amount of reclaimed asphalt into
the asphalt mix. This amount can reach 80 % of reclaimed asphalt or theoretically this amount even
can reach 100 % of reclaimed asphalt.
Figure 5-9: Continuous mixing plant –Heating of reclaimed asphalt in the separate device (parallel
drum) of the continuous plant) [5.6]
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6. RECYCLING OF MATERIALS IN A CONCRETE PAVEMENT

WITH MIXES MADE IN-PLANT
6.1. INTRODUCTION
Referring to the general introduction of this publication (see chapter 1), the scope of this chapter
is the in-plant use of recycled aggregates with a hydraulic binder (cement) in a new pavement
concrete mix. So, the intended application will be a road pavement including highways, motorways,
local roads, streets, walking and cycling paths; or possibly linear constructions such as kerbs, gutters
and safety barriers.
The recycled aggregates can be used full depth including the driving surface or can be limited to the
bottom layer of a two-layer concrete pavement. The latter is a well-developed technique and is a
standard solution in some countries. The former is still limited in number of applications but, with
increased interest in the circular economy, research and pilot projects continue toward its full
development.
The recycled aggregate used in concrete fall into the following categories:
• Recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) of high quality, coming from pavements, linear road
constructions (kerbs, gutters, barriers) or from specific construction elements made of a
high quality concrete.
• Recycled concrete aggregates of normal quality, mainly coming from construction and
demolition waste (CDW) or from road base and sub-base layers.
• Recycled aggregates coming from other mineral construction waste such as bricks and
natural stone.
• Recycled asphalt aggregates (RAA), also named reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP), coming
from asphalt pavements, mainly from base courses or binder courses.
• Artificial aggregates, such as slags coming from the metallurgic industry and insofar, they
don’t meet the requirements for natural aggregates (if they do, they can be considered
equivalent to natural aggregates).
This chapter will mainly be related to RCA, which is the most common type of recycled aggregate
in new concrete, and in a less extend to RAA. And more precisely, we will focus on recycling of
coarse aggregate. Indeed, although sand recycling in concrete is technically possible, it is generally
not used on a job site because it leads to over-consumption of cement to maintain the concrete
properties and to an increased variability in production.
Other materials, such as cement, additions and admixtures are deemed to meet the requirements
set in relevant standards applicable in the place of use. The same is true for procedures for
production, testing, quality control and construction practice. For the production of the new
concrete, the use of a batching plant, either fixed or mobile, is assumed.
6.2. RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATE (RCA)

6.2.1. Production of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA)
6.2.1.1. Concrete demolition
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Before the recycling process of an in place concrete pavement layer as aggregate, some steps are
to be performed:
• removal of asphalt overlay (if any), joint sealant, patches to minimise contaminants.
Simultaneous crushing of several layers can be considered as a possible option if the
characteristics of this mixture meet the requirements of the new layer produced with
reclaimed material (e.g. if it is allowed to use up to 20% asphalt "contamination" in the new
bottom-lift, the old concrete layer can be demolished and recycled together with its asphalt
wearing course).
• breaking of pavement to the size of material needed for easy handling and transport,
• removal of broken pieces and their transport to processing facility.
When preparation is complete, the demolition process starts with breaking the worn concrete
pavement to obtain concrete blocks suitable for transport to the recycling facility and acceptable
by crusher (0.5 to 1 m3 max). Another much slower technique is to mill the worn concrete
pavement.
The demolition of concrete structures is generally carried out using impact breakers or resonance
breakers.
Several types of impact breakers are available:
− hydraulic hammer (Figure 6-1);

− wrecking balls;
− guillotine (Figure 6-2) or multi-guillotine tools (Figure 6-3);
− impact roller also known as polygonal roller (Figure 6-4); impacts are generated here by the
cam shape of the tool when it is dragged on the concrete surface.
These devices allow to produce blocks with a maximum dimension of a few tens of centimeters
(typically 30 to 60 cm). They can be used for jointed plain concrete (JPCP), jointed reinforced
concrete and continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP). Guillotine and impact roller are
high efficiency tools and their producers claim maximum surface demolition rates around 2500
m2/h [6.1, 6.2, 6.3]. Of course, this rate decreases in presence of reinforcements (eg: 350m2/h for
CRCP [6.1])
Figure 6-1: Vehicle mounted hydraulic hammer [6.4]

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Figure 6-2: Total demolition carried out by a guillotine – rehabilitation works of motorway E17, BE,
2011 [Image: Stadsbader-TRBA, BE]
Figure 6-3: Total demolition carried out by a guillotine – rehabilitation works of motorway E17, BE,
2011 [Image: Stadsbader-TRBA, BE]
74
Figure 6-4: Polygonal roller [Image: BAST, Sivapatham, P.]
An example of resonant breaker is shown on Figure 6-5. This kind of device produces a high-
frequency (typically 44 Hz) low amplitude pulse to fracture the concrete.
Both impact and resonance breakers are effective, but each has advantages and disadvantages.
Impact breakers have higher surface production rates than resonance breakers, while resonance
breakers produce fewer disturbances to underlying sewers and utilities, which can be very
important in urban areas.
Figure 6-5: Vehicle mounted resonance breaker [6.6]

6.2.1.2. Crushing and sorting
Production of recycled aggregates generally includes the following steps:
• demolition with eventual transportation to the recycling facility/treatment area;

• pre-treatment including breaking of large blocks, removal of undesired material;
75
• primary crushing with possible screening and removal of metal (e.g. from dowels and tie-
bars) by electromagnetic methods,
• secondary crushing and screening to produce aggregate fractions (if needed),
• in some cases, additional treatments like washing, densimetric sorting, removal of light
material.
An outline of the crushing and sizing operations is reported in Figure 6-6.
Figure 6-6: Crushing and sizing operations [6.7]
The pre-sorting of the material is of particular importance to remove contaminates such as coal tar
or concrete affected by alkali-silica reaction.
After crushing, sand is generally separated from coarse aggregate. Sand can contain impurities
and/or can have high water demand making it difficult to produce high-quality concrete. That is
why it is highly recommended to use recycled sand for other applications and not in the production
of concrete for the new pavement. For example, use it to improve the grading of new base course
(e.g. cement stabilisation).
Usually, the maximum size of crushed aggregate for recycling should be not above 32 mm to
facilitate the laying of new cement concrete pavement, especially if dowels and tie bars are used in
the new pavement.
Washing of the recycled aggregate has to be applied to obtain high-quality materials (e.g. impurities
can be limited to 1%) for the production of concrete for the new pavement.
6.2.2. Quality and use of RCA
It is clear that concrete production generates higher requirements on the recycled materials than
unbound base layers. That is why recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) of high quality coming from
old concrete pavements are used for replacing virgin aggregates in new concrete. Most of the
76
applications so far consisted of the use of RCA (mostly 60%, sometimes up to 100% of the coarse
aggregates) in the bottom layer of a two-layer jointed concrete pavement. This is the typical
practice on the Austrian motorway since 1990. It is now applied in several other countries
(Germany, Poland, U.S. etc.). Nowadays, thanks to further research and technical developments,
the number of applications is also growing for one-layer pavements, as well as in kerbs, gutters and
safety barriers.
A selective demolition and recycling process allows to separate the high quality concrete aggregates
(e.g. coming from pavements) from the normal quality aggregates (e.g. coming from foundations
and buildings). High quality recycled aggregates can be reused in new concrete. RCA from CDW
(other than pavements) can possibly contain higher amounts of brick, glass or other materials which
can be problematic. Nevertheless, they can be used in certain types of concrete of lower strength
classes. They can also be used to produce high performing unbound or cement-bound base layers,
which are indispensable for long-life pavements, both asphalt and concrete. This is a good example
of open loop recycling and it is often the most sustainable way to reuse these aggregates.
It also shows the importance of a high performing selective demolition and recycling strategy in
order to separate the high quality RCA from the normal quality. In some standards or national
regulations related to aggregates for concrete, that difference has also been defined. The
Netherlands specifies two types of recycled aggregates: type A1 and type A2. Type A1 has the
highest quality and would be required for pavement quality concrete or an environment exposed
to water, frost and de-icing salts. In France the NF EN 206 CN defines 3 types of RCA based on
performances defined in NF EN 12 620+A1. Only type one is accepted for pavement concrete. In
Belgium the high quality RCA is denominated as A+. The different characteristics and recommended
requirements will be highlighted in the next paragraph.
In Figure 6-7 of on-site sorting operations is reported.
Figure 6-7: On-site sorting operations [Image: FEBELCEM, BE]
Finally, new techniques of “smart crushing” allow for a better separation of aggregates and cement
stone in crushed concrete. One of the challenges of using RCA in new concrete is the presence of
the hardened cement paste upon the crushed aggregates, which has an impact on concrete
characteristics such as workability retention, strength, E-modulus, shrinkage, and creep. That is why
77
recycling methods have been investigated which allow separating the hardened cement paste from
the original aggregates. One of the methods, developed in the Netherlands, is a “smart crusher”
with crushing jaws moving in two directions. In that way the crushed concrete is separated in
different fractions of powder, sand and stones. As a result, the obtained new aggregates are much
cleaner and do not impart any problems for reuse in new concrete. In addition, the fine particles
obtained can be used as a secondary raw material in clinker production, as a resource for blended
cements or as a filler directly in the concrete mix.
6.2.3. Characteristics of RCA
In Table 6-1, a number of essential characteristics of aggregates for concrete are presented. These
characteristics and associated test methods are the same for virgin aggregates and recycled
aggregates. For some of the characteristics, the requirements and threshold values can also be the
same; however for other characteristics it is not possible to achieve the same performances with
RCA. In that case, the percentage of RCA in the concrete mix should be limited and/or correcting
measures in the concrete mix design are necessary.
78
Properties Test
Aggregate size (d, D)
Grain size distribution (grading)

Textural and structural properties
Fines content (f)
Flakiness index (FI) and Shape index (SI)
Methylene Blue Value (MB)
Fines quality Plasticity Index
Swelling potential
Water absorption (WA)
Porosity
Physical properties
Particle density or true density
Bulk density
Los Angeles (LA) – resistance to fragmentation
Micro-Deval (MDE) – resistance to wear

Mechanical properties
Polished Stone Value (PSV) – resistance to
polishing (only for surface courses)
Resistance to freezing and thawing (F)
Resistance to freezing and thawing in the presence

Durability properties
of de-icing agents (FEC)
Alkali-silica reactivity
Mineral elements content (concrete, natural stone,

clay...)
Bituminous material content
Composition and chemical properties Acid soluble chloride content
Water soluble sulphates content
Organic material content
Harmful elements - compatibility of environment
Table 6-1: Properties of reclaimed material (recycled aggregates) to be tested
The composition of the aggregates is characterized by the content in mass % of different

constituents. Common requirements in Belgium are presented in Table 6-2 for example.
79
RCA
Composition Recommend Category according
requirement to EN 12620
Content of concrete, concrete products, mortar,

≥ 90 Rc90
concrete masonry units (mass %)
Content of concrete, concrete products, mortar,

concrete masonry units. Unbound aggregate, natural ≥ 95 Rcu95
stone. Hydraulically bound aggregate (mass %)
Content of clay masonry units (i.e. bricks and tiles).

Calcium silicate masonry units. Aerated non-floating ≤ 10 Rb10-
concrete (mass %)
Content of bituminous materials (mass %) ≤5 Ra5-
or ≤ 1 (*) Ra1-
Content of other material (mass %) ≤ 0,5 XRg0,5-
< 0,2 (**) FL0,2-

Content of floating material in volume (cm³/kg)
or < 2 FL2-
(*): the 1% restriction is very severe, the aim of which is to obtain as pure concrete aggregates as possible. However, in some
countries, even up to 20% of RAA (recycled asphalt aggregate) or RAP (reclaimed asphalt pavement) is allowed in the bottom
layer of two-layer concrete pavements.
(**) The severe requirement FL0,2- is only applicable when a high degree of surface finishing is required. For road pavements,
normally the FL2- is sufficient.
Table 6-2: Recommended values for the composition of RCA to be used in pavement quality
concrete in Belgium
Organic material (e.g. humus), which may alter the rate of setting and hardening of the concrete,
should also be detected. If possible, it should be removed and/or the change in initial setting time
should be declared. The same is true for sugars or sugar type materials.
Table 6-3 shows recommended values for some of the characteristics of RCA to be used in
pavement quality concrete in Belgium, for example.
Characteristic Recommended Category Comment
requirement according to
NBN EN
12620
Aggregate size d  4 or 6 Recycled sand and aggregates of

⎯ average size (e.g. 2/8) are prohibited as
(mm) D  10
they may contain a lot of fines (< 0,063
80
mm) and consequently increase the water

demand of the concrete
Real density (kg/m³) Declared

 2200 ⎯
value
The coefficient of water absorption after

Coefficient of water 30 minutes and 24 hours immersion has
< 10 WA2410 to be declared
absorption
Water soluble
sulphate content < 0,2 SS0,2 ⎯
(%)
Total sulphur
<1 S1 ⎯
content (%)
Table 6-3: Recommended values for characteristics of RCA to be used in pavement quality concrete
in Belgium
The most problematic parameter of recycled aggregate is increased water absorption which may
lead to a decrease of the durability of the concrete (resistance to water, resistance to freeze-thaw
cycles in the presence of chemical de-icing substances). Therefore, the water absorption potential
of recycled aggregates must be tested in order to consider its influence on the effective water-
cement ratio (w/c-ratio). For RCA, water absorption rate is normally between 2% and 10%. The
water absorption of RCA will be lower if the hardened cement paste on the RCA is removed as much
as possible, e.g. by an appropriate crushing process. Consequently, the durability of the concrete,
produced with these aggregates will be higher.
The density or RCA is lower than that of natural aggregates and its water absorption (porosity) is
higher. Therefore, the optimum total water content should be higher by 1-3% than that of concrete
produced with virgin aggregates in order to maintain the efficient water content.
Mechanical properties
The same Los Angeles (LA), Micro Deval (MDE) and Polished Stone Value (PSV) threshold values are
generally required for virgin and recycled aggregates. However, generally, crushed concrete
aggregates show lower performance. It should be emphasised that two-lift concrete enables re-use
of aggregates with lower mechanical performances in the lower layer. The PSV value is not critical
for application in bottom lift concrete. Yet, minimum threshold values should be set for at least LA
and/or MDE. Recommended values for RCA for pavement quality concrete are: LA35 to LA40; MDE30
to MDE35.
Chemical properties - Alkali-silica sensitivity
If the alkali content of recycled concrete is sufficiently high, detrimental expansions and cracking
could be observed in the secondarily mixed concrete containing RCA. Due to the long time span
necessary for a reliable investigation, it is recommended to perform tests concerning alkali-silica
reaction in due time before the planned construction project has to be carried out. In cases when
an existing pavement has shown rapid deterioration due to alkali silica reactions and/or bad
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concrete quality, it is not advisable to recycle the materials for a new concrete pavement, unless
suitability can be evidenced.
6.3. CONCRETE WITH RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATES

6.3.1. Concrete mix design and properties
The design of the concrete mix must take into account the rules and standards that are valid in the
place of use. This may include a prohibition or restriction on the allowed percentage of RCA.
Fortunately there is a tendency of allowing more RCA, depending on the type of road and the
function of the concrete layer. For example, a recent national project in France (PN Recybéton)
proposed increased recycling ratio for the next national version of NF EN 206 [6.8].
If no restrictions are set, the recycling rate for concrete pavements can reach 100%. These
percentages are expressed as a volume ratio of the coarse aggregates (≥ 4 mm), but can also be
expressed in mass in some countries. It is important to clarify the way the ratio is given, to calculate
the good recipe of concrete per cubic meter.
The quality characteristics of all materials, in particular RCA, must be known beforehand in order
to fulfil the mix criteria for the new layer. The typical mix requirements are w/c ratio, air voids,
degree of compaction, compressive strength and/or tensile strength and also fatigue strength (but
generally derived from tensile strength).
When using RCA, the mix design must take into account the following issues:
• due to the presence of residual cement paste on their surface and their rough texture,
recycled aggregate influences concrete mixture consistency (a higher total water content is
needed in order to get the same effective water content and thus same workability),
• bulk density of concrete decreases due to the lower density of RCA,
• compressive strength may decrease by 10-15% so the water to cement ratio should be
decreased either by increasing the cement content or decrease the efficient water content
thanks to admixtures,
• modulus of elasticity may decrease by 15-20% for the same compressive strength,
• creep may increase up to 50% for the same compressive strength, but is not sufficient to
lower the crack tendency of concrete,
• shrinkage may increase by 20-40% for the same compressive strength,
• tensile strength is general the same for a given compressive strength but can be diminished
in some cases. It should be verified for high replacement ratios,
• Fatigue strength: only limited data is available concerning these properties. A recent study
[6.9] shown that endurance (eg: dynamic flexural strength divided by static flexural
strength 6/0) tends to decrease while standard deviation of fatigue test tends to increase
with RCA content increase. In other terms, the fatigue behaviour of pavement concrete is
slightly degraded with the use of RCA but can easily be compensated by a slight increase of
cement content or layer thickness. In conclusion, the fatigue behaviour of RCA must be
more widely verified but does not appear to be a blocking factor for the development of
recycling in pavement concretes.
Recycled fine concrete aggregates (sand <4 mm) are not recommended for use in concrete due to
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• the edgy shape which reduces the workability of the concrete,

• a possible high water demand with negative influence on freeze-thaw properties
• a tendency of sticking together during storage,
• difficulties for determining the water absorption and hence the total water content that is
needed.
Fines (≤ 63 microns) have to be removed before reusing the reclaimed material because of their
high water demand and negative effect on concrete performances. This material can be used for
other purposes (improvement of anti-frost layers, hydraulically bound base course, backfill, etc.).
As mentioned before, water demand of concrete with recycled concrete aggregates is higher than
with natural aggregates. Before using RCA in new concrete, they should be pre-wetted for at least
48 hours in order to get the cement stone saturated. This is not always evident as the aggregates
are stored in stockpiles and the water does not always reach the underlying recycled aggregates.
Figure 6-8 shows the on-site crushing operations.
Figure 6-8: On-site crushing operations [Image: FEBELCEM, BE]
A rational approach as recently proposed to take into account the introduction of RCA [6.10] in the
concrete mix design process. In summary, RCA acts as a medium quality crushed aggregate.
A typical Austrian approach is to use RCA in the bottom layer of a two-layer JPCP. The fractions 4/16
and 16/32 of RCA are mixed and virgin aggregate is added for the 0/4 fraction. An example for a
standard grain size distribution according Austrian standard is shown in Figure 6-9.
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Figure 6-9: Example of grain size distribution [Austrian standard ÖNORM B 4710-1]
The w/c ratio is generally around 0.42 to 0.45, similar to that of conventional concrete produced
with virgin material.
It has to be taken into account that the setting time can be shorter with recycled aggregates.
In some cases, the cement content also needs to be increased in order to obtain the same
mechanical performances of the concrete. The target value for cement content is higher by
approximately 15 kg/m³ (3-4%) if recycled concrete material is used.
The use of low alkali (LA) cement can be one of the measures to prevent the occurrence of an alkali-
silica reaction and avoid the harmful expansions and cracks.
There is no significant difference in the use of admixtures such as plasticisers and/or air entraining
agents If recycled sand is not used.
6.3.2. Examples of concrete mixes containing RCA
This example [6.5] gives the results of a laboratory research for the design of a concrete mix 0/32
for a municipal road, with mainly sandstone aggregates and in which exceptionally up to 37 % of
RCA was used (in this case the percentage was expressed in volume parts of the total grading of
sand and stones of the concrete). The available RCA had a grading 2/20 and 6/20 and a real density
(or particle density) of 2320 kg/m³.
The amounts of stones were calculated as follows:
RCA(%)
(S20/32 + S6/20 + S2/6 + S0/4 ) = RCA(v)
100
with :
RCA(%) = the total amount of RCA to add, expressed in % of the total amount of sand and stones in
the concrete mix;
RCA(v) = the volume of RCA to be added in the concrete mix in litres/m³.
S20/32 = the amount of crushed sandstone 20/32 of the reference concrete in litres/m³;
84
S0/4 = the amount of river sand 0/4 of the reference concrete in litres/m³;
The mass of RCA, RCA(m) is obtained by multiplication of RCA(v) by 2.320, the real density of the
RCA.
Only the fractions 2/6 and 6/20 of the crushed sandstone aggregate will be substituted by RCA
because the RCA itself is a material with particle density from 2 to 20 mm. The volumes of crushed
sandstone that will be substituted are calculated by the following proportions.
RCA(v)
Volume of crushed sandstone 6/20 substituted by RCA in litres/m³ = S6/20 .
S6/20 + S2/6
RCA(v)
Volume of crushed sandstone 2/6 substituted by RCA in litres/m³ = S2/6 .
S6/20 + S2/6
Table 6-4 shows and example of concrete mixes for a pavement quality concrete 0/32, containing
RCA.
85
RCA
Crushed sandstone Real density : 2320 kg/m³
River sand
Materials Real density : 2690 kg/m³ Coefficient of water absorption by immersion after 30
Real density : 2650 kg/m³
Coefficient of water absorption by immersion after 24h: 0.8 % minutes : 5.8 %
Coefficient of water absorption by immersion after 24h: 6.0 %
20 % vol. 26 % vol. 29 % vol. 37 % vol.

Composition Reference
RCA 6/20 RCA 2/20 RCA 2/20 RCA 2/20
in litres/m³ in kg/m³ in litres/m³ in kg/m³ in litres/m³ in kg/m³ in litres/m³ in kg/m³ in litres/m³ in kg/m³
Crushed sandstone 20/32 240 645 238 640 236 635 234 630 232 625
RCA 2/20 - - - - 179 (26 %) 415 200 (29 %) 465 255 (37 %) 590
RCA 6/20 - - 138 (20 %) 320 - - - - - -
River sand 0/4 194 515 194 515 192 510 191 505 189 500
Cement CEM III/A 42,5 N LA 375 375 375 375 375
Effective water 160 155 150 155 150
Water absorbed by
aggregates 10 20 25 25 35
Total water 170 175 175 180 185
Plasticizer 0,75 0,75 0,56 0,75 0,74
Air entrainer 0,38 1,12 1,67 1,79 2,41
Total 2391 2337 2316 2302 2278
Consistentence
Slump in mm 35 35 40 50 55
VeBe-time in s 4,5 4,0 4,0 4,0 3,0
Air content (%-v)
3,3 3,3 3,0 3,5 3,4
Compressive strength in MPa on cores (S = 100 cm² - h = 10 cm)
After 7 days 47,6 39,8 43,7 37,3 33,2
After 28 days 64,1 55,4 58,2 50,0 47,3
After 91 days 69,5 63,6 61,7 55,3 53,8
Waterabsorption by immersion in % on cilindrical disc (S = 100 cm² - h = 4,5 cm)

5,9 6,8 7,0 7,7 7,6
Table 6-4: Examples of concrete mixes for a pavement quality concrete 0/32, containing RCA [6.5]
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6.4. CONCRETE WITH RECYCLED ASPHALT AGGREGATES

The production of recycled asphalt aggregate (RAA) also called reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP)
is described in the previous chapter.
Generally, as described in [6.10], the replacement of natural aggregate by recycled asphalt

aggregate (RAA or RAP) leads to decrease the compressive strength, the tensile strength and the
elastic modulus, when nothing else is changed in the concrete composition. The higher the recycling
ratio and the higher the bituminous content in the RAP, the higher the decrease. This decrease can
be compensated by an increase of cement content in order to lower the water to cement ratio of
the mix.
RAP has no positive effect on the cracking tendency of concrete, contrary to what could have been
expected. However, U.S. studies have shown a better fatigue resistance which is related to the
fracture mechanics. This is confirmed by a French study [6.11] which has shown that endurance (ie:
dynamic flexural strength divided by static flexural strength 6/0) tends to decrease when RAP
content increases. But this is partially compensated by the fact that elastic modulus and standard
deviation of fatigue test tends to decrease at the same time. These variations can be quantitatively
accounted for in French rational design methodology and lead to a slight oversizing of concrete
layer or a higher amount of cement compared to a solution without RAP to keep the bearing
capacity of the road constant.
The designer must therefore balance the financial and environmental gains linked to the
replacement of natural aggregates by RAP against the necessary over-thickening, or the additional
cost of cement to maintain the same properties.
A remarkable project, executed between 2013 and 2016, is the widening and reconstruction of
tollway I-90 as a two-layer dowelled plain concrete pavement, over 124 km, north west of Chicago
(Illinois) in the direction of Wisconsin. The total thickness of the concrete pavement was 33 cm.
Special efforts were made for the environment. E.g. the bottom layer contained up 50 % RCA and/or
recycled asphalt aggregate (“FRAP = Fractionated Recycled Asphalt Pavement”). A particular point
of construction was the placement of the bottom layer without additional compaction, with a
possible loss of quality. This was because of a special taxation regime where a second compaction
machine would require extra payment. The top layer was placed with a conventional slipform
paver. The surface finishing consisted of longitudinal tinning.
In Figure 6-10 a picture taken during the U.S. Tollway I-90 construction is reported.
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Figure 6-10: U.S. Tollway I-90 – supply of the concrete for the top layer by a conveyor belt
6.5. TWO-LAYER CONCRETE PAVEMENTS (OR TWO-LIFT CONSTRUCTION)

The two-layer concrete pavement technique is particularly efficient in terms of concrete recycling.
It is described in the following paragraphs
6.5.1. General principles
A two-layer (or two-lift) concrete pavement consists of a bottom layer (lift) and a top layer (lift). It
is built in two phases with the concrete of the top layer being poured on the fresh, thus not-
hardened, concrete of the bottom layer. The time between pouring the two layers should remain
limited to 30 minutes to an hour in order to obtain a perfect intermingling of the two layers. The
result after hardening is one single monolithic pavement with complete connection between the
two layers. This monolithic end result is essential for a two-layered concrete, which provides better
bearing capacity than two separates layers. Normally the bottom layer is the thicker one (15 to 25
cm) while the top layer is usually limited in thickness (4 to 10 cm). When properly constructed,
there is no straight separation line visible between bottom and top layer.
Usually, two different concrete mixes are used for bottom and top layer. The top layer consists of
high quality and/or expensive materials such as wear resistant stones, special cements or colouring
agents. In the bottom layer materials of lower quality can be used, which not necessarily meet the
requirements for a driving surface, e.g. the needed polishing resistance. This means that secondary
materials or recycled aggregates can be used in the bottom layer.
6.5.2. Benefits of two-layer concrete pavements
The benefits of two-layer concrete pavements are situated in the area of quality of the road surface
but also in terms of economy and environment.
Regarding the surface quality the following characteristics can be mentioned:
• smoothness (or evenness), which is crucial for a good ride comfort. This smoothness is
easier to achieve in case of a two-layer construction because of the thinner top layer that
needs to be levelled in comparison to the concrete over full depth;
• skid resistance, essential for a limited braking distance and consequently for the road user’s
safety. Using adequate stones, resistant to polishing is the key factor for this characteristic;
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• rolling noise, which is generated by the tyre-pavement interaction. The presence of small
stones of uniform size, homogeneously distributed at the surface leads to a reduced noise
level;
• aesthetical aspects such as colour, texture, imprinted patterns, etc. with a wide range of
possible looks of the surface;
• special qualities such as the air purifying effect for photocatalytic surfaces. They are aimed
at removing nitrogen oxides from the air;
• the durability and wear resistance of the surface, characterised by e.g. a high resistance to
scaling under influence of frost-thaw cycles in the presence of de-icing salts.
The economic benefit in comparison with the single layer construction is taken from the concept
that expensive constituents are only necessary in the top layer of limited thickness and not over
the full depth. In addition, the bottom layer can be made of cheaper materials. On the other hand,
construction may be more expensive because of the need for two machines and possibly two mixing
plants. In most cases, however, the cheaper materials outweigh the extra costs for construction.
Finally, the use of recycled materials is beneficial for the environment. And, as already mentioned,
it is possible to incorporate environmentally friendly techniques, e.g. air purifying surfaces.
6.5.3. Construction practice
Most of the two-layer concrete pavements are JPCP (jointed plain concrete pavements) with dowels
in the transverse joints and tie-bars in the longitudinal joints. The shrinkage and thermal movement
of such a pavement are controlled in the contraction joints and, when necessary, in expansion
joints. The use of RCA in the bottom layer is standard practice in many countries and should
normally not cause any problem. The whole recycling process including the construction of a two-
layer JPCP is explained in detail in the next paragraph.
Some projects of two-layer CRCP (continuously reinforced concrete pavements) have also been
built, mainly in Belgium and some states of the U.S., where CRCP is common practice for highways
and motorways. In Belgium, one pilot project in two phases (2007-2008) included the use of RCA,
up to 60% in volume of coarse aggregate, in the bottom layer. Unfortunately, early age damage was
observed: the concrete pavement was fragmented in the wheel track till the depth of the
reinforcement layer. This was due to the presence of horizontal cracks at the level of the
longitudinal reinforcement. After several investigations, it was concluded that most probably this
was due to the increased shrinkage behaviour of the concrete, with a high content of RCA. Flanders,
Belgium road authorities limited the use of RCA in the bottom layer of a two-layer CRCP to 20% for
a second project. RCA has not been used since.
6.5.4. Overview of the recycling process for a two-layer concrete pavement
The process of two layer concrete pavement construction consists of 8 main steps which are
described in the following subsections.
6.5.4.1. Step 1: Collection of data related to the existing road section
First, related documents and information should be collected. Goal of this step is to get the
following information:
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• road pavement condition (based on the evolution of various road surface parameters and
bearing capacity monitored),
• structure of pavement layers,
• sizes of concrete slabs, way of load transfer of slabs, use of reinforcement (from
documentation),
• results of old concrete tests (from test records),
• information about past traffic.
6.5.4.2. Step 2: Actual field survey
The next step is to collect information on the quantity and quality of the layers to be recycled by
drilling cores or making trenches followed by site and laboratory tests.
• visual inspection (location and classification of distresses focused on identification of D-

cracking and expression of ASR- alkali-silica reaction),
• drilling of cores (layer thickness, separation of layers, etc.),
• condition of drainage systems.
Ground penetrating radar can be used to interpret the recorded data continuously. Homogeneous
zones in the relevant section should be identified to take advantage of the homogeneity of new
layers with reclaimed material.
6.5.4.3. Step 3: Laboratory studies of materials coming from drilled cores or test pits
• physical, mechanical or chemical tests based on requirements of standards and technical

specifications,
• test on ASR occurrence.
6.5.4.4. Step 4: Decisions concerning the main recycling issues
This step has the purpose to make decisions concerning the main recycling issues. Points to be
analysed are:
• size of virgin and recycled aggregates to be used in the new concrete pavement,
• amount of virgin aggregate required,
• mix design,
• selection of proper mixing plant (depending primarily on the speed of production and
number of required aggregate sizes),
• selection of a recycling plant or – depending on the distance to the construction site –
installation of a mobile recycling facility.
6.5.4.5. Step 5: Demolition of the old concrete pavement
The demolition is done as explained in paragraph 6.2.1.1. Several precautions (avoiding

contamination, removal of fine fraction before crushing, continuous quality control, etc.) have to
be taken during the demolition.
Concrete and asphalt layers should be demolished separately. Simultaneous crushing of several
layers can be considered as a possible option if the characteristics of this mixture meet the
requirements of the new layer produced with reclaimed material (e.g. if it is allowed to use up to
90
20% asphalt "contamination" in the new bottom-lift, the old concrete layer can be demolished and
recycled together with its asphalt wearing course).
6.5.4.6. Step 6: Crushing and screening operations
Crushing and screening operations are done according the paragraph 6.2.1.2.
6.5.4.7. Step 7: Production of new cement concrete pavement
The production process of concrete mixed with recycled aggregate is identical to that, when
exclusively virgin aggregate is used. The reclaimed material prepared as coarse aggregate is used in
the production of concrete of the new concrete pavement like virgin aggregate. During the mixing
process cement, recycled aggregate, virgin aggregate, sand and water are combined homogenously
according to the required concrete formula.
Figure 6-11 reports and outline of the concrete production in a mixing plant.
Figure 6-11: Concrete production in a mixing plant [6.6]

91
6.5.4.8. Step 8: Construction of new concrete pavement
The construction of new concrete pavements with a slipform paver using recycled aggregate does
not differ from construction process by using exclusively virgin material. The same requirements
apply as for pavements constructed with concrete produced with virgin aggregate. The pavement
is built with a standard slipform paver. Dowels and tie bars are placed with baskets or inserted
automatically from the device of the finisher at the planned positions of the future longitudinal and
transverse joints. The irregularities in the surface are removed by the finishing beam of the paver.
When using the alternative two-lift pavement technique, the upper layer is produced with virgin
aggregate with higher requirements. The curing procedure and the application of the exposed
aggregate surface doesn’t differ from construction of concrete pavements without recycled
material: it begins with the application of an initial surface retarder/curing compound including
evaporation protection directly behind the slipform paver, several hours later followed by brushing
the surface mortar with a sweeping machine after sufficient hardening of the concrete, in order to
reveal the aggregate at the surface and ending with an additional application of a curing compound.
Alternatively, a plastic sheet can be used for covering the surface to protect it from evaporation.
Figures 6-12 to 6-15 show some details of the construction phases.

92
Figure 6-12: Slipform pavers in action [6.5]
Figure 6-13: Spreading of the concrete for the top layer [Image: Asamer, AT]
Figure 6-14: Application of curing compound after paving [Image: Asamer, AT]
93
Figure 6-15: Brushing away the surface mortar with a sweeping machine [Image: Asamer, AT]
6.6. ROLLER COMPACTED CONCRETE (RCC) PAVEMENTS

Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) is a hybrid technique allowing the use of asphalt equipment to
achieve a pavement featuring properties (strength, durability) similar to those of vibrated concrete
pavements. Although primarily intended for low-speed applications such as industrial yards or
secondary and residential roads, progresses in machinery and construction methods along near 50
years of experience have expanded the use of RCC pavements for carriageways with higher traffic
volumes. Currently, for most applications where vibrated concrete pavements are used, RCC is also
a feasible option providing excellent results.
Because of the lower water content of RCC and the way of spreading and compacting the dry mix,
the water absorption by RCA is not a big issue compared to conventional concrete. Recycling rates
of 100% of the coarse aggregates are very common and the requirements on the characteristics are
not always as strict as for conventional concrete pavements, in particular, if the RCC base or
pavement is overlaid with a thin bituminous course. In that case, we can refer to the next chapter
on the use of RCA in road bases. On the other hand, if a high quality exposed surface is aimed for,
the use of RCA should be limited.
Figure 6-16 reports an example of a rural road in roller compacted concrete.
Figure 2: Rural road in roller compacted concrete [Image: FEBELCEM, BE]

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7. RECYCLING OF MATERIALS IN BASE LAYERS WITH MIXES

MADE IN-PLANT
7.1. RECYCLED MATERIALS
7.1.1. Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA)
In base layers, both (hydraulically or bitumen) bound and unbound, the use of RCA is very common
[7.1, 7.2].
Unbound (granular) base applications are the most common use of RCA produced from concrete
pavements. An important benefit to using RCA as an unbound base material is that the presence of
typical contaminants to the base material (e.g., asphalt concrete, joint sealant materials, and other
paving materials) is of relatively little concern.
Concrete recycling can also produce economical dense-graded base materials that include higher
proportions of crushed concrete particles of all sizes. Dense-graded RCA bases are highly effective
because the angular, rough-textured particles provide excellent stability, while the secondary
hydration of RCA fines often results in further strengthening of the base layer.
Hydraulically bound base layers can be subdivided in categories according to:
- the type of binder: cement, blast furnace slag, fly ash, silica fume, hydraulic road binder
(HRB) or others;
- the strength class, which can vary within a range of approximately 3 to 25 MPa.
Different names are used in different countries, e.g. cement treated base (CTB) – hydraulically
bound base (HBB) – cement bound granular base – lean concrete – e-concrete – roller compacted
concrete base or others.
The type of RCA for base layers does not need to fulfil the same requirements as for the use in
concrete pavements (see chapter 6 §6.2.1.2 Characteristics of RCA). The following Table 7-1 gives
an example of possible requirements for RCA in base applications.
RCA
Composition Recommend Category according
requirement to EN 13242
Content of concrete, concrete products,

≥ 70 Rc70
mortar, concrete masonry units (mass %)
Content of concrete, concrete products,

mortar, concrete masonry units. Unbound
≥ 90 Rcu90
aggregate, natural stone. Hydraulically bound
aggregate (mass %)
Content of clay masonry units (i.e. bricks and

tiles). Calcium silicate masonry units. Aerated ≤ 10 Rb10-
non-floating concrete (mass %)
Content of bituminous materials (mass %)

≤5 Ra5-
95
Content of other material (mass %) ≤1 X1-
Content of floating material in volume (cm³/kg) <5 FL5-
Table 7-1: Example of possible requirements for RCA in base applications
Other requirements are possible such as a limitation on the fines (≤ 63µ), on the shape of the
aggregates (flakiness index FI) or on the mechanical resistance (LA: mostly between 35 and 50).
7.1.2. Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP)
Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is also known as recycled asphalt pavement, and the two terms
are often used interchangeably. The most widely used recycled materials are recycled asphalt
pavement (RAP). The aggregates in RAP are coated with asphalt cement that reduces the water
absorption qualities of the material. In 1998 the FHWA defined RAP as the “term given to removed
and/or reprocessed pavement materials containing asphalt and aggregates.” The FHWA report
indicates that RAP had been used in granular base layers for “more than 20 years” as of 1998, and
RAP that “has been properly processed and in most cases blended with conventional aggregates
has demonstrated satisfactory performances as granular road base.”
Recycling asphalt pavements makes good sense from both economic and environmental points of
view; the process enables petroleum and aggregate resources to be conserved and saves landfill
space that would otherwise have been taken up with the discarded asphalt. With the increasingly
strong worldwide trend towards environmental issues, such as lifecycle inventories and carbon
credits, the whole process of hot mix asphalt recycling not only makes good sense; there is an
obligation on the part of the roads industry to encourage its use routinely.
7.1.3. Other Materials

7.1.3.1. Slag
For most purposes, blast furnace slag is generally regarded as being at least as good as natural
aggregates [7.3]. However, the physical and chemical properties differ from natural aggregates and
hence specifications and testing methods for natural aggregates do not necessarily apply. The
chemical composition of slag is variable. When crushed and screened by normal quarrying
procedures, blast furnace slag generally produces good quality aggregate with a cubic shape and a
rough surface texture giving good frictional properties and good adhesion to bituminous and
cementitious binders.
7.1.3.2. Steel Slag
Steel or Linz-Donawitz (LD) slag, is produced in the conversion of raw iron into steel using the Linz-
Donawitz process. It is also referred to as Blast Oxygen Furnace Slag (BOF) slag. Steel slag is
produced during the separation of molten steel from impurities in steel-making furnaces, and is
composed of calcium silicates together with oxides and compounds of iron, manganese, alumina
and other trace elements. The properties that have to be evaluated for the suitability of slag as an
96
aggregate relate to the chemical, physical and mechanical nature of the material. However, all the
slag produced is suited to use as a road-building aggregate. The chemical composition of steel slag
depends on the method of production, but when cooled yields a product that resembles igneous
rock.
Before using steel slag as an aggregate in a crushed stone base, it is critically important that the
material is pre-weathered to prevent expansion. Free lime and magnesium oxides that have not
reacted with the silicate structures can hydrate and expand in humid environments, which is
precisely what happens with steel. Consequently, slag aggregates exhibit a tendency to expand.
Volume changes of up to 10% or more, attributable to the hydration of calcium and magnesium
oxides, can cause difficulties.
For this reason, the process to remedy the expansive properties has improved and steel slag is now
considered an alternative to natural aggregates in the road construction industry. To prevent
expansion, the steel slag needs to be weathered prior to use. This is to hydrate the free calcium
oxide, which if not done, results in water causing hydration and breaking down on the aggregate.
In a steel slag mix, this is characterised by isolated white deposits from the formation of calcium
carbonate, which pop out. Steel slag for road construction aggregate should be stockpiled for a
minimum of 3 months and kept constantly wet by rain or water spraying. It is important to keep
the stockpiles covered after weathering during rainy weather, and to open the covers during hot
weather to facilitate drying. Because of the high permeability, the slag retains water, which makes
drying during the mixing process more costly. The storage or ageing is to allow potentially
destructive hydration and the associated expansion to take place prior to using the material as an
aggregate. There is wide variation in the amount of time required for adequate exposure to the
elements. Up to 18 months may be required.
7.1.3.3. Asphalt Shingles
There are many types of shingles and their individual material composition can be a primary
indicator of the best and highest value use as a recyclable commodity [7.4]. A primary reason for
the high potential value of recycled shingles is that they contain ingredients that hot mix asphalt
(HMA) producers purchase to enhance their paving mixtures including: asphalt cement (or AC
“binder”) and mineral aggregate. Asphalt shingles also contain a fibrous mat made from organic felt
(cellulose) or fiberglass that can also be valuable as fiber in some asphalt paving mixes. The
composition of typical, new residential asphalt shingle, made today, is shown in7-2.
Table7-2: Typical Asphalt Shingle Composition [7.4]
Tear-off shingle processing today consists of a wide variety of system, equipment and operational
designs. Each processing facility has the following common elements:
97
• Feedstock quality assurance,

• Receiving and stockpiling of raw feedstock,
• Size reduction and screening,
• Final recycled asphalt shingle (RAS) product stockpiling,
• Final RAS product QA/QC,
• Transport to end market.
Figure 7-1 reports a simplified Shingle processing Diagram.
Figure 7-1: Simplified Shingle processing Diagram [7.4]
Use of RAS in HMA is very similar to the technology for using recycled asphalt pavement
(RAP) in HMA. In general, using RAP in HMA and as an aggregate supplement for road base
construction is nearly ubiquitous today, especially in the more urbanized regions that may
be more distant from aggregate supplies (i.e., gravel pits).
Additional pavement construction applications for use of RAS include:
• Lightweight pavements
• Aggregate supplement for gravel road base.
• Aggregate supplement for preparation of road bed subgrade (or “underlayment”)
• Dust control on gravel roads.
• Cold patch.
7.1.3.4. Brick
Several types of brick may be encountered in the recycling waste stream – structural, pavers, and
refractory bricks [7.5, 7.6]. The quality and characteristics of bricks often vary by region of the
world, as their properties depend highly upon the raw materials and the process for making the
brick. In many cases recycled brick sources may be very old, and the production methods may be
unknown to modern processes. While many brick types met the specification requirements, some
exhibited poor performance and were deemed unsuitable for use in an aggregate base. Poorly
performing bricks were generally the refractory bricks.
98
A maximum of 10% brick by weight should be specified when recycled brick is used. This level of
aggregate replacement is supported by the testing results with high variability, and also due to the
highly uncertain nature and source of recycled brick. The majority of the brick tended to have
excellent to fair performance often meeting or being close to meeting the requirements for virgin
aggregates. It is predicted that 98% of all brick aggregate when used in a blend with virgin aggregate
at this mass fraction will meet specifications for virgin aggregate.
7.1.3.5. Ash
Ash is produced as a by-product in a coal burning power station. Pulverized coal, in fine powder
form, is burned in a furnace to produce electricity. As part of this process, a very fine, pulverized
fuel ash (PFA) is produced and is carried out of the furnace with the flue gases. The coarser ash falls
to the bottom of the furnace where it sinters and forms furnace bottom ash (FBA). Of the ash
produced in a coal-fired power station, 75% to 85% of the ash is PFA.
FBA (clinker ash) is a coarse granular material ranging in particle size from fine sand to coarse gravel.
The grading makes it suitable for selected and natural subbase. Because the particles have a porous
structure, they tend to be relatively weak compared to most granular materials.
Bottom ashes from municipal incinerators of unsorted wastes are a promising recycled aggregate,
as demonstrated by the available literature [7.7, 7.8].
Research showed that clinker and fly ash produced as a by-product of the coal gasification process
could be successfully utilized, when processed and blended in optimal proportions, as base for the
construction of low volumes roads. Although the ash material did not perform as well as a 100 mm
crushed stone base, it was equivalent to good quality natural gravel. The cost of construction of the
base sections constructed using clinker ash was less than half of that of crushed stone.
7.2. BASE LAYERS WITH A BITUMINOUS BINDER

The mix design and construction of base layers with bituminous binders is very similar to those of
asphalt pavement layers as described in Chapter 5. However, the RAP ratio can be higher (50 to
100% is possible) and the requirements for aggregates and reclaimed bitumen are less strict.
7.3. BASE LAYERS WITH A HYDRAULIC BINDER

The mix design for base layers with hydraulic binders is similar to the mix design for in place
recycling with hydraulic binders as described in Chapter 3.4, i.e. determining optimal water content,
establishing the hydraulic binder type and content, etc. The production of the base layer mix is done
in the same type of plants used to produce concrete mixes, see Chapter 6.5.4. The construction of
these layers is done with the same techniques for constructing (cement) treated base layers.
7.4. UNBOUND BASE LAYERS WITH RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATES

Design of unbound RCA base layers should be performed with the same tools used for conventional
unbound aggregate base layers and should result in layers of similar thickness. Thicknesses
commonly range from a minimum of 10 cm (a typical minimum value for constructability and
stability of the construction platform) to a maximum of 25 cm. A further reason to consider limiting
RCA base layer thickness is that added compaction efforts for thicker layers may result in increased
fines through abrasion and particle fracture. Thicker base layers may be used for other reasons,
99
such as added frost protection for local soils. Blending with virgin aggregate may be necessary when
the designed base thickness exceeds the amount of properly graded material. Both for unbound
and hydraulically bound base layers, it is important to determine the optimum water content for
compaction as described in Chapter 3.
100
8. GLOSSARY
Term Definition
CDW Construction and Demolition Waste

Cold Inplace Recycling: grinding the existing asphalt layer without
CIR incorporating the underlaying base material and stabilizing with
bitumen emulsion or foamed bitumen.
CRCP Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
Downcycling is a recycling practice that involves breaking an item
down into its component elements or materials. Once the constituent
Downcycling
elements or materials are recovered, they are reused if possible but
usually as a lower-value product.
FBA Furnace Bottom Ash
Full Depth Reclamation: grinding the existing asphalt pavement and

FDR
the underlying layer into a homogenous base material.
FRAP Fractionated Recycled Asphalt Pavement

GPR Ground Penetrating Radar
HIPAR Hot In Place Asphalt Reuse
HMA Hot Mix Asphalt
Hydraulic Road Binder: the HRBs are finished products, made in a
factory and supplied ready to use, and are a blend of different
HRB
constituents (Portland cement clinker, pozzolanic materials, fly ash,
lime, ...)
IC Intelligent Compaction
JPCP Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements

RAA Recycled Asphalt Aggregates
RAP Recycled Asphalt Pavement

RCA Recycled Concrete Aggregates
RCC Roller Compacted Concrete
Stabilized Full Depth Reclamation: SFDR incorporates a binding agent

SFDR
such as bitumen emulsion, foamed bitumen or hydrated cement
101
9. REFERENCES
Chapter 1
[1.1] European Commission (2008) Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the
Council of 19 November 2008 on waste, available at
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/legislation/
[1.2] RE-ROAD (2012) Research project "End of life strategies of asphalt pavements", available at
https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/218747
[1.3] IREX and INDURA (2017) Research programme MURE “Multi-recyclage d’enrobés tièdes”,
available at https://www.pnmure.fr/
[1.4] IREX (2018) Research project FastCarb “Accelerated Carbonation of Recycled Concrete
Aggregates”, available at https://fastcarb.fr/
Chapter 2
[2-1] PIARC (2019) State of the art in monitoring road and road/vehicle interaction. PIARC
Technical - Committee D.2 Pavement’. Report no. 219R14EN, PIARC, Paris, France
[2.2] Elseifi, M.A. and Zihan Z.U.A. (2018) Assessment of the Traffic Speed Deflectometer in
Louisiana for Pavement Structural Evaluation, Louisiana Transportation Research Center,
available at http://www.ltrc.lsu.edu/pdf/2018/FR_590.pdf
[2.3] Mallick, R.B., Maser, K. and Nazarian, S. (2007) Guidelines for the Use of Ground Penetrating
Radar (GPR) and Portable Seismic Property Analyzer (PSPA) in Full Depth Reclamation
Projects, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, US, available at
http://www.maine.gov/mdot/tr/documents/pdf/report0613f.pdf
Chapter 3
[3.1] Abdo, J., Serfass, J.-P. and Pellevoisin, P. (2013) Pavement cold in-place recycling with
hydraulic binders: The state of the art in France, Road Materials and Pavement Design 14(3),
pp. 638-665.
[3.2] Bemanian, S., Polish, P., Maurer G., (2006) Cold in-place recycling and full-depth reclamation
projects by Nevada department of transportation state of the art, Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp.
Res. Board 1949, pp. 54-71.
[3.3] Forsberg A., Lukanen E., Thomas T., (2002) Engineered cold in-place recycling project: Blue
Earth Country State Aid Highway 20, Minnesota, Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board 1813,
pp 111-123.
[3.4] U.S. DOT - Federal Highway Administration - (2018) Overview of Project Selection Guidelines
for Cold In-place and Cold Central Plant Pavement Recycling.
[3.5] U.S. DOT -Federal Highway Administration- (2012) Quality Base Material Produced Using Full
Depth Reclamation on Existing Asphalt Pavement Structure.
[3.6] U.S. DOT -Federal Highway Administration- (2001) Recycled Materials in European Highway
Environments: Uses, Technologies, and Policies.
102
[3.7] Syed, I. M. and Brown,T. L., -Portland Cement Association- (2007) Full-Depth Reclamation
using Portland Cement: A Study of Long-Term Performance. [3.8] XX
[3.8] Hartman, M., Turos, M., Ghosh, D. and Marasteanu, M. (2016) Full-Depth Reclamation (FDR)
for Suburban/Urban and Local Roads Application.
[3.9] Taha, R., Al-Harthy, A., Al-Shamsi, K. and Al-Zubeidi, M. (2002) Cement stabilization of
reclaimed asphalt pavement aggregate for road bases and subbases, Journal of Materials in
Civil Engineering 14(3), pp. 239-245.
[3.10] https://riubu.ubu.es/handle/10259/157
[3.11] Díaz J, Potti J.J. Y Vaquero Julio J., “Estado del arte del reciclado en frío de firmes in situ en
España. State-of-the-art of On-site Cold Recycling in Spain”. Revista RUTAS de la Asociación
Técnica de Carreteras (Miembro de PIARC). Madrid 2016.
[3.12] Díaz J, Potti J.J. Y Vaquero Julio J., PIARC, XXVth World Road Congress. “State-of-the-art of
On-site Cold Recycling in Spain” Seul 2016.
[3.13] ANTER e IECA, MANUAL de RECICLADO de FIRMES IN SITU CON CEMENTO, DEPOSITO LEGAL:
M-4802-2019. ISBN: 978-84-89702-29-5. Madrid 2019.
[3.14] SETRA (2003) Guide technique de retraitement en place à froid des anciennes chaussées
(technical guide Cold retreatment of old pavements), Setra, juillet 2003, (in French).
[3.15] CIMBETON (2013) L’entretien structurel des chaussées souples et semi-rigides. Le

retraitement en place à froid aux liants hydrauliques (Structural maintenance of bituminous
and semi-rigid pavements. Cold retreatment with hydraulic binders), Collection Technique
Cimbéton, T71 report, Cimberton, available at
https://www.infociments.fr/sites/default/files/article/fichier/CT-T71.pdf
Chapter 4
[4.1] ARRA (2015) Basic Asphalt Recycling Manual, 2nd Edition, available at
https://www.arra.org/store/ViewProduct.aspx?id=9384006
[4.2] Wirtgen (2012) Cold Recycling: Wirtgen Cold Recycling Technology, Wirtgen, Germany,
available at https://www.wirtgen-
group.com/media/02_wirtgen/05_pdfs/praxisratgeber_leseproben/manual_cold-
recycling_excerpt_en.pdf
[4.3] SABITA (2020) Technical Guideline: Bitumen Stabilised Materials, A Guide for the Design and
Construction of Bitumen Emulsion and Foamed Bitumen Stabilised Materials (sabita), 3rd
Edition, South African Bitumen Association, June 2020, available at
https://www.asphaltacademy.co.za/events/categories/publications/tg2-bitumen-
stabilised-materials
[4.4] Perralt, J., Williams, R.C., Hugo, S. and Machado, A. (2014) Recombination of Asphalt with
Bio-Asphalt: Binder Formulation and Asphalt Mixes Application, Civil Construction and
Environmental Engineering Conference Presentations and Proceedings, Iowa State
University, 2014.
103
[4.5] ARRA (2001) Basic Asphalt Recycling Manual, 1st Edition, available at
http://www.dot.state.mn.us/materials/pvmtdesign/docs/BasicAsphaltRecyclingManual.pdf
[4.6] Arm, M., Descantes, Y.; De la Roche, C., Pihl, K. A., Gaspar, L., Mollenhauer, K., de Lurdes
Antunes, M., De Bock, L., and McNally, C. (2009) DIRECT-MAT: sharing knowledge and
practices on recycling of road materials in Europe, available at
http://hdl.handle.net/10197/2312
[4.7] FGSV Velarg GmbH (2005) Merkblatt für Kaltrecycling in situ im Straßenoberbau MKRC,
https://www.fgsv-verlag.de/pub/media/pdf/636.i.pdf
[4.8] Caderno de Encargos Tipo Obra (Type Spécifications for Construction). Estradas de Portugal,
S.A., Almada, Portugal, 2009.
[4.9] Reciclado in situ con emulsión de capas bituminosas (Spécifications for in situ cold recycling).
Dirección General de Carreteras- Ministerio de Fomento, Spain, 2001
[4.10] Batista, F., Antunes, M. d. L., Mollenhauer, K. and Nally C.M. (2012) Bulding blocks for a best
practice guide on cold in-place recycling, em 5th Eurasphalt Eurobitume Congress, Istanbul
[4.11] Schwartz, C. W. and Diefenderfer, B. K. (2017) NCHRP 863 Material Properties of Cold In-
Place Recycled and Full-Depth Reclamation Asphalt Concrete; available at
http://www.trb.org/Publications/Blurbs/176641.aspx
[4.12] Minnesota Department of Transportation (2020) Grading and Base Manual, available at
http://www.dot.state.mn.us/materials/gbmanual.html
[4.13] Minnesota Department of Transportation (2016) MnDOT Reclamation Inspector’s Guide

Full Depth Reclamation and Stabilized Full Depth Reclamation,2016
http://www.dot.state.mn.us/materials/manuals/GBase/pavementreclamationguide02_02_
2016ada.pdf
[4.14] -Stroup-Gardiner, M. (2011) NCHRP Synthesis 421 Recycling and Reclamation of Asphalt
Pavements Using In-Place Methods, available at
http://www.trb.org/Publications/Blurbs/165876.aspx
[4.15] Austroads (2019) ‘Guide to pavement technology Part 4D: Stabilised Materials’, Austroads,
Sydney, NSW.
[4.16] Austroads (2019) ‘Guide to pavement technology Part 5: Pavement Evaluation and Treatment
Design’, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
[4.17] National Center for Pavement Preservation, https://www.pavementpreservation.org/
Chapter 5
[5.1] Pavement Recycling Guidelines – PIARC (2003), ISBN: 2-84060-154-0
[5.2] European Asphalt Pavement Association (2017), Guidance document for preparing
product category rules (pcr) and environmental product declarations (epd) for asphalt mixtures
104
[5.3] European standards EN 13108 1-21 series
[5.4] TRH 21 (2017) Use of reclaimed asphalt in the production of asphalt
[5.5] Sivapatham, P., Simmleit, N. (2020) Precious Recycling of Reclaimed Asphalt as Hot Mix
Asphalt by Use of Rejuvenator, 3rd International Conference on Innovative Technologies for Clean
and Sustainable Development, Chandigarh, India
[5.6] Wiederverwenden von Asphalt, Ausgabe 2009 Der Deutsche Asphaltverband (DAV)
Chapter 6
[6.1] https://www.antigoconstruction.com/breaker-specifications
[6.2] https://www.betonbeuken.com/english/why-the-impactor-2000.html#content
[6.3] http://www.impactor2000.com/pavement.html
[6.4] ACI Committee 555.(2001). “Removal and Reuse of Hardened Concrete.” American
Concrete Institute
[6.5] Ployaert, C. (2008). Towards an optimal concrete mix for pavement quality concrete.
FEBELCEM
[6.6] https://resonantmachines.com/services/airports/
[6.7] “Betonstraßen – Das Handbuch”, VÖZ, AT
[6.8] Comment recycler le beton dans le beton. Recommandations du projet national

recybeton, (2018), https://www.pnrecybeton.fr/rapports/recommandations-recybeton/
[6.9] Grondin, F., De Sa, C., Sedran, T., Cassagnabère, F., Benboudjema, F., Bendimerad, a. Z.,
Guo, M., Loukili, A., Nicot, P., Rozière, E., Fouré, B., (2019) Chapter 11 :Delayed mechanical
properties, Concrete Recycling Research and Practice, 1st Edition, Edited by Francois de Larrard,
Horacio Colina, CRC Press, 636p, ISBN 9781138724723
[6.10] Sedran,T., (2019) Adaptation of existing methods to incorporate recycled aggregates,

Concrete Recycling Research and Practice, 1st Edition, Chapter 15, Edited by Francois de Larrard,
Horacio Colina, CRC Press, 636p, ISBN 9781138724723
[6.11] V. Mathias V., Sedran, T., De Larrard, F., (2004) Recycling reclaimed asphalt pavement in
concrete roads, RILEM Conference on the Use of Recycled Materials in Building and Structures,
Barcelona
105
Chapter 7
[7.1] Snyder, M., B., (2018) Using Recycled Concrete Aggregate in Pavement Base Products,
Moving Advancements into Practice MAP Brief,
www.cproadmap.org/publications/MAPbriefJuly2018.pdf.
[7.2] Dardis, J., M., (2012) Recycling Concrete for Sustainable Construction, Cleveland State
University
[7.3] Thompson H., Bouwmeester M., (2006) The use of steel slag aggregate in asphalt mixes,
Sabita Digest
[7.4] Recycling Tear-Off Asphalt Shingles: Best Practices Guide (2007) The Construction
Materials Recycling Association (CMRA)
[7.5] Reza F., (2013) Use of Recycled Brick in Aggregates, Center for Transportation Research
and Implementation, Minnesota State University, Mankato
[7.6] Reza F., (2014) Evaluation of Recycled Brick as an Aggregate Material for Shoulder Base
Courses, Center for Transportation Research and Implementation, Minnesota State University,
Mankato
[7.7] Toraldo, E., Saponaro, S., Mariani, E., Careghini, A., (2013) Use of stabilized bottom ashes
for bound layers of road pavements, Journal of Environmental Management, Volume 121, Pages
117–123 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.02.037
[7.8] Toraldo, E., Saponaro, S., (2015). A road pavement full-scale test track containing
stabilized bottom ashes Journal of Environmental Technology. Volume 39, Pages 1114-1122,
https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2014.982714
Copyright by the World Road Association. All rights reserved.
World Road Association (PIARC)
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USE OF RECYCLED MATERIALS

Copyright by the World Road Association. All rights reserved.

World Road Association (PIARC)

International Standard Book Number: 978-2-84060-646-8

Front cover © L. Rens, FEBELCEM

The editors-in-chief of this literature review are:

The editors of the individual chapters are:

USE OF RECYCLED MATERIALS IN PAVEMENTS

This literature review describes:

A second publication is a collection of case studies.

5.5. MIXING PLANT ..................................................................................... 64

6. RECYCLING OF MATERIALS IN A CONCRETE PAVEMENT

1.1. OBJECTIVES OF RECYCLING AND RE-USING

• specifications do not permit the use of recycled materials,

1.2. MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT MIXES

The following terminology is used:

• recycled concrete aggregates (RCA): aggregates from crushing a concrete pavement;

• combination of hydraulic and bituminous binders.

We distinguish between where the mixing is carried out:

1.3. READING GUIDE

Figure 1-1: flowchart [Image: Briessinck, M.]

recycled aggregate binder in-place in-plant

artificial aggregate concrete pavement

asphalt aggregate concrete pavement

asphalt pavement asphalt pavement

concrete aggregate hydraulic binder road base concrete pavement

road base aggregate hydraulic binder road base road base

bituminous binder road base road base

Table 1-1: possible applications of the use of recycled aggregate

2. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION FOR IN-PLACE RECYCLING

2.2. FIELD INVESTIGATION

(II) distresses detection and causes definition;

(III) characterization of the materials composing the layer(s) to be recycled.

2.3. CHARACTERIZATION OF IN PLACE MATERIALS

2.3.2. Test Pit

Figure 1-1: Example of a Test Pit [Image: Sivapatham, P.]

2.4. NON DESTRUCTIVE PAVEMENT EVALUATION TECHNIQUES

2.4.1. Pavement Stiffness – Deflection Measurement.

facilitate the determination of uniform sections can be related to FWD deflections,

2.4.2. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Figure 2-3: Raw GPR Data Sample

2.4.3. Combining pavement investigation techniques

2.5. IN-PLACE RECYCLING SELECTION CONSIDERATION OVERVIEW

The project, environmental and construction constraints may include:

• Must traffic be maintained during the construction period?

• Longitudinal and transverse heterogeneity; variations in material properties will influence

• Road geometry related to widening, matching existing drainage structures or limits on

Material performance, structural design and economical evaluation considerations generally

• Thickness design, required material properties and mechanical performance: Cold-mixed

• Surface treatment to be chosen (according to the technology involved).

3. IN-PLACE RECYCLING - HYDRAULIC BINDERS

In order to ascertain the feasibility of recycling a pavement, it is necessary to identify if distresses

3.1.2. Availability of implementation

the causes of distresses ca be defined. It

performance tests, can be performed.

3.1.3. Whole structure

Based on the results of diagnostics (preliminary investigations), it is necessary to determine which

3.2. MIXTURE AND MIX DESIGN

• Portland cement clinker;

3.2.2. Mix Design

In Figure 3-4 an example of the mix-design flow chart is reported.

RECYCLED Main tests NATURAL HYDRAULIC BINDER