UTS Student Copy 2021

1
Philosophical Perspectives of the Self
By: Asst.Prof. Gino A. Cabrera, MPsy, CSIOP, RPm
Who am I? What I am? Are others aware of who they are? Who or what defines
the self? These pressing questions have been asked and debated by philosophers,
scholars, and religious thinkers since time immemorial. Their arguments were based on
their own personal opinions, experiences, critical thinking, observations, and even
imaginative speculations. In short, these philosophers or thinkers relied on their
individualized way of looking at the self as an entity of analysis. As a result, they arrived
at a wide array of conceptions about the self. Some of their perspectives come as a
reaction to the other, making them sometimes opposing and distinctly unique.
This chapter will introduce to you the various philosophical views of early thinkers
that may help you in your quest for self-discovery, in understanding the self, others, and
the world. We shall also discover a glimpse of these philosophers’ life experiences which
might have influenced their philosophy about the self. In the same way, you may also
reflect your own journey through life in order to come up with your own philosophical
perspective about the self or self-developed theory that is grounded on your experiences.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

1. Familiarize the different philosophers and thinkers who offered a concept in
understanding the self;
2. Appreciate the various philosophical viewpoints in understanding the self; and
3. Develop a deeper understanding of the self through the various philosophical
perspectives.
Discussion
“An unexamined life is not worth living.” - Socrates
The quest to understand the self started as early as the Greek civilization where
ancient Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle offered their
philosophical frameworks. It continuous to flourish during the Medieval period with
Christian thinkers like St. Augustine and with the likes of René Descartes during the pre-
modern age. Until the post-modernism period, perspectives on understanding the self
constantly grow to suggest that all reality should be questioned and that people construct
meanings into their lives based on their culture and society (Neukrug, 2011).
The word philosophy came from the Greek words “philos” which means love or
loving, and “sophos” meaning wise that literally translates to love of wisdom. Philosophy
employs the inquisitive mind to discover the ultimate causes, reasons, and principles of
everything (Go-Monilla & Ramirez, 2018). It is a discipline that is different from science
and does not engage in scientific method of investigation but rather explore to understand
GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

2
reality and human existence through personal hunches and in-depth inquiries. Philosophy
remains as the unique discipline that asks significant questions that other fields are unable
to address (Bulaong et al., 2018). Understanding the self is one of the prime focus of
philosophers and thinkers.
We will now begin the journey of getting to know who these philosophers and
thinkers and their respective viewpoints about the self.
Socrates (470 - 399 BC)
Socrates was known for his expression “an unexamined

life is not worth living” or simply “know thyself.”
Understanding the self has probably started during his time
about 2, 000 years ago. His expression “know thyself” is
considered the forerunner of the introspective method. He
was the first one who suggested that we should rely on
rational though and introspection or the careful examination
of one’s own thoughts and emotions in order to achieve self-
knowledge or to understand the self (Rathus, 2012).
Followers of Socrates called this as the Socratic method.
Later, introspection will be re-introduced by St. Augustine in
a more systematic way.
Socrates. © Pinterest.com
He believed that the self is the soul and suggested that
reality consists of two dichotomous realms – physical and ideal. The physical realm is
changeable, transient, and imperfect. The ideal realm is unchanging, eternal, and
immortal. The body belongs to the physical realms while the intellectual essences of the
soul such as truth, goodness, and beauty belong to the ideal realm. For him, a person
can have a happy and meaningful life by becoming virtuous and knowing one’s own
significance which can be achieved through soul-searching or introspection (Go-Monilla
& Ramirez, 2018).
Plato (428/427 - 348/347 BC)
Plato, also a Greek thinker, is credited as one of the

pioneers of philosophy as his various writings brings up and
discuss carefully and creatively some of the questions that
later thinkers called Neo-platonic like St. Augustine, will find
to be of great significance to humankind. He started a
school in Athens which would be known as the Academy
and is believed to be the first institution of higher learning
in the Western World (Bulaong et al., 2018). As a student
of Socrates, he also believed with the soul. For him, it is
distinct to man and it is God-given. Thus, it inhibits the body Plato. © Pinterest.co.uk

3
as “knower,” “thinker,” and “determiner” of individual’s actions (Aguierre et al., 2012).

He also introduced the three parts of the soul. First is the reason which is the divine
essence that enables us to think deeply, make wise choices, and achieve a true
understanding of eternal truths. Second is the physical appetite that includes our basic
instinctual needs including hunger, thirst, and sexual desire. Thirdly, the spirit or passion
includes basic emotions such as love, anger, ambition, aggressiveness, and empathy.
These three elements are in dynamic and sometimes conflicting relationship. Reason has
the responsibility to sort things out to restore the balance between these elements (Go-
Monilla & Ramirez, 2018).
To him, knowledge existed in the soul prior to any actual experience. In one of his
writings, he questioned an uneducated slave boy in such a manner that the boy appears
to have knowledge of geometry, even though he had never had any acquaintance with
the subject. The implication is that the knowledge existed in the soul prior to birth
(Lundin, 1991).
Aristotle (384 - 322 BC)
Aristotle studied philosophy under Plato in Athens. He

was considered to be the brightest among Plato’s students
in the Academy. He later founded his own school, Lyceum,
where he became a very productive intellectual who also
served as the mentor of Alexander the Great (Bulaong et
al., 2018). He is considered to be the first person to put
into writing an explanation pertaining to behavior of man
(Aguierre et al., 2012). He also believed with the soul and
introduced its three functions. The first function is
vegetative which deals with the basic maintenance of life.
The second one is appetitive which focuses on the desires
and motives. Lastly, the rational governs reason that is
located in the heart. For him, the brain is simply a gland
Aristotle. © Nytimes.com that can only perform basic functions. He argued that
human behavior, like movements of the stars and the seas,
is subject to rules and laws or how they exist or evolve (Rathus, 2012). For Aristotle, the
rational makes us different from other living creatures.
In addition, he also proposed four concepts which give way to understand any
being. According to Aristotle, any being can have four causes. First, we recognize that
any being is corporeal, possessed, or made up of physical materials. This refers to the
material cause. Because it is made up of material stuff, it takes a shape that could identify
that a man is different from a monkey. The shape refers to the form of the being, so each
being has a formal cause. Also, there is something which brings about the presence of
another being, such as a parent beget a child or a log was made into a table. This refers
to the efficient cause. Lastly, since every being has an apparent end or goal, there must
be a final cause (Bulaong et al., 2018). Like a child to become an adult, final cause gives
a way to understand the self.

4
Further, he also offered the concept of potency and act. A being may carry within
itself certain potentials (potency), but this requires to be actualized (act). In such a way,
a child is not yet a full-grown adult, this potency is latent in the child and will be actualized
as the child grows up and achieves what he/ she is supposed to be (Bulaong et al., 2018).
St. Augustine (354 - 430 AD)
St. Augustine of Hippo was born in North Africa of a

pagan father and a Christian mother. After a youth of
revelry, he was converted to Christianity and later became
the Bishop of Hippo in North Africa. He is a Catholic saint
who combined the Greek Platonic though with Christian
thinking. He introduced the method of introspection where
in an individual tries to describe his own conscious process
(Aguierre et al., 2012).
He believed that one should detached from worldy
affairs, for true knowledge can only be attained through
God. Through introspection, the soul could know what was
true and known by faith. The soul works like the Trinity of
three functions: memory, intelligence (understanding), and
will. Still like the Trinity, which was a three-in-one, the soul
was a single unity not divisible into parts. In today’s world, St. Augustine. © Tylormarshall.com
introspection works in therapies and projective testing in
statements like “tell me anything that comes to your mind” (Lundin, 1991). The soul is
the “spouse” of the body; united and attached to one another. But unlike the earlier
philosopher, his definition of soul has a religious flavor. Augustine is convinced that the
self is known only through knowing God. He espouses the significance of reflection, as
well as the importance of prayers and confessions to arrive at a justification for the
existence of God. For him, “knowledge can only come by seeing the truth that dwells
within us” and that truth is knowing God. The self seeks to be united with God through
faith and reason (Go-Monilla & Ramirez, 2018).
René Descartes (1596 - 1650)
Descartes is revered as a philosopher, a mathematician, and a psychologist who

was born in France. He is considered as the father of modern philosophy. He has brought
an entirely new perspective to philosophy and the self. He wants to penetrate the nature
of reasoning process and understand its relationship to the human self. The Latin phrase
Cogito ergo sum – “I think therefore I am” is the keystone of his concept of self. For him,

5
the act of thinking about the self or of being self-conscious

is in itself a solid basis that there is self that exists (Go-
Monilla & Ramirez, 2018).
He introduced the idea of dualism and the concept of
reflex action which indicates that the mind and body
interact. The mind is the spiritual entity – the thinking self
and the body is the physical or material entity – the physical
self. Although they are considered to be distinct from each
other, they work together to make the individual functional
(Aguierre et al., 2012). He explained his theory on reflexes
by comparing the operation of the human body to a
machine. He presumed the nerves were hallow tubes with
animal spirits which are gaseous substances derived from
the body by a process of distillation. He thought of the
animal spirits as material substances which could move
René Descartes. © imdb.com very quickly, like sparks shooting off from a flame. It is said
that Descartes originated his idea of the action of the
nervous system from observing how fountains worked in the gardens of the great palaces
(Lundin, 1991).
John Locke (1632 - 1704)
Locke was born in England and was educated in

Oxford. He introduced the idea that all experiences may be
analyzed. He is also well-known for his term “Tabula Rasa”
or a blank slate of which at birth, the mind is just a blank
sheet that collects its contents through experiences that a
person will go through in his/ her entire life (Aguierre et al.,
2012).
Locke had read the work of Descartes and he
opposed his notion that some ideas were inborn through
his own theory of knowledge. He argued that if ideas were
innate, they should be constant in all minds, but neither the
John Locke. © thegreatthinkers.org
new-born nor the illiterate shared them. If innate, ideas
should not show development, but they did. In his analysis,
Locke wrote that all ideas came from experience. Basically, the mind was passive, and
could only do two things. First, it could receive experiences from the outside world: this
involved the act of sensing. Locke was actively concerned with the whole process of
sensation, since it was the primary source of all knowledge. Second, the mind could
reflect upon itself. It was basically through this process of reflection, or what we call it
today as introspection, that it became possible for people to engage in the process we
call thinking. (Lundin, 1991). In stating that all knowledge came from experience, he was
obviously a follower of the Aristotelian thoughts.

6
David Hume (1711 - 1776)
Hume was a Scotsman who believed that the mind is

nothing but a heap or collection of different perceptions,
unified together by certain relationships (Lundin, 1991). As
an empiricist, he believes that one can know what comes
from the sense and experience. The self is nothing but the
physical body. Empiricism is the school of thought that
espouses the idea that knowledge can only be possible if it
is sensed and experienced (Alata et al., 2018). To Hume,
what people experience is just a bundle or collection of
different perceptions. He maintains that if people carefully
examine the contents of their experience through
introspection, they will find that there are only distinct
entities: impressions and ideas (Go-Monilla & Ramirez,
David Hume. © onthisday.com 2018). All we knew was that we had impressions
(sensations) and ideas. We believed there was a real object
only because our impressions tended to fit together such as you cannot prove a table
existed in the classroom after you have left the room (Lundin, 1991).
Impressions are basic sensations that include hate, love, joy, grief, pain, cold, and
heat that are so strong and lively. They are the core of our thoughts. Meanwhile, ideas
are thoughts and images from impressions that are less lively and vivid (Go-Monilla &
Ramirez, 2018). When one touches an ice cube, the cold sensation is an impression.
Impressions therefore are vivid because they are products of our direct experience with
the world while ideas are copies of impressions. Because of this, they are not as lively
and vivid as our impressions. When one imagines the feelings of being in love for the first
time, that is an idea (Alata et al., 2018).
Hume claims that people have no experience of a simple and individual impression
that they can call the self where the self is the totality of a person’s consciousness (Go-
Monilla & Ramirez, 2018). Hence, for him, there is no self.
Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804)
Kant is a German Enlightenment philosopher who brought our attention to the fact
that we, human beings, have the faculty called rational will, which is the capacity to act
according to principles that we determine ourselves (Bulaong et al., 2018). The word
“faculty” here means inherent mental capacity. He opposed the concept of Locke that the
mind is a blank slate, rather, according to him, it is capable of acquiring knowledge
through sensory experience (Aguierre et al., 2012).

7
Rationality consists of the mental faculty to

construct ideas and thoughts that are beyond our
immediate surroundings. This is the capacity for mental
abstraction, which arises from the operations of the faculty
of reason. This makes humans different from animals, we
have the ability to stop and think about what we are doing.
We can remove ourselves mentally from the immediacy of
our surroundings and reflect on our actions and how such
actions affect the world. Thus, we do not only have the
capacity to imagine, reflect on, and construct mental
images, but we also have the ability to act on and make
them real. This ability is the basis for the rational will
(Bulaong et al., 2018). In other words, humans can act
according to reasons while animals act according to their Immanuel Kant. © gosouth.co.za
impulses.
Gilbert Ryle (1900 - 1976)
Gilbert Ryle was born in Brighton, Sussex, England. He

solves the mind-body dichotomy that has been running for
a long time in the history of thought as reflected in the
previous philosophers by denying blatantly the concept of
an internal, non-physical self. For him, what truly matter
is the behaviors that a person does. He referred to the self
an entity no one can locate and analyze. It is rather a
convenient name that people use to refer to all the
behaviors that people make (Alata et al., 2018). Ryle’s
concept of the human self provides us with the principle,
“I act, therefore I am.” In short, the self is the same as
bodily behaviors. He concludes the human mind is the
totality of the human person, the way we behave, our
system of thoughts, and our emotions (Go-Monilla &
Gilbert Ryle. © jstor.org Ramirez, 2018).
Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908 - 1961)
Maurice Merleau-Ponty, a French philosopher and public intellectual, was the

leading academic proponent of existentialism and phenomenology in post-war France.
Best known for his original and influential work on embodiment, perception, and ontology,
he also made important contributions to the philosophy of art, history, language, nature,
and politics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016).

8
He asserted that the mind-body issue that has

been going on for a long time is an invalid problem. Unlike
Ryle who denied the self, Merleau-Ponty said that the
mind and body are intertwined that they cannot be
separated from one another. One cannot find any
experience that is not an embodied experience. Because
of this, he also dismissed the Cartesian Dualism which he
described as a plain misunderstanding. The living body,
thoughts, emotions, and experiences are all one (Alata et
al., 2018).
Paul Churchland (born 1942) Maurice Merleau-Ponty. © prabook.com
Paul Churchland is a Canadian philosopher and author

who is known for his "eliminative materialism", the view
that the mind is the brain. The self, therefore, is
inseparable from the brain and the physiology of the body.
Hence, “no brain, no self.” For him, the physical brain and
not the imaginary mind, gives people the sense of self. The
mind does not really exist because it cannot be experienced
by the senses (Go-Monilla & Ramirez, 2018).
Paul Churchland. © alchet
Evaluation
Multiple Choice. Write the letter of your answer in the space provided before each
number.
_______ 1. During this period, perspectives on understanding the self suggest that all
reality should be questioned, and that people construct meanings into their lives.
a. Greek civilization c. Medieval period
b. Pre-modern period d. Post-modern period
_______ 2. When you engage yourself in the process of carefully examining your own
thoughts and emotions, you are doing ___________.
a. self-discovery c. introspection
b. prayerful reflection d. phenomenology
_______ 3. If body is to physical realm; truth, goodness, and beauty is to _________
realm.

9
a. immortal c. imaginative
b. ideal d. rational
_______ 4. Plato’s three parts of the soul are reason, __________, and spirit or passion.
a. vegetative c. rational
b. appetitive d. form
_______ 5. For Aristotle, the rational function is located at the ________.
a. mind c. heart
b. soul d. self
_______ 6. Which of the following is not a function of the soul according to St. Augustine?
a. memory c. intelligence
b. will d. reason
_______ 7. Which of the following pairs of philosophers have conflicting concept about
knowledge? One said that knowledge existed even before the actual experience,
while the other one argued that knowledge is acquired through experience.
a. Socrates and Plato c. Churchland and Hume
b. Descartes and Aristotle d. Plato and Locke
_______ 8. Who said that “there is no self, only physical body”?
a. Churchland c. Hume
b. Ryle d. Socrates
_______ 9. Who among the following thinkers is a known phenomenologist?
a. Ryle c. Merleau-Ponty
b. Churchland d. Kant
_______ 10. He defined the self simply as bodily behaviors.
a. Socrates c. Hume
b. Ryle d. Kant
Assignment/ Activity
1. Look for a detailed biography of one of the philosophers discussed in this module and
make an analysis on how their life experiences influenced their concepts about the self.
Cite your sources or references.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
10
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
2. Complete the following matrix.
Philosopher Concept about the self

1. Socrates
2. Plato
3. Aristotle
4. St. Augustine
5. Descartes
6. Locke
7. Hume
8. Kant
9. Ryle
10. Merleau-Ponty
11. Churchland
Criteria for Assessment/ Rubrics for Scoring:
Description Points
The content of the answer is relevant, 2 points
well-explained and directly answers the
question.
The thoughts or ideas presented are well- 2 points
organized and coherent.
The technical terminologies and 1 point
punctuation marks are properly and
correctly used.
Total 5 points

11
References
Aguirre, F. U., Monce, M. R. E., Dy, G. C., Caguioa, I. C., Pa-At, B. E., & Perez, V. G.
(2012). Introduction to psychology (2011 ed.). Malabon City, Philippines: Mutya
Publishing House, Inc.
Alata, E. J. P., Caslib, B. N., Serafica, J. P. J., & Pawilen, R. A. (2018). Understanding the
self. Manila, Philippines: Rex Book Strore, Inc.
Bulaong, O. G., Calano, M. J. T., Lagliva, A. M., Mariano, M. N. E., & Principe, J. D. Z.
(2018). Ethics: Foundations of moral valuation. Manila, Philippines: Rex Book
Strore, Inc.
Go-Monilla, M. J. A. & Ramirez, N. C. (2018). Understanding the self. Manila, Philippines:

C & E Publishing, Inc.
Lundin, R. W. (1991). Theories and systems of psychology (5th ed.). Lexingtin, MA: D. C.
Health and Company.
Neukrug, E. (2011). Counseling theory and practice. Belmont, CA: Brooks/ Cole, Cengage
Learning.
Rathus, S. A. (2012). Psychology (2nd ed.). Singapore: Cengage Learning.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2016). Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Retrieved August

10, 2020 from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/merleau-ponty/

12
The Western and Eastern Concepts of Self

By: Asst. Prof. Noreen P. Echague, RGC, RPm
I. OVERVIEW
This chapter outlines the Western and Eastern concepts of self and how they differ
and agree on certain perspective. The Western thoughts tend to view the self as
autonomous, unitary, and stable. In contrast, in Eastern thought, the emphasis is
relational rather than individualistic. The self is considered not in isolation but in relation
to others, society, and the universe. One unique feature of Eastern is its great reverence
for nature.
The Western conceptualization of the self is presented in the four aspects and
divided into three periods of historical development while the Eastern concepts of the self-
presented based on the four great systems of Eastern thought: Hinduism, Buddhism,
Confucianism, and Taoism.
One of the most effective ways to learn about oneself is by taking

seriously the culture of others. It forces you to pay attention to
those details of life which differentiate them from you.
-Edward T. Hall
II. LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
1. Recognize how individuals view the self as a product of socialization.
2. Understand how culture and self are complementary concepts.
3. Identify the western and eastern concepts of self.
4. Understand the western and eastern concepts of self as a way of life; and
5. Examine your own conceptualization of self.

13
III. DISCUSSION
Glimpse on Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives of Self

Sociological
Sociology is a part of everyday life. The self is a relatively stable set of perceptions
of who we are in relation to ourselves, others, and to social systems. The self is socially
constructed in the sense that it is shaped through interaction with other people.
Monilla and Ramirez (2018), explained that the sociological perspective of the self
assumes that human behavior is influenced by group life. A view of oneself is formed
through interactions with other people, groups, or social institutions. How sociology
impacts students’ everday lives and provide a pathway to self uderstanding of “who you
are and “what you are” in contemporary society. True enough, modernization has
significantly changed society, and this has affected how individual builds and develops
his or her self-identity.
Futhermore, according to Monilla and Ramirez, (2018), sociology as a scientific
study of social groups and human relationships generates new insights into the
interconnectedness between the self and other people. Hence, sociologist offer theories
to explain how the self emerges as a product of social experience.
Anthropological
As defined by Monilla and Ramirez (2018), anthropology is concerned with how
cultural and biological processes interact to shape human experience. Contemporary
anthropologists believe that culture and self are complementary concepts that are to be
understood in relation to one other. Also, the work of Otig, Gallinero, Bataga, et al., (2018),
reported that how individuals see themselves, how they relate to other people, and how
they relate to the environment are deeply defined by culture. If one finds the view that
the “self” is a product of society, then it is plausible that the ways of how the self is
developed are bound to cultural differences as well. In short, the self as embedded in
culture.
Moreover, Haviland et al., (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018) explained that
anthopology considers human experience as an interplay of “nature”, referrings to genetic
inheritance which sets the individul’s potentials, and “nurture”, referring to the
sociocultural environment.
Therefore, it could be understood that both biological and cultural factors have
significant influence on the development of self-awareness among individuals within the
society. This could be the answer to the question, “Who am I?”.

14
Western Concept of Self

Geertz (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018) defined the Western concept of self
as “a bounded, unique, more or less integrated motivational and cognitive universe, a
dynamic center of awareness, emotion, judgment, and action organized into a distinctive
whole and set contrastively both against other such wholes and against its social and
natural background”.
Moreover, Ho (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018) described the Western self
as an individualistic self that is deeply aware of itself, its uniqueness, sense of direction,
purpose, and volition. The self is located at the center within the individual through which
the world is perceived. The self is also seen as “an entity distinct from other selves and
other entities”. This implies that the self belongs to the individual and to no other. The
focus is always looking toward the self.
The Western concept of self is holistically defined in terms of the following aspects.
This is how the term ‘self” is used in contemporary western discussion, according to
Johnson and Goldin (as cited in Otig et al., 2018)
1. Western Self as Analytic
- this is the “tendency to see reality as an aggregate of parts.” The “self” is an
observer separate and distinct from external objects (Me versus Other). This
implies that the Western way of thinking is analytic-deductive with emphasis on
the causal links (part-to-whole relationships). The whole is understood when
differentiated into parts. One must categorize and make distinctions to pursue
cause (Monilla and Ramirez, 2018).
2. Western Self as Monotheistic
- it involved the tendency toward unitary explanations of phenomena and a closed-
system view of “self” as modeled after a unitary, omnipotent power (“Man was
created by God, in His image). According to Monilla and Ramirez (2018), this is
the belief in one Supreme being coexisting with the universe condenses the
supernatural and human capabilities into bipolarity of both qualities and existence
(e.g. beautiful/ugly; kind/cruel; sacred/profane; strong/weak; etc.) and categories
of identity or experience (e.g., God/Satan; body/soul; love/lust; sinner/saint; etc.)
3. Western Self as Individualistic
- this is a quality of western thinking where self-expressiona and self-actualization
are important ways of establishing who one is, as well as in finding satisfaction in
the world. Monilla and Ramirez (2018) explained that Western individualism
exhibits the coexistence of favorable and unfavorable conditions inherent in
personal freedom. Although the right to individual freedom provides opportunities

15
for self-fulfilment, it also increases the likelihood of experiencing alienation and

frustration.
4. Western Self as Materialistic and Rationalistic
- Western thinking tends to discredit explanations that do not use anayltic-
deductive modes of thinking. According to Monilla and Ramirez (2018), the
western way of thinking is focused on material “things” and favors a rational-
empirical approach over magical and superstitious explanations of immaterial
“things”.
The Historical Development of the Western Concept of Self

(Monilla and Ramirez. 2018. Understanding the Self)
Stage Period Historical Development

1 Pre-christian ●There were philosophical and theological attempts to
times until characterize the self through the concepts of soul and mind
1850 with emphasis on conscious experience of the individual,
distinction between physical and mental nature of man (mind-
body dualism), and the causality of human behavior.
2 1850-1940 ●The establishment of experimental psychology in mid-
nineteenth century led to a change in emphasis from abstract
concepts of soul and mind to observable and measurable
aspects of human faculties.
●The concept of self-re-emerged within the social-
interactionist framework in the early the early 1900s.
3 1940-present ●There is multidirectional and continuous development of
concept of self:
a. Sociological and psychological theories of self-encompass
all three levels of self, namely inner self, interpersonal self,
social self.
b. Existentialists and phenomenologists, both in philosophy
and psychology, engaged in holistic approach integrating the
inner, interpersonal, and social aspects of self.
c. At present, there is convergence in some conceptualization
of the self among psychologists, anthropologists,
sociologists, philosophers, and linguists whose studies focus
on the actual, multivariate, and situational contexts of the self-
employing new frameworks and methodologies.

16
Eastern Concept of Self

The most well-known conceptions of the self in Eastern are represented by
the views of Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. This is because in the
East, philosophy and religion are twisted together. According to Garcia (as cited in
Monilla and Ramirez, 2018), these Eastern intellectual traditions differ greatly in features
and approaches to various issues about selfhood. For this reason, the eastern thought
is described as pluralistic.
Moreover, Villaba (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018) reported that although
these four systems of Eastern thought differ in their approaches about the concept of self,
they share the same goal – to teach how to become a perfect person.
The Self in Four Great Systems of Eastern Thought
1. Hinduism
Hinduism views the essence of human life as consisting in suffering and

asserts that this is caused by having a fallacious conception of the self. Therefore,
the true self is permanent and unchanging, the non-true self is impermanent and
changes continually.
According to Monilla and Ramirez (2018), the Hindu concept of self is

expounded in Vedanta, a major school of Indian though based on Upanishads, the
classical Indian philosophical treatises. It has been stated that Brahman
absolute reality; and Atman (soul or spirit), the true knowledge of self, is identical
to Brahman.
Moreover, Monilla et al., (2018), explained that vedanta characterizes

human suffering as the result of failure to realize the distinction between the true
self (permanent and unchanging) and the non-true self (impermanent and changes
continually). The goal of the person is to have a knowledge of the true reality –
Brahman. Ho (as cited in Monilla et al., 2018) reported that self-realization is being
united to all embracing Brahman. But the realization of true selfhood will result in
a complete dissolution of individual identity.
The vast cultural differences in India led to the emergence of different

strands of Hindu traditions, each different for every region, villages or families.
Nevertheless, all believe in the spiritual progress of the human soul called
karma. This works through reincarnation in which a person goes through a cycle
of death and rebirth which depends on the moral quality of a previous life. The law
of karma is the most important doctrine of Hinduism. Individual actions will lead to
either good or bad outcomes. This is equivalent of the old saying, “what you sow
is what you reap”. To receive happiness, peace, love and friendship, one must be
happy, peaceful, loving and a true friend. People get exactly what they

17
deserve. If you do good things, you will be rewarded, if you do bad, you will be
punished. Thus, it is important for Hindus to know and follow one’s dharma
or moral responsibilities.
2. Buddhism
It began in India when Siddharta Gautama travelled and meditated in search
for the answers troubling him concerning human suffering. During his meditation
under the Bodhi tree, he obtained Bodhi or enlightenment. Thus, he became the
Buddha or the Enlightened One. The root word of Buddhism is budh meaning to
awake which leads to more undestanding of the self and the world. According to
Mansukhani (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018), based to the teachings of
Buddhism, every person has the seed of enlightenment, hence, the potential to
be a Buddha. But the seed shall be nurtured.
Monilla et al., (2018), explained that the Four Noble Truths are the basic
principles of Buddhism: (1) life is suffering; (2) suffering is caused by attachement
to desires; (3) suffering can be eliminated; and (4) elimination of suffering of
suffering is through the practice of the Eightfold Path (right view, right aspiration,
right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right
concentration.
Futhermore, Villaba (as cited in Monilla et al., 2018) reported that in
Buddhist philosophy, man is just a title for the summation of the five parts (matter,
sensation, perception, mental constructs, and consciousness) that compose the
individual, however each of the parts distinctly is not man. Man has no self (or no-
soul). There is only nothing and all else is an illusion. There is nothing permanent
but change. The ignorance of the impermanence of everything may lead to an
illusion of selfhood.
Thus, Buddhists believe that any person can also achieve what that Buddha
attained-enlightenment. By following the Buddha’s teachings which are the four
noble truths and the observation of the eightfold path, one certain can attain
Nirvana or the state of spiritual enlightenment and peace. This is also called a
state of transcendence devoid of self-reference which can be achieved through
meditation.
3. Confucianism
The concept of self, according to Confucianism, is related to the social
aspect of human existence. The self is conceived as a “relational self” – “one
which is intensely aware of the social presence of other human beings”. In
this way, the individual self is dependent on all other selves. The self is thus an
obedient self, which follows the appeals of social requirements, rather than its
own needs and desires. The ideal self, according to this doctrine, can be
achieved through a harmonization of one’s everyday communication with other
individuals in society at large. Thus, the core of Confucian thought is the Golden

18
Rule or the principle of reciprocity: “Do not do to others what you would not
want others to do to you.”
According to Monilla and Ramirez (2018), the most important of

relationships are the Five Cardinal Relationships: between ruler and minster,
between father and son, between husband and wife, between brothers, and
between friends. Hence, the self is known as a relational self. Another important
feature in Confucian though is the individual’s greatest mission of attaining self-
actualization wherein self-cultivation is instrumental. Self-cultivation could be
accomplished by knowing one’s role in society and acting accordingly.
4. Taoism
According to Ho (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018), Taoism is a
Chinese counterculture. Taoists reject the Confucian idea of a relational self. To
them, the self an extension of the cosmos, not of social relationships. The self
described as one of the limitless form of the Tao.
Further, Garcia (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018) explained that the
Tao is commonly regarded as the nature that is the foundation of all that exists.
It is not bounded by time and space. The ideal is to identify with the Tao. Chuang-
tzu (as cited in Otig et al., 2018) expounded that “the perfect man has no self; the
spiritual man has no achievement; the true sage has no name”. The ideal of
Taoism, therefore, is the achievement of a lack of self or “selflessness”.
Selflessness is attained when the distinction between “I” and “other:
dissolves. In sum, the conception of selfhood entails conscious self-
transformation leading to the atttibutes of balanced life in harmony with both
nature and society.
Comparative Matrix of Western and Eastern Approaches to

Understanding the Self
(Monilla and Ramirez. 2018. Understanding the Self)
Dimension Western Thought Eastern Thought

Frame of Reference There is a separation Religion and philosophy are
between philosophy and intertwined.
religion/ spirituality.
Examples of Schools of Scholasticism Hinduism
Thought/Belief Systems Rationalism Buddhism
Empiricism Confucianism
Phenomenology Taoism
Notable Philosophers Greek Triumvirate: Confucius, Lao Tzu
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Siddharta Gautama(Buddha)
Rene Descartes, John
Locke

19
Source of Knowledge Has made use of reason Has trusted intuition and is often
rather to pursue wisdom. associated with religious beliefs.
Modes of Cognition Analytic and deductive Synthetic and Inductive
Emphasis Distinctions and Commonalities and harmonies
oppositions.
View of the Universe and Life Linear Circular
View of Self Egocentric Sociocentric
Subject-Object Distinction Duality of self-as- Simultaneously subject and object
(Bipolar Qualities of Self) subject(knower) and self- (The experience of self as both the
as-object(known) knower and known)
Theological View Monotheistic Polytheistic(Pluralistic)
Ideal Self-actualization through To achieve a balanced life and find
personal growth one’s role in society
Cultural Framework Individualism Collectivism
a. The self is a distinct and a. The self is an integrated part of
autonomous entity; it is the universe and the society.
an independent part of
the universe and the
society.
b. Independence and self- b. Interdependence and
reliance are core values. connectedness are core values.
c. Prioritize personal goals c. No distinctions between

over group goals. personal and group goals, or if
there is distinction, the personal
goals are subordinate to the group
goals.
d. Characterized by d. Characterized by communal
exchange relationship. relationship.
e. Uniqueness, sense of e. Conformity and obedience are

direction, purpose and essential social behaviors.
volition are the
acknowledged features of
self.
f. Personal success is f. Duty towards all others is

important. important.
The application of the different perspectives and approaches contributed to
improvements in the conceptualization of self. The Western and Eastern perspectives of
the self-grew from a combination of sociology, anthropology, psychology, theology, and
religion. The Western and Eastern thoughts attempt to combine the good elements of
the diffirent disciplines to totally understand the self.

20
IV. EVALUATE
A. TRUE OR FALSE. Read and analyze the statements. Write T if the statement
is correct and F if the statement is wrong.
______ 1. Human experience is not an interplay of nature and nurture.
______ 2. The eastern concept of self is collectivistic.
______ 3. Taoists reject the Confucian idea of a relational self.
______ 4. For Hindus it is important to know and follow one’s dharma.
______ 5. In sociological perspective of self the self emerges as a product of social
experience.
______ 6. The western concept of self is individualistic.
______ 7. Confucianism believes that there will be harmonious relationships when
individuals follow the rules of proper social behavior.
______ 8. The self is not embedded in culture.
______ 9. The doctrince of Hinduism focused on the four noble truths.
______ 10. Siddharta Gautama is the founder of Taoism.
B. IDENTIFICATION. Identify the terms and concepts described in the following

terms.
______ 1. The most important doctrine of Hinduism.
______ 2. It means the enlightened one.
______ 3. The state of transcedence in Buddhism.
______ 4. The ideal of Taoism.
______ 5. The golden rule of Confucianism.

21
V. ASSESS
You already know the western and eastern concepts of self and their
characteristics. Now, using a venn diagram, compare and contrast the western and
eastern concepts of self and your representation of the Filipino self.
Western Concept of Self

22
VI. REFLECT
Why are Filipinos known for being a collectivistic culture? Do you personally agree
that you are a collectivist? Why? Share a concrete experience why you think your
orientation is on individualism or collectivism.
VII. REFERENCES
Alata, EJ. P., et al., (2018). Understanding the self. Rex Book Store, Inc.
Monilla, MJ. G. & Ramirez, N. C. (2018). Understanding the self. C & E Publishing, Inc.
Vergie, S. O.,et. al. (2018). A holistic approach in understanding the self. Mutya
Publishing House, Inc.

23
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL SELF

By: Dr. MARISSA C. ESPERAL, RGC, RP
This chapter provides the students an overview of the psychological perspective in

understanding the self. This orients them to the various theories and concepts formulated to
expound about the human being and his self-development.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
After studying this chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Define what psychology is and how this discipline contributes to the complete
understanding of oneself.
2. Explain some psychological theories about the self.
3. Identify factors that influence the development of the psychological self.
4. Assess one’s psychological self-using simple psychological techniques and tools.
5. Appreciate one’s uniqueness and individuality.
Psychology: A Discipline that Studies the Self
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of human behavior. It started as a topic in

philosophy and had taken much concepts from physiology until it emerged as an independent
scientific discipline (Atkinson, H.E.R. et al., 2015). Through the years, the field of psychology
has found its niche in almost any area of life. Psychology uses various methods in the
investigation of human behavior. It ranges from simple observation to more complex methods
of multivariate analysis and experimentations.
Experts believed that psychology greatly contributes to an individual’s understanding of

the self because it focuses on various forms of behaviors: overt or covert, simple or complex,
direct or indirect, rational or irrational, and so on. These different behaviors form part of the
self. The goals of psychology (Teh, L.A. & Macapagal, M.E.J. (2007) can be summarized as
follows:
1. To describe human behavior;

2. To identify factors that help predict behavior
3. To understand or explain behavior by identifying causes that bring about certain
effects; and
4. To control or changes behavior.
Many experts who focused on the investigation of human behavior have come up with
their respective conceptualization of the self:

24
Sigmund Freud’s Construction Theory of Self
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is an Austrian neurologist who was known as the founder
of Psychoanalysis, a set of theories and therapeutic techniques related to the study of the
unconscious mind. Freud stressed the importance of early childhood experiences in the
development of the self. As he popularly noted, “The child is the father of the man.”
Freud believed that there are 3 structures of the self:
1. ID – the biological component of self which is based on the pleasure principle. This
concerns the need to satisfy basic urges and desires. Freud believes that the id is
pleasure-seeking, impulsive, child-like and demanding of instant gratification.
2. EGO – refers to the I or the self which serves as mediator between the Id and
Superego. It is the objective component of personality and is based on Reality
Principle.
3. SUPEREGO – consists of the conscience and ego ideals. It serves as the moral arm
of personality.
Freud used the term “ego strength” to refer to the ego’s ability to resolve the conflict
between the structures. If constant conflicts happen and remain unresolved, problems and
internal conflicts may arise within oneself.
In Freud’s view, the id, ego and superego develop in a series of stages. He proposed
that psychological development in childhood takes place during the five psychosexual stages:
oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. These are called psychosexual stages because each
stage represents the fixation of libido (roughly translated as sexual drives or instincts) on a
different area of the body. As a person grows physically certain areas of their body become
important as sources of potential frustration (erogenous zones), pleasure or both.
Freud (1905) believed that life was built around tension and pleasure. Accordingly,
tension was due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy) and that all pleasure came from its
discharge. In describing human personality as psychosexual Freud meant to convey that what
develops ins the way in which sexual energy of the id accumulates and is discharged as we
mature biologically (Freud used the term “sexual” in a very general way to mean all pleasurable
actions and thoughts.).
Freud stressed that the first five years of life are crucial to the formation of adult self.
The id must be controlled in order to satisfy social demands; this sets up a conflict between
frustrated wishes and social norms. The ego and superego develop in order to exercise this
control and direct the need for gratification into socially acceptable channels. Gratification
centers in different areas of the body at different stages of growth, making the conflict at each
stage psychosexual.
Out of his practice, Freud came up with his theory on the psychosexual stages of self-
development (Fisher, S. & Greenberg, R. P., 1996) which is presented in Table 1.

25
Table 1 Psychosexual Stages of Self-Development
STAGES AGE SOURCE OF Characteristics & MANIFESTATIONS

RANGE GRATIFICATION
Oral Birth to Mouth Self gets much satisfaction from all sort of things in
1 year its mouth to satisfy the libido and its id demands. Self
is oral, or mouth oriented, such as sucking, biting and
breastfeeding
Adults: smokers, nail-biters, finer chewers and thumb
suckers, particularly when under stress.
Anal 1 to 3 Anus Self derives great pleasure from defecating. Self is
years now fully aware that he is a person in his own right
and that his wishes can bring him into conflict with
the demands of the outside world. Freud believed
that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in
toilet training, in which adults impose restrictions on
when and where the child can defecate. The nature
of this first conflict with authority can determine the
child's future relationship with all forms of authority.
Adult manifestations: Early or harsh toilet training can
lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive
personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy,
punctual and respectful of authority. They can be
stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and
possessions. On the other hand, the anal expulsive
is the person who wants to share things with
you. They like giving things away. An anal-expulsive
personality is also messy, disorganized and
rebellious. The anal expulsive, on the other hand,
underwent a liberal toilet-training regime during the
anal stage.
Phallic 3 to 6 Genitals Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals
years and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new
source of pleasure. The child becomes aware of
anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the
conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry,
jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus
complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in
girls). This is resolved through the process of
identification, which involves the child adopting the
characteristics of the same sex parent.
Latency 6 years Libido is dormant Freud’s theory thought that most sexual impulses are
to repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy
Puberty can be sublimated (defense mechanism) towards
school work, hobbies, and friendships. Much of the
child's energy is channeled into developing new skills
and acquiring new knowledge, and play becomes
largely confined to other children of the same gender.

26
Genital Puberty Heterosexual Self is settling down in a loving one-to-one

to Adult relationship relationship with another person in our 20's. Sexual
instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather
than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage. For
Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in
adults was through heterosexual
intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this
with the consequence that sexual perversions may
develop.
Erik Erickson’s Theory of Self-Development
Erik H. Erikson (1902-1994) formulated the Psychosocial Theory of Development which

pointed out that development of self-proceeds by stages – eight in all. The first four stages
occur during infancy and childhood, the fifth stage during adolescence, and the last three
stages during the adult years up to and including old age. In each stage, there are conflicts that
need to be resolved and those are critical in the development of the self. Accordingly, each
stage is not passed through and then left behind. Instead, each stage contributes to the
formation of the self. Table 2 presents the summary of the conflicts, important events and
outcomes of those important events in each stage of development of an individual. The
succeeding elaboration of the theory is based on the discussions by Hall, et. al (2007) and
Schultz, D.P. & Schultz, E.S. (2017).
Table 2
Psychosocial Stage of Self-Development
Age Conflict Important Events Outcome

Infancy (birth to 18 months) Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding Hope
Early Childhood (2 to 3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Toilet Training Will
Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Purpose
School Age (6 to 11 years) Industry vs. Inferiority School Confidence
Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Identity vs. Role Confusion Social Fidelity
Relationships
Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years) Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships Love
Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years) Generativity vs. Stagnation Work and Care
Parenthood
Maturity (65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Despair Reflection on Life Wisdom
Source: Verywell mind, for illustration purposes only
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
The first stage of Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth
and 1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly
dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child’s care givers.
At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything
they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to

27
provide adequate care and love, the self will come to feel that he cannot trust or depend upon
the adults in their life. If a child successfully develops trust, the self will feel safe and secure in
the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to
feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear
and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. During the first stage of
psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability,
care and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. No child is going to develop a sense of
100% trust or 100% doubt. Erick son believed that successful development was all about
striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope,
which Erickson described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness that
danger may be present.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
The second stage of Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development takes place during
early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control. At
this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are
starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they
prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and care givers can help
children develop a sense of autonomy. The essential theme of this stage is that children need to
develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty
training plays an important role in helping children develop this sense of autonomy. Like Freud,
Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erickson’s
reasoning was quite different than that of Freud’s. Erikson believed that learning to control
one’s bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other
important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing
selection. Children who struggle and who are ashamed for their accidents may be left without a
sense of personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to
feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt. Children who successfully
complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of
inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and
shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention,
within reason and limits.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during preschool years. At this point in
psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world
through directing play and other social interactions. Children who are successful at this stage
feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense
of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative. The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial
development is that children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment.
Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power
experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. When an ideal balance of individual
initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose
emerges.

28
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from
approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of
pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children need to cope with new social and
academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of
inferiority. Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a
feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement
from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful. Successfully finding a
balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known as
competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before
them.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This
stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to
influence behavior and development for the rest of a person’s life. Teens need to develop a
sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while
failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self. During adolescence, individuals explore
their independence and develop a sense of self. Those who receive proper encouragement and
reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of
self and feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and
desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
What is Identity?
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and
values that help shape and guide a person’s behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads
to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society’s standards and expectations.
While Erickson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed
a particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of
self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity
versus confusion stage of psychosocial development. According to Erikson, our ego identity
constantly changes due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions
with others. As we have new experiences, we also take on challenges that can help or hinder
the development of identity. Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive
sense of self that endures through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our
experiences and interactions with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our actions,
beliefs and behaviors as we age.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success
leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers
the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships. Erikson believed
it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those who
are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and secure. Remember that

29
each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of
personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have
demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships
and are more likely to struggle with emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression. Successful
resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form
lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children
or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness
and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. During
adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those who are
successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in
their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and
uninvolved in the world. Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully.
Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing
a sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on
life. At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if
they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn’t do.
Erikson’s theory differed from many others because it addressed development throughout the
entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of
fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret,
bitterness, and despair. At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take
stock. Those who look back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face
the end of their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will
instead feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things they feel they
should have. Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been
wasted and may experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and
despair. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of
satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.
Alfred Adler’s Theory of Creative Self
Alfred Adler (1870-1937) is a Viennese psychiatrist who became known for his Individual
Psychology. He discovered the creative power of the self, that is, the ability of the individual to
create and re-create himself and set his own directions to take. Adler believed that individuals
are the masters of their own life, and not victims, of their fate (Teh, L.A. & Macapagal, M.E.J.
2007). For him, the creative self is the prime mover, the philosopher’s stone, the elixir of life,
the first cause of everything human. In essence, the doctrine of a creative self asserts that

30
humans make their own self and personality. They construct them out of the raw materials of
heredity and experience (Schultz, D.P. & Schultz, E.S., 2017). As he put it,
“Heredity only endows man with certain abilities.

Environment only gives him certain impressions. These
abilities and impressions, and the manner in which he
experiences them – that is to say, the interpretation he
makes of these experiences – are the bricks, or in other
words his attitude towards life, which determines this
relationship to the outside world (Adler, 1935, p.5).”
Carl Rogers’ Self Theory
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) is an American psychologist who formulated the Person-

centered Theory which was also referred to as Self-Theory. The self is one of the central
constructs in Roger’s Theory and he has given an interesting account of how this came about.
“Speaking personally, I began my work with the settled

notion that the self was a vague, ambiguous, scientifically
meaningless term which had gone out of the psychologist’s
vocabulary with the departure of the introspectionists.
Consequently, I was slow in recognizing that when clients
were given the opportunity to express their problems and
their attitudes in their own terms, without any guidance or
interpretation, they tended to talk in terms of the self… It
seemed clear… that the self was an important element in the
experience of the client, that in some odd sense his goal was
to become his real self (1959, pp.200-201).”
Rogers came up with the concept of the ideal self which is what the person would like
to be. Accordingly, when the symbolized experiences that constitute the self faithfully mirror the
experiences of the organism, the person is said to be adjusted, mature and fully functioning.
Such a person accepts the entire range of experience without threat or anxiety. He is able to
think realistically. Incongruence between self and organism makes individuals feel threatened
and anxious. They behave defensively and their thinking becomes constricted and rigid. If the
discrepancy between self and ideal self is large, the person is dissatisfied and maladjusted and
31
thus, incongruence is present (Go-Monilla, M.J.A. & Ramirez, N.C., 2018). It is important then,
that individuals have realistic goals for the self.
Figure 1
The Incongruent Self
Ideal Real
Real Ideal
Self Self
Self Self
Figure 1
The Congruent Self
Real Self
Ideal Self
William James’ Concept of the Self: The Me-Self and the I-Self
William James (1842-1910) was a philosopher who first offered a psychology course in
the United States, earning him the title 'Father of American Psychology.’ He then, became a
psychologist and a leading thinker of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. After completing
medical school, James focused on the human psyche, writing a masterwork on the subject,
entitled The Principles of Psychology. He later became known for the literary piece The Will to
Believe and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy, which was published in 1897.

32
William James looks at the self in two divided categories: the I-Self and the Me-Self. The
I-Self refers to the self that knows who he or she is which is also called the thinking self. The I-
Self reflect the soul of a person or the mind which is also called the pure ego. The Me-Self, on
the other hand, is the empirical self which refers to the person’s personal experiences and is
further divided into subcategories: the material self, social self and spirituals elf. The material
self is attributed to an individual’s physical attributes and material possessions that contribute to
one’s self-image. The social self refers to who a person is and how he or she acts in social
situations. James believes that people have different social selves depending on the context of
a social situation. For example, a student may act differently in school and at home with his or
her family. The spiritual self refers to the most intimate and important part of the self that
includes the person’s purpose, core values, conscience, and moral behavior. James believes that
the path to understanding the spiritual self requires introspection (Go-Monilla, M.J.A. & Ramirez,
N.C., 2018).
“One must know what one wants and that one wants.” – Nietzc

33
EVALUATION:
Answer the following questions:
1. In what situations do you find the conflict between the Id and the Superego becoming
real in your life? How do you resolve the conflict between the two?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
2. In Erikson’s theory of self-development, if a child developed mistrust early in life, how
can guardians help change his direction towards integrity instead of despair?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Explain important factors that may have impact in creating the self.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
4. What is the importance of congruent real and ideal self?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
5. How does the field of psychology help in the understanding of the self?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

34
ASSIGNMENT
Instruction: In the two boxes below, draw symbols that represent you real self and ideal self
respectively. Symbols may be in the form of actual objects or anything that may symbolize your
perception of who you are (real) and those that portray the things that you would like to
become.
My Real Self My Ideal Self
Questions for Reflection:

1. What did you feel while you were doing the activity?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

35
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2. Compare your drawings of your real self and ideal self. Are the two the same? If
so, why do you think those are the same? If the drawings in the real self-box
and ideal self-box are not the same, why do you think?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3. What are your insights from this activity?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES
Atkinson, H.E.R. & Atkinson, R. & Atkinson, R.C. (2015) Introduction to Psychology. New
York: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
Fisher, S. & Greenberg, R. P. (1996). Freud scientifically reappraised: Testing the theories and
therapy. New York: Wiley.
Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. Standard Edition 7 : 123- 246.
Go-Monilla, M.J.A. & Ramirez, N.C. (2018) Understanding the Self Quezon City: C & E
Publishing, Inc.
Hall, C.S., Lindzey, G., Campbell, J. (2007) Theories of Personality 4th Edition. Wiley &
Sons New York:
Schultz, D.P. & Schultz, E.S. (2017) Theories of Personality 11th Edition Australia: Cengage
Learning.
Teh, L.A. & Macapagal, M.E.J. (2007) General Psychology for Filipino College Students
Quezon City: Ateneo De Manila University Press.

36
By: Dr. MA. ELNA R. COSEJO (Adapted from Go-Monilla and Ramirez, 2018)
OVERVIE W
The two important representations of self are physical and sexual.
The first identifies biological sexual and environmental factors that affects
the physical self as well as issues and challenges that individual face with
regards to the physical characteristics. The second discusses sexual
attributes, characteristics, gender, and responsible sexual behavior.
OBJECTIVES
• Identify the stages of life and explain the physical changes that occur
during each stage
• Recognize the contributions of genetic and environmental factors to the
physical development
• Describe the factors that affect body image
• Examine the impact of culture on body image and self
• Develop a positive body image
• Identify the development of sex characteristics and the human
reproductive system
• Determine between attraction, love and attachment
• Identify the causes and consequences of sexually transmitted infections and
early pregnancy
• Familiarize on the importance of contraception and Reproductive Health Law

37
THE PHYSICAL SELF

• The physical self refers to the body such as
physical extremities and internal organs
• They both perform and work together to perform there

functions (ex: respiratory system for breathing)
• In addition there ability changes through individual’s

aging. (at peak bet, the age of 20 and 30 slowly
declines at middle age)
• Adolescence begins with the onset puberty
Life Span
Refers to the development from conception to death
1. Prenatal - Fertilization to birth

2. Infancy - Birth to 2 weeks to life
3. Babyhood - 2 weeks of life to 2nd year
4. Early Childhood - 2 to 6 years old
5. Late Childhood - 6 to 10 or 12 years
6. Puberty - 10 or 12 to 14 years old
7. Adolescence - 14 to 18 years old
8. Early Adulthood - 18 to 40 years old
9. Middle Adulthood - 40 to 60 years years old
10. Late Adulthood or Senescene - 60 to death
Factors Affecting Physical Growth and Development

There are two factors affecting the Physical Growth and Development
1. Heredity - is the biological of the inheritance of
traits from parents to offspring
2. Environment - refers to the factors an individual is
exposed to throughout life which includes learning
experience. Environment factors such as diet,
nutrition, and diseases play an important role in an individual’s physical development.
38
Chromosomes
• Are threadlike tissues that carries the genes and are usually found in pairs.
There are 23 pairs of chromosomes which are classified as autosome or trait
chromosomes (22 pairs) and gonosomes or sex chromosomes
• Genes are basic carrier of hereditary traits and are classified as dominant (strong genes)
and recessive (weak genes)
Theories of Physical Self

• Theory of Physiognomy
• Person’s physical characteristics such as facial features and expressions and

body structures could be related to a person’s character or personality
Five Element Theory

Asserts the world and changes according to the five elements’ generating and
overcoming relationships.
water wood fire earth metal

wer
Generating and overcoming are the complementary elements.
✓ Generating processes – promote development

✓ Overcoming processes – control development
Five Generating Interactions Five Overcoming Interactions

➢ Fueling Melting
➢ Forming Penetrating
➢ Containing Separating
➢ Carrying Absorbing
➢ Feeding Quenching
• Theory of Hippocrates
• A theory based on the prominence of the body fluids
• Excess of/or deficiency in an any the four bodily fluids (or humors) in
a person influences their personality, temperament, and wellbeing.
Sanguine Type – has the prominence of red bile

Melancholic Type – has the prominence of black bile
Choleric Type – has the prominence of yellow bile
Phlegmatic Type – has the excess phlegm
39
Body Type Theory William Sheldon (1940’s)
Ectomorph Mesomorph Endomorph

Body Type is tall and thin. Strong Muscular body. Energetic Body type is soft and plump
Restrained, quiet, introverted, and artistic adventurous, assertive and courageous. Easy going and sociable.
The Wisdom of Your Face

According to Jean Haner (2008)
✓ Oval – Shaped Face – hospitable and tactful

✓ Round – Shaped Face – friendly, kindhearted
and selfless
✓ Square Face – witty, analytical, and great leade
rs
✓ Heart – Shaped Face – patient and intuitive by
nature
✓ Long - Shaped Face – perfectionist and tend to
be aggressive
✓ Triangle – Shaped Face – creative, artistic,
sensitive and determined
✓ Diamond Face – detail-oriented and like to be
control
According to Squier and Mew (1981)
✓ Long and Angular – Shaped Face – responsive, assertive genuine

✓ Short and Square – Shaped Face – restrained, conforming and shrewd

40
Body Image
• Refers to how individuals perceive, think, and feel about their physical appearance.
• Body image is related to self-esteem which is a person’s overall evaluation of his or her
own worth.
• Refers to everything about a person that others can observe such as height, weight, skin,
color. Clothes and hairstyle.
• The way adolescents react to their physical appearance depends in part on socio-cultural
factors.
• The emphasis that peers, parents, or the media put on ideal body types which is slim or
thin leads girls to experience body dissatisfaction.
• Girls who have higher body dissatisfaction are likely to experience depression, low self-
esteem, and eating disorders (damello 2014)
The Importance of Beauty

• In Egyptian art, beauty in women with slim, high waist, narrow hips, and long black hair.
In contrast, woman with a full figure and rounded hips were considered beautiful during
renaissance period
• Generally, humans who have clean and unblemished skin, thick shiny hair, well - proport
ioned bodies and symmetrical faces, are traditionally considered the most beautiful
Beauty in Media
• Advertisements, magazines and televisions are filled with good looking faces which emp
hasize the value of physical attractiveness. People tend to be influenced by the beautiful
faces and bodies they see in media in the way determine what is beautiful and what
is not
Body Modification
• One form is tattooing which injects ink onto the skin to draw a design. Make-up can also
be permanently tattooed. Body piercing is another type which lets people wear jewe
lry through different piercings in their body. Cosmetic surgery which includes surgica
l and non-surgical procedures to restore, reconstruct or alter body parts like breast en
hancement, nose lift, etc.
• Whether beauty is biologically programmed or culturally constructed, it remains important
in all societies. Studies have shown that men and women who are physically attractive h
ave more opportunities in finding jobs, getting promotions and having higher income.
Generally, unattractive people are less liked and assisted.
• Different cultures have different definitions and perceptions of beauty. People often say
that beauty is in the eye of the beholder. The fact that a number of Filipinas have won
international beauty contests shows that Filipinas are among the women who are perceiv
ed to be the most beautiful in the world.
• People tend to judge others based on physical appearances. It is important to see into th
e person’s inner thoughts and feelings. Above all things physical, it is more impo
rtant to be beautiful on the inside.

41
Ways to Improve Your Body Image and Inner Self

- Smile a lot
- Take good care of your health
- Live a well-balanced life
- Dress well and be neat
- Spend some time alone to reflect
- Be creative and do something new all the time
- Develop a wholesome attitude toward sex
- Avoid temptations
- Respect individuality
- Make friends
- Face your fears
- Be independent
- Accept things as they are
- Ask and listen
- Think positive
- Pray
- Count your blessings
- Be thankful
LEARNING ACTIVITY
Instruction:
Create a collage using your own pictures to show how you developed from the time you
were born up to present. For each picture, write a caption to tell a story about your own evolution
. Focus on the physical changes manifested while you were growing up. Be creative.

42
THE SEXUAL SELF

Development of Sex Characteristics and the Human Reproductiv
e System
Primary Sex Characteristics

• Physical characteristics that are present at birth
• The characteristics that distinguish male from females.
Females - characteristics includes the vagina, uterus and ovaries
Males – characteristics includes the penis, testes or testicles, scrotum and

prostate glands
Secondary Sex Characteristics

• Development during the onset of puberty
Female – enlargement of breast, onset menstruation, widening of the hips, e
nlargement of buttocks, growth of pubic hair.
Male – testicular growth, sperm production, appearance of facial, pubic or other p
ubic hair, deepening of voice.
The Human Reproductive System
Sexual Arousal and Erogenous Zones: What turns People On

Erogenous Zones
• Are areas of the body that are highly sensitive and produce sexual response when
stimulated.

43
• These includes the genitals, mouth, breast, ears, anus and to a lesser degree, the
entire surface of the body
• One of the most basic forms of sexual stimulation is masturbation or self-
stimulation that causes sexual pleasure or orgasm.
Cognitive Factors
• Play an important role in sexual arousal of humans.
Culture
• Influences the expression of sexual desire
• Norms continue shapes the sexual activity along the socially acceptable behaviors.
Four Phases of Sexual Response William Masters and Virginia Johnson
1. Excitement Phase - the beginning of sexual arousal and can last from one
minute to several hours
2. Plateau Phase – the change in the body continue
3. Orgasmic Phase – Contractions of muscle in and around the penis stimulate
the release of semen which contains the sperm cells.
4. Resolution Phase – The body return to its normal state after orgasm.
Attraction, Love and Attachment
Puberty
• It is an important stage in sexual development. It is the time when many boys and girls
first experience their first sexual attraction.
Initial attraction is influenced by:
➢ Social Norms – Influence attraction in

several ways such as in determining who
are appropriate as lovers and spouse
➢ Physical Attractiveness – the degree to

which a person’s physical traits are
regarded as aesthetically pleasing or
beautiful.
➢ Processes of Interpersonal Exchange – Social exchange theory.

44
Social Exchange Theory

• Proposes that attraction is the result of an exchange process.
• People tends to view relationships as the result of the rewards and costs they entail.
• As the relationship develops, the sharing of activities and information contributes to
increase attraction, liking, trust and love.
Three Components of Love
1. Intimacy Component – refers to the feelings of closeness, connectedness and
bondedness.
2. Passion Component – refers to the drives that leads to romance, physical attraction
and sexual consummation.
3. Commitment Component – refers to the decision to love and the commitment to
maintain that love.
Romantic Love
• Includes a complex combination of different emotions such as fear, anger, sexual desire,
joy and jealousy. Some of this emotions may also be sources of suffering (Santrock, 2012)
• Has a strong component of sexual attraction and infatuation and is often experienced in
the early stage of a love relationship.
Important Ingredients of Romantic Love

1. Lust - Driven by desire for sexual attraction.
2. Attraction - Often associated with sexual attraction
3. Attachment - Occurs when individuals desire to connect with another person
intimately, also be called affectionate or companionate love.
Attachments
According to Helen Fisher

• Biological anthropologist and expert in the science of human attraction suggest
that the important ingredients of romantic love; lust, attraction and attachment.
According to John Bowbly

• Defines attachment as a strong affectionate tie that binds a person to an intimate
companion.
• Maintains that the quality of early parent-child attachment has lasting impact on
the kind of relationships people have later in life, including romantic relationships.
• The ability to form a stable and close relationships begins at infancy, in a child
earliest experience with a caregiver who meets his or her needs
Sexual Orientation
Sexual Orientation refers to a person’s sexual identity anchored on what gender
they are attracted to.

45
Most Common Sexual Orientation:

• Heterosexuality - Sexually attracted to the opposite sex
• Homosexuality - Sexually attracted to the same sex
• Bisexuality - Attracted to both opposite and same sex
Homosexual Males - are referred to as gays

Homosexual Females - are referred as lesbian
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI’s) and Early Pregnancies

• Contracted primarily through sexual contact
• Bacterial infections are treatable with antibiotics, but viruses such as HIV/AIDS are more
difficult to treat and often incurable.
• Even curable bacteria can cause serious health problems if ignored and left untreated.
• Some bacterial infections are difficult to detect because some symptoms are not
immediately noticeable.
• STI’s commonly include human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS), gonorrhea, syphilis, chlamydia, genital herpes, and genital warts.
HIV/AIDS
• Infections caused by direct contact body
with fluids such as through blood transfusion,
breast feeding, and sexual intercourse.
• Attacks immune system and infected person
eventually dies.
Gonorrhea
• Caused by gonococcal bacteria which attack

the lining of the mucous membrane such as
mouth, throat, vagina, and urethra.
• It can be treated by penicillin or other antibiotics.

46
Syphilis
• Infects the genital areas and other
parts of the body including the brain.
• Can cause paralysis or even death
• when left untreated.
Chlamydia
• Cause by chlamydia trachomatis.
• In men, can cause swollen testicles and burning
sensation during urinization.
• In women, can cause sterility if let untreated
because it damages uterus, ovaries and
fallopian tube.
Genital Herpes
• Can cause tingling sensations, abscesses,
and blisters in genital area.
• There is no cure for herpes.
Genital Warts
• Causes by human papillomavirus and

women with papillomavirus are prone
cervical cancer.
Early Pregnancy
➢ The major concern in the Philippines
➢ Complication may arise during pregnancy.
➢ Female reproductive organ is not yet mature during adolescence.
➢ Creates health risk among young mothers and their babies
47
Methods of Contraception
• Condom
• Oral Contraceptive pills
• Intarauterine device or IUD
• Birth Control Injection
Contraception
• Refers to the methods that are used to prevent pregnancy.
Cervical Mucus Method

• Also called Billing Ovulation Method
• A type of natural family planning methods based on careful observation of mucus
pattern during the course of the menstrual cycle.
Mucus Pattern
• Help in determining when a woman is most likely to conceive or not
The Reproductive Health Law

❖ Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 also known as
Reproductive Health law or RH Law
• Guarantees universal access to method of contraception, fertility control, sexual

education, and material care.
• Provides for the “Prevention and Treatment of HIV/AIDS and other STIs/STDs.
• Aims to keep couples and women especially, well-informed about available family
planning methods that they can freely use depending on their needs and beliefs.
• Aims to promote awareness among adolescent and youth on sexuality and reproductive
hhLEARNING ACTIVITY
1. Is the topic about attraction, love and attachment relevant to you? How are you going to
apply your experiences in understanding your sexual self? Write an essay about this.
2. What relational dynamic do you think was modeled to you by your parents that affected
your relationship with men/women?

48
3.
Overview:
The goal of every person may differ from
one another but admit it or not, to have a car,
house/s, jewelries, branded items, investment,
business and huge account deposits, or even
travelling and experiencing fine dining at five
stars’ hotel, fancy restaurants and yacht are
desired by many. In this chapter we will talk
about our material self that is not only involve
those tangible possessions but also includes
our family and friends. Regardless of how much
we own and how little we have in life we still
strive to acquire more.
This topic will give you a description of
who you are in terms of Material self and its
components. Your motivations in acquiring
possessions as well as the different factors like how media, friends, family and your
experiences influenced your material self.

49
Discussion
Material Self
The material self, according to William James as cited by Monilla 2018, pertains to
the objects, places, or even people which have the label “mine”. Such possessions are
viewed as extensions of individuals' identities. For instance, your clothes reflect certain
aspects of your personality and you designate them as “my wardrobe”
In addition, James identified the body as the innermost aspect of the material self.
You perceive certain body parts as more private or intimately yours as compared to the
others. The next aspect is your clothing; the garments which protect as well as project
your body. This is followed by your family; they are connected to you by blood and you
share their glory as well as shame. Your home comes next; it is where many aspects of
your life have been developed, it is where you feel most comfortable, and it is greatly
linked to your identity. This is then followed by other possessions such as gadgets, cars,
collections, etc.
The Role of Material Possessions on the Sense of Self and Identity

People appear to judge others by their material possessions. No matter how much
or how little material possessions people have, it will remain valuable because these
belongings are a symbol of one's social status. Cars, homes, appliances and clothes are
the most desirable things to others because they are the most visible in other people's
eyes. The more expensive they are, the more impressed many people are. In Russel
Belk’s work "Are we what we own?", the material objects serve as an objective
representation of self. Material possessions may represent hard work and success.
Typically, people prefer to measure success by the sum of their material possessions.
Self-defining by material possessions can contribute to a sense of well-being,
including a level of self growth and purpose or reason to live. That being said, the absence
or loss of material resources may harm one's mental health, such as the loss of homes
and other belongings due to disasters and calamities. Thus, the greater the material
possessions, the more likely one will be accepted and regarded well by other people. The
important point is that these components of the material self become a significant
reference of one's sense of self and identity. On the other hand, we human beings tend
to desire more and this can lead to negative consequences on our self and identity.
Materialism refers to giving more importance to material possessions than intangible
values. One who is overly concerned with the acquisition of material belongings is called
a materialistic person. Wanting more material possessions can lead to psychological
dysfunction or damage in functioning and one example of this is the compulsive buying
disorder (CBD) which is characterized by an obsession with shopping and buying
behaviors that can cause adverse effects (e.g., debts). Developmental evidence suggests
that identification with material things begins quite early in life but remains high throughout

50
life as people seek for happiness (Belk, 1988). Nevertheless, psychologists detect other
social and cultural factors that seem to be strongly implicated in the idea of materialism.
The media can also influence the viewers about the importance of expensive and branded
mobile phones, clothes, cars, and the so forth. Loss of these material possessions could
lead to anxiety, insecurity, and depression in people who are overly materialistic. Thus,
one should be able to identify the difference between wants and needs and try to ask a
very important question to himself or herself: DO I REALLY NEED THIS? ( Monilla et.al
2018)
Consumer Culture
Consumer culture is a social system in which consumption is dominated by the
consumption of commercial products (Arnould, 2010). Consumer culture symbolizes a
social arrangement in which the relations between lived culture and social resources, and
between meaningful ways of life and the symbolic and material resources on which they
depend on, are mediated through markets. The consumption of market-made
commodities and desire-inducing marketing symbols is central to consumer culture
(Arnould & Craig, 2005). A consumerist society is one in which humans spend an
exceptional deal of time, money, and power to "consume" business products, items, and
goods. Consumerism is the intake of cloth items and offerings in extra of one's primary
needs. Consumerism is intently tied to materialism. Both closely affect the manner people
view the self. It may be considered positively and negatively. For instance, humans tend
to be happier and extra encouraged whilst their want and desires are met. On the other
hand, it encourages humans to shop for services and products that they do not actually
need or afford. The country of wants and needs has a tendency to be endless, and
consequently should motive poor results including dissatisfaction, unhappiness, and
depression.
Suggested Activities:
1. Watch the movie Confessions of a Shopaholic (2009). You may watch the movie
from YouTube, just type and click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=orkaqFcTQh4&t=136s
2. After watching the movie, write a reflection on the experiences of a person with
compulsive buying disorder.
3. When finished, notify your mentor, and send your work to the agreed platform.
4. The Rubrics found in the following page will be used for grading your reflection
paper.

51
RUBRICS
Rubric for The Material Self Reflection Paper
Exemplary Accomplished Developing Beginning
weight
Criteria
Yes Yes, but No, but No
 Directly  Somewhat  Remotely  Totally

Topic 30% relevant relevant related unrelated
30 25 20 15
 Good  Organized;  Some  Poorly

organization; points are organization; organized; no
points are somewhat points jump logical
logically jumpy; around; progression;
Organization 10% ordered; sense of beginning beginning and
sharp sense beginning and ending ending are
of beginning and ending are unclear vague
and end 8 6 4
10
 Supporting  Some  Details are  Unable to find

details details are somewhat specific
specific to non- sketchy. Do details
Quality of
25% subject supporting not support
Information
 to the topic
10
25 subject 15
20
 No errors  Only one  More than  Numerous

Grammar, or two two errors errors distract
Usage, errors from
25% 25
Mechanics, 20 understanding
15
Spelling 10
 Report on  Report one  Report two  Report more

time class class periods than one
Timeliness 10% period late late week late
8 6 4
10
TOTAL SCORE: ___________________________

52
References:
• Monilla, M., & Ramirez. N. (2018). The Material Self. Understanding the
Self(pp.133-144). C&E Publishing, Inc.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=orkaqFcTQh4&t=136s
• https://faculty.washington.edu/jdb/452/452_chapter_02.pdf

53
OVERVIEW
Spirituality is a general concept and involve different views. It motivates the person through acts of faith,
hope and love. This chapter provides a general understanding of spirituality and religion. It also includes
emotional health and practice of animism.
Learning Outcomes
• Demonstrate an understanding of the spiritual self.

• Explain the importance of spirituality in one’s life.
• Discuss how spirituality is connected to religion.
• Describe how spirituality relates with emotional health
• Analyze how spirituality animism are associated.

54
The Spiritual Self

The spiritual aspect of the self is the inner essence, the part of
the self that connects the person to the sacred, the supernatural, and
the universe. Understanding and nurturing the spiritual self is as
important as with the other aspects of the self. It develops through
interaction, observation, and imitation. The family, school and church
play a very important role in a child’s spiritual development.
Spirituality begins at an early age but develops throughout life as
people continuously interact in the environment (Monilla & Ramirez,
2018).
Spirituality
The root meaning of spirituality is taken from the Latin word
spiritus, meaning breath or life force. Spirituality can be understood
as the search for the sacred, a process through which people seek to
discover, hold on to, and, when necessary, transform whatever they
hold sacred in their lives (Hill & Pargament, 2003). It is a collective
human experience – something that links us all. Some people may say
that spiritual experience as sacred or mystical or just a deep sense
of joy and interrelatedness with the Supreme Being. Similarly, it may
also refer to meaning and purpose in one’s life, a search for
wholeness, and a relationship with a transcendent being (Hage,
Hopson, Siegel, & DeFanti, 2006).
According to Dr. Christina Puchalski, Director of the George Washington Institute for Spirituality
and Health, “spirituality is the aspect of humanity that refers to the way individuals seek and express
meaning and purpose and the way they experience their connectedness to the moment, to self, to others,
to nature, and to the significant or sacred.” Other people come into focus with their spirituality when
faces with emotional trauma, physical ailment or even death.
“Spirituality” was initially developed in early Christianity.

Christians use the term “Spirit” to describe the Holy Spirit. In Christian
Ethics, Peschke (1994) describes that the experience of the sacred is
characterized by reverence, faith, fear, trust, love, and admiration which
are linked to God. Adoration is an important deed to understand the
fundamental meaning of transcendence and human life. There are various
ways of doing worship, it may include prayer, reading the bible, attending
sacraments or even doing sacrifices.

55
Spirituality and Religion

Spirituality and religion are not the same thing. But spirituality is connected with religion. Religion
is an organized system of ideas about the spiritual sphere or the supernatural along with associated
ceremonial practices by which people try to interpret and/or influence aspects of the universe otherwise
beyond their control. One’s spirituality may be expressed through religion and participation in religious
rituals and ceremonies (Haviland, Prins, Walrath, & McBride, 2013). Spirituality and religion may be a
source of love, hope, and affection (Brown & Parrish, 2011).
• In Spirituality, the questions are: where do I personally find meaning, connection, and values?
• In religion, the questions are: what is true and right?
• Where the circles overlap is the person experience, which affects the way you, think, feel and
behave.
Spirituality vs. Emotional Health

Emotional and spiritual well-being
influence one another:
• Spirituality is about finding significant

association with something bigger than
yourself, which may effect in positive emotions,
like peace, contentment, acceptance,
understanding , gratitude.
• Emotional health is about nurturing a
positive state of mind which can broaden your
attitude to know and integrate a connection to
something larger than yourself.
Thus, emotions and spirituality are distinct but linked, deeply integrated with one another.

56
Discovering Life’s Meaning

This part of the module features the concept of well-being and life satisfaction, what they mean
to an individual, and the factors that contribute to them. It also stresses the importance of well-being and
life satisfaction in today’s challenging times, wherein we are facing fear, and anxiety due to the COVID-19
pandemic.
Well-being and Life Satisfaction

Individuals are inclined to evaluate their life, reflect and analyze the
choices they have made and most importantly learn lessons from these
experiences. Some says that well-being and life satisfaction are the same but
there is a bit difference between the two. Well-being is an inner, personal
construct, associated with self-esteem, and self-understanding. It is how good
one feels for himself/herself. While life satisfaction is a general attitude
towards life. When both are present, happiness can be felt.
On the other hand, in some situations,

happiness is generally regarded as the emotional result of life
satisfaction. Life satisfaction can refer to the desire to change one’s
life, satisfaction with the past, satisfaction with the future, and views
of one’s life (Diener, et al., 1999). It is also associated with quality of
life. Research has cited many factors that influence how they can be
achieved:
• Environmental conditions contribute to individual life

satisfaction.
• Socio-economic status, home and social environment,
interpersonal relationships, and education also influence one’s well-
being and life satisfaction.
• Personal factors such as personality, cognition, physical health
In the present time, most of us are facing difficulties and struggles. People try to seek comfort or even
security in various ways. In so doing, they experience struggles in achieving happiness and satisfaction.

57
Viktor Frankl, a famous psychiatrist and writer, wrote a book

entitled Man’s Search for Meaning shared his personal experiences
in the Nazi concentration camp. He explains how a prisoner passes
through three major phases in the concentration camp, and how
each phase transformed the prisoners from their former lives to a
new one and how they developed various pathologies. At first, the
prisoner was in a state of shock, which was followed by the phase
of developing apathy. Apathy is the blunting of the emotions and
the feeling that one could not care anymore. It could be considered
a protective shell from the brutalities in the camp. The last phase is
the psychology of the prisoner after liberation. During this time, the
prisoners experienced depersonalization or a state in which
everything seemed unreal, as in a dream.
Frankl’s stay in the Nazi concentration camps during World Ward II

led him to develop the basic tenets of logotherapy. He embraced both
the bright and dark sides of human existence and believed that human
suffering could contribute to human achievement and the search of
meaning in life. Logotherapy is the quest of human existence and on
man’s search for such meaning. In logotherapy, one can discover the
meaning of life in three different ways: by doing a deed, by experiencing
a value, and by suffering.
• In doing a deed – way of finding meaning in life is through
achievements or accomplishments
• By experiencing something or someone, such as loving a person. No one can become fully aware
of the essence of another human being unless he or she loves him or her. By his or her, he or she
is enabled to see the essential traits and features of the beloved person. Love finds its deepest
meaning in one’s spiritual being- the inner self.
• By suffering. It is through sufferings that man encounter the central theme of existentialism: to
live is to suffer, to survive is to find meaning in the suffering. If there is purpose in life at all, there
must be a purpose in suffering and in dying. Each one must find out for himself or herself and
must accept the responsibility that his or her answers prescribe. If he or she succeeds, he or she
will continue to grow despite all indignities. “He who has a way to live can bear almost any how”
according to Nietzsche.
Everyone has his or her own specific vocation or mission in life; everyone must carry out concrete
assignment that demands fulfillment. Within the context of spirituality, being cognizant of one’s purpose
in life, accepting limitations and celebrating strengths, enabling love and concern for others, and engaging
in behaviors that embody all these will lead one to have well-being and life satisfaction.

58
The Practice of Animism

Spirituality is also associated with animism. Animism is the belief
that creatures, objects, and places possess certain spirits. It is also the belief
that things and places are alive and grounded by a supernatural order. In
the Philippines, indigenous peoples are known to practice animism. For
example, they believe that the spirits of the sun, sky, and moon are their
gods and that different deities exist to protect them and guide them toward
a fruitful life. Others believe that spirits inhabit animals and nature such as
trees, rocks, mountains, and bodies of water, and that respect must be
given to them through acts of worship. Being linked with folk belief,
animism cultivates among people a consciousness of the environment that
they are in, thus making them more mindful of how they act according to
the different things they come in contact with (Molina & Ramirez, 2018).
References:
Monilla, Ma. Joycelyn A. & Ramirez, Normaliza C. (2018). Understanding the Self. C & E Publishing, Inc.
Haviland, W., Prins, H., Walrath, D., & McBride, B., (2013). The Essence of Anthropology (3rd edition). USA
Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
http://webtakingcharge.csh.umn.edu
Hage, S., Hopson, A., Siegel, M., Payton, G., & De Fanti, E., (2006). Multicultural Training in Spirituality: An
Interdisciplinary review. American Counseling Association.
Evaluate
Answer the following questions.
1. Distinguish the difference between belief in spirits and belief in the Holy Spirit.
2. What is the relationship between religion and spirituality?
3. Give at least two kinds of spiritual beliefs (animism) in the Philippines. What are the reasons for having
those spiritual beliefs?

59
Assess.
1. Answer the test on How Spiritual Are You? The test may be downloaded at
http://web.pdx.edu/~tothm/religion/Spiritual%20Quiz.pdf. What are your insights on the outcomes of
the test?
2. Write ten (10) things that you should be thankful to God. Explain your answer
Lets Reflect.
“Walking in Desert”
( Otig, Gallenero, et.al, A Holistic Approach in Understanding the Self, Mutya Publishing, 2018)
Procedure:
1. Do some reflection by walking for at least 30 minutes in a place where you can find peace.
2. Scribble in a journal your personal experience by answering the questions below:
a. What thoughts come up while you were walking?
b. What happened when you were walking?
c. How did you respond to such distractions?

60
Understanding the
Political and Digital Self
Prepared by: Asso. Prof. Rene P. Zubieto, MA Ed, MA Psy
Overview: Objectives: References:

The understanding of the self is In the end of this chapter, Alata, Caslib, Jr., Serafica and Pawilen
key in as well in the political students are expected to be able (2018). Understanding the Self. Quezon
landscape of a person’s socio- to; (1) Appraise the value the role City: Rex Bookstore.
cultural, historical, and digital played by politics and the use of Go-Monilla and Ramirez (2018).
environment. In today’s digital technology in shaping the Understanding the Self. Quezon City:
advanced technology where, self. (2) Examine the limits of C&E Publishing, Inc.
digital citizenship is part of its active citizenship and manage its Gutierrez-Ang (2018). Understanding
take-off; the self must be taught use; and (3) Estimate wisely the the Self: A Text Manual for the 21st
to understand of the roles, limits, use of one’s citizenship in both Century Filipino Student. Manila:
and power it provides the youth. communities: the communal and Mindshapers,Inc.Co.
Making each of them more able, the digital world. Macayan, Pinugu and Castillo (2019).
capable, and active contributors Understanding the Self: OBE Module.
of the society. Quezon City: C&E Publishing, Inc.
The everyday Juan and Juana is making

decision. From the time of waking up and until to
the last minute before people retire and sleep. As
members of the community, the workplace and even
the school where one belongs: they are active
makers and changers. This phenomenon is what
surmise the power and influence (political) in which
we channel options. The expressions of needs and
various ideas thru countless means – one of which is
the digital platform venue. In this chapter, students
will be learning the dynamics of power and active
citizenship one may possess inherently and
similarly manifest how the clout of an influence can
be channeled to the fullest of opportunity: beneficial
(Photo credit: The Philippine Collegian, UP Diliman) or otherwise in the age of internet use. The chapter
is divided into two parts: Part One: The Political Self
and Part Two: The Digital Self.

61
Part 1: The POLITICAL SELF
Macayan, Pinugu and Castillo (2019) pointed out that as

members of the society, people are naturally obligated to
participate in a political system as social citizens. As citizens,
people become aware of their duties and responsibilities that
should empower them to participate in state and political affairs.
Politics refers to the actions or activities concerned with achieving
and using power in a nation or a society.
Let us examine the following statements to start our discussion:
1. Are we considered political when we persuade our parents to favor our request?
2. Are we considered political when we express our appreciation to our government?
3. And lastly, are we political when we influence our friends to change their options?
Content:
I. What is Politics?
Politics is equated with power. In some instances, even in our own homes – politics
is evident. Looking around, even our community shares a considerable impact like the
following illustrations: (a) when people can freely express themselves; (b) when our
government manages to protect us; (c) when we express ourselves in varied means to our
co-workers, classmates, or friends; and lastly (d) even the amount of money we have (earn)
is a political statement that shapes oneself.
II. How Am I as a Filipino?
Think and reflect about the following Filipino traits and values we possess: amor
propio, utang-na-loob, hospitableness, pagka- maka Diyos, being respectful to elders and
parents, being obedient, the use of ‘po’ and ‘opo’ and more. These traits and values are
viewed complimentary to the expression of the political self. Hence, are we considered
good citizens of our country when we manifest these qualities?
Gutierrez-Ang (2018) clustered the Filipino values in three distinct categories:

personalism, familialism, and particularism. Personalism refers when one validates other
people’s sense of dignity as a human being. Familialism on the other hand, are those
traditions and activities in the community that revolves around the interest of the family.
And lastly, when one insinuates Filipino knack for patronizing someone who is familiar
or one who they relate to, it refers to particularism.
III. Politics, Citizenship, and the Self
Politics is the art and science of influencing other people on a civic or individual
level. More narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions of governance —
organized control over a human community, particularly a state. A variety of methods is
employed in politics, which include promoting its own political views among people,

62
negotiation with other political subjects, making laws, and exercising force, including
warfare against adversaries. Politics is exercised on a wide range of social levels, from
clans and tribes of traditional societies, through modern local governments, companies,
and institutions up to sovereign states, to international level. A political system is a
framework which defines acceptable political methods within a given society. (Online:
definitions.net/definition/politics).
Macayan, Pinugu and Castillo (2019) explained politics as embedded by man in four key
points: First, politics is concerned with power. Second, politics functions based on
particular social, economic, and cultural context. Third, political is also personal: one’s
personal choices reflect his/ her personal politics – both are indistinguishable. And lastly,
politics pervades the structure of the society, thus it influences its people through their
beliefs, ethics, and behavior.
IV. Political Self
Political self is not only shaped by one’s political affiliation or

beliefs. Everyone is naturally inclined to have choices and reactions to
political scenarios. Political self is anchored in the inclination to
participate, remain engaged and become accountable.
Factors that shape the Political Self: Individual – Institutional – Community
1. Individual factors – influenced by the set of attitudes and values of a person. As

individuals, we are prone with the presence of dualism. Sometimes, it is highlighted by
the contradiction between self-interest and the good of the community. People are
evidently exposed to both positive and the negative reinforcers, which in the
understanding of oneself may lead us to attitude change.
2. Institutional factors – identifies the imprint contributed by the family, school, church,
media, government, and the non-government and people’s organizations.
3. Community factors – the degree (or lack) of identification with the nation depends, among
others, on the type of community to which one belongs and the extent to which it is served
by, or benefits from, instruments of the state, such as religion, language and even the
absence or presence of social requisites for the exercise of citizenship and democracy.

63
Active Citizenship
Active citizenship refers to the structured

forms of engagements with political
processes and everyday forms of
participation in society. This is the process
of sharing decisions which affects one’s
life and the community in which one lives.
It gives foundation to democracy to which
participation is its fundamental right of
one’s citizenship. The value of active
citizenship is anchored on one’s cognitive and behavioral engagement to participate in formal
and informal political activities.
Part 2: The DIGITAL SELF

Photo credit: lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter
Today’s generation is boosted with digital advantage. A good number of people is now
taking ease of communicating via cellular phones, making text messages, transacting money
cashless and even safeguarding volumes of documents paperless. Our thinking is fast becoming
attuned to the various gadgets and technological innovations, including the use of internet. And
consequently, our youth today are identified being the generation of “digital natives”. Most homes
are now internet connected, offices and business establishments even schools are electronically
and technologically wired. How does the shift of this technological edge versus the traditional
orientation changed the development of oneself? Does it favor the youth today? Or the exposure
to this overarching development is a disadvantage?
Living in the digital era is

contributory to the shaping of one’s sense of
self and identity. Undeniably, beliefs, value
orientation and behavior of individuals
especially of those individuals whose
constant exposure is heavily influenced by
technology. Enough to say, that because
digital technology is here to stay, the need to
understand, teach and manage the dynamic
Photo Credit: mcleanhospital.org
changes it impacts a developing person
relevant and necessary.

64
Content:
1. The Global Digital Snapshot
With the rise of technology, ways of socializing have significantly changed. A

report from World’s Internet, Mobile and Social Media Users (January 2017) reported the
following significant figures.
Total population (World) 7.476 Billion

Internet users 3.733 Billion
Active Social Media Users 2.789 Billion
Further, it is noteworthy to examine the following growth in the use of the internet
and social media from the same report.
Internet users are +10% (since Active social media users are
2016) that is equal to + 354 +21% (since 2016) that translate
million in numbers. an estimated 482 million
additional users.
2. Digital Identity
Macayan, Pinugu and Castillo (2019) mentioned that people generally have “role
identities”. These are the characters and roles an individual creates as a member of a
particular social group. Following this definition, the ‘self’ is composed of identities
ranked by importance. The greater the commitment of an individual to a particular
identity, the greater the importance of this identity. Hence, the importance of one’s role
identity influences the behavioral choices an individual makes in each situation.
Digital Identity refers to the identity a person claims in the cyberspace. A digital
identity allows a person to be part of the virtual community that goes beyond physical
and geographical boundaries. By having a digital identity, one can leave online footprints
(account name, friends, likes, comments, and shares) in cyberspace.
Online Disembodiment is when in the use of social media, people may act
differently since interaction in social media do not happen face-to-face and there is no
physical presence required. This is the more or less likely the display of their real “selves”
to others, most oftentimes even to strangers.
Online Disinhibition Effect refers when people adopt fake identities, they are
likely to engage in behaviors that they would not do in real life interactions. This effects
as an online behavior are categorized further into two: (a) benign disinhibition and (b)
toxic disinhibition. If one tends to self-disclose more on the internet than on real life it
refers to the benign disinhibition, while on the other hand, online users who use rude
language, bully or threatens others and go to websites with contents of violence, crime
and pornography are considered toxic inhibition. Self-presentation can be identified as
self-promotion, ingratiation, exemplification, intimidation, and supplication.

65
3. The Importance of Digital Technology
3.1. Technology has changed the social features of people’s lives; altered the ways how
people view social dimension of relationships.
3.2. It improved not only the common areas in people’s daily lives, but also areas of
education, health, and production industries.
3.3. It enabled volumes of information to be compressed in compact storage devises,
to easily contained and delivered, minimizing the transmission of data.
3.4. Digital technology brought about innovations and contributed to a change in the
work patterns.
4. The Self in the Digital World
The use of internet primarily serves three major purposes (Macayan, Pinugu and
Castillo, 2019): (1) social interaction, (2) information acquisition and generation and (3)
entertainment. It is not surprising that majority of people today are exposed to gadgets,
mobile applications, and the internet.
5. Nine Manifested Technological and Online Behaviors
These themes listed describes the proliferation of technology in the world and how
they are used for specific purposes:
Digital Access Full electronic participation in society.

Digital Commerce Electronic buying and selling of goods.
Digital Communication Electronic exchange of information.
Digital Literacy Process of teaching and learning using
technology.
Digital Etiquette Electronic standards of conduct and procedure.
Digital Law Electronic responsibility for actions and deeds
(ethics).
Digital Rights and Freedoms extended to everyone in the digital
Responsibilities world.
Digital Health and Wellness Physical and psychological well-being of using
media.
Digital Security Electronic precautions to guarantee safety.
6. The Data Privacy Act

To protect the people from the invasion of privacy, Republic Act 10173,
otherwise known as the Data Privacy Act of 2012 was passed in the Philippines.
1. It applies to processing of personal information (Sec. 3g) and sensitive
personal information (Sec. 3L).
2. Created the National Privacy Commission to monitor the implementation of this law.
(Sec.7)
66
3. Gave parameters on when and on what premise can data processing of personal
information be allowed. Its basic premise is when a data subject has given direct
consent. (Sec. 12 and 13)
4. Companies who subcontract processing of personal information to 3rd party shall have
full liability and can’t pass the accountability of such responsibility. (Sec. 14)
5. Data subject has the right to know if their personal information is being processed. The
person can demand information such as the source of info, how their personal information
is being used, and copy of their information. One has the right to request removal and
destruction of one’s personal data unless there is a legal obligation that required for it to
be kept or processed. (Sec. 16 and 18)
6. If the data subject has already passed away or became incapacitated (for one reason or
another), their legal assignee or lawful heirs may invoke their data privacy rights. (Sec. 17)
7. Personal information controllers must ensure security measures are in place to protect
the personal information they process and be compliant with the requirements of this law.
(Sec. 20 and 21)
8. In case a personal information controller systems or data got compromised, they must
notify the affected data subjects and the National Privacy Commission. (Sec. 20)
9. Heads of government agencies must ensure their system compliance to this law
(including security requirements). Personnel can only access sensitive personal information
off-site, limited to 1000 records, in government systems with proper authority and in a
secured manner. (Sec. 22)
10. Government contractors who have existing or future deals with the government that
involves accessing of 1000 or more records of individuals should register their personal
information processing system with the National Privacy Commission. (Sec. 25)
11. Provided penalties (imprisonment ranging from three (3) years to six (6) years and a fine up
to 5 million pesos as per Sec. 33) on the processing of personal information and sensitive
personal information based on the following acts:
– Unauthorized processing (Sec. 25)

– Negligence (Sec. 26)
– Improper disposal (Sec. 27)
– Unauthorized purposes (Sec. 28)
– Unauthorized access or intentional breach (Sec. 29)
– Concealment of security breaches (Sec. 30)
– Malicious (sec. 31) and unauthorized disclosure (Sec. 32)
If at least 100 persons are harmed, the maximum penalty shall apply (Sec. 35).

67
12. For public officers (working in government), an accessory penalty consisting in the
disqualification to occupy public office for a term double the term of criminal penalty
imposed shall be applied (Sec. 36). (Reference: Toral, Janette accessed on
digitalfilipino.com)
Suggested Activity:
1. Reflection exercise. Evaluate the feelings, motivations, contexts, and experiences you
associate in using online social platforms you mostly preferred. Work as a group by
forming three members from your class section.
2. With the following guide questions found in item number 3, discuss, summarize, and
write a narrative report based on your group’s output.
a. Write the narrative report (essay format) with introduction, summary (based on your
answers to the guide questions), and conclusion.
b. Type your essay in Arial font, 11, 1.5 spacing and a maximum of two-page A4
paper size.
c. Provide a header for the names of your members in the group and the date of
submission.
3. In general, how much do your parents know about you online? Are you open about the
social network accounts to your parents? How would you feel if they could see or read
everything you’ve posted and published online? In most ways, are people harmless or
harmful in the way they present themselves online?
4. Think about online privacy, what actions do you mostly consider before sharing, posting,
or uploading something in the online world? Do you feel safe about the privacy settings
of the online platforms that you are using? Reflect on the benefits and risks of utilizing the
social networking application.
5. Rubric:
Organization of ideas (Relevance of ideas presented, well-researched

ideas/ thoughts, good discussion points) 30 points
Presentation skills (Clarity, use of medium, appropriateness of choice) 15 points
Cooperation and teamwork (Working relationship, shared
5 points
involvement, delegated tasks)
Total Score 50 points

68
LEARNING TO BE A BETTER STUDENT

By: Dr. Helene D. Daya, RGC
Learning is a lifetime process which makes human beings superior to animals.

People survive by acquiring vast numbers of new behaviors and countless pieces of new
information. Learning continuous throughout life. As a student, we face new situations
and problems every day and learn to deal with them. This chapter discusses theories and
concepts that explain the nature and dimensions of learning. Metacognition, learning
process, self-directed learning, and how to become a better student are also explored.
Learning Outcomes

1. Explain learning and how it works in humans.
2. Determine the factors that affect the learning process.
3. Identify the stages of learning.
4. Discuss the influence of metacognition and self-directed learning.
5. Choose and apply ways to be a better student
“Develop a passion for learning. If you do, you will never

cease to grow”
- Anthony J.I. D’Angelo
Learning
According to the behaviorists, learning can be defined as the relatively permanent

change in behavior brought about because of experience or practice. Learning is “a
process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience and increases the
potential for improved performance and future learning” (Ambrose et al, 2010, p.3).
The change in the learner may

happen at the level of knowledge, attitude,
or behavior. As a result of learning, learners
come to see concepts, ideas, and/or the
world differently. Learning is not something
done to students, but rather something
students themselves do. It is the direct
result of how students interpret and
respond to their experiences.
Teenage girl studying
©alamy.com

69
Learning a skill requires that you actively practice it. So, if you only read about
how to get better at learning skills, you are gaining knowledge. It’s when you apply it
that you improve the skill of learning skills. Learning keeps your mind engaged and body
active. It helps you get new and knowledge-based perspectives on the world around you.
It helps you gain new experiences, trains your brain to handle a wide range of challenges,
and keeps your neural pathways active. All these factors combine to keep you healthy.
How the Brain Works During Learning?
Learning changes the physical structure of the brain. These structural changes
alter the functional organization of the brain; in other words, learning organizes and
reorganizes the brain. Different parts of the brain may be ready to learn at different times.
Each time we learn something new our brain forms new connections and neurons and
makes existing neural pathways stronger or weaker. Neuroplasticity is the ability of the
brain to adapt to changes in an individual’s environment by forming new neural
connections over time. It is sometimes referred to as “brain plasticity.”
Aspects of our brains are “plastic,”

meaning they are adaptive and can be
altered in response to environmental and/or
structural changes. Changes associated with
learning occur mostly at the level of
connections between neurons. New
connections form and the internal structure
of the existing synapses change.
Neuroplasticity is at work throughout life and
explains how the human brain can adapt,
master new skills, store memories and
information and even recover after a
traumatic brain injury. Connections within Neuroplasticity improves memory
the brain are constantly becoming stronger or ©brighter-health.com
weaker, depending on what is being used. Younger people change easily; their brains are
very plastic. As we age change doesn't come as easily; the brain loses some of its
plasticity and we become more fixed in how we think, learn, and perceive.
Part of the Brain that is Responsible for Learning
The brain is an amazing three-pound organ that controls all functions of the body,
interprets information from the outside world. The cerebrum is most important in
learning since this is where higher-ordered functions like memory and reasoning occur.

70
The cerebrum is the most highly developed

part of the human brain and is responsible
for thinking, perceiving, producing, and
understanding language. Most information
processing occurs in the cerebral cortex.
It is the large, outer part of the brain,
controls reading, thinking, learning, speech,
emotions, and planned muscle movements
like walking. It also controls vision, hearing
and other senses. The cerebral cortex is
divided into four lobes that each have a Amygdala in the Human Brain
©theinfoscience.blogspot.com
Specific function. These lobes include the
frontal lobes, parietal lobes, temporal lobes, and occipital lobes. The hippocampus is a
complex brain structure embedded deep into temporal lobe. It has a major role in learning
and memory. The amygdala helps to store memories of events and emotions so that an
individual may be able to recognize similar events in the future.
Factors that Affect the Learning Process
Students might have difficulty learning for several reasons. The following are the
factors that affect the learning process:
a. Motivation - Of all the factors that can affect how people learn, motivation
might be the most important. Someone who is motivated to learn a
particular task or bit of information generally succeeds, even if she has to
work long and hard to do so.
b. Intellectual Ability - Intellectual ability also affects learning. For example,

some people have an easier time remembering information than others.
Some students can readily understand abstract concepts, while others need
concrete examples. Everyone has different intellectual strengths and
weaknesses.
c. Attention Span - Attention span vary among both children and adults.
Some people simply prefer to be on the go and have difficulty attending to
a lecture or task for any length of time. Since the most popular method of
teaching requires students to listen and read, often while sitting still,
students who have a short attention span might have difficulty learning.
d. Prior Knowledge - A student could have the highest IQ in the room, but
if he hasn't been exposed to basic information that relates to the lesson, he
will have difficulty learning. For example, imagine that you were placed in
a chemistry class without having been taught the periodic table. You'd likely
not learn a thing. The same is true for a student who is being asked to solve

71
algebraic equations but does not know his multiplication tables a scenario
that is all too common.
Four Stages of Learning
The idea is that learners are not aware of how little or much they know. They go
through the four stages listed below, depending on how much they know about a given
topic or skill. In the end, the learner will be able to use the knowledge or skill without
having to think about what they are doing. Abraham Maslow’s four (4) stages of learning
gives us a valuable conceptual framework to understand how we learn anything. It is
important to keep these stages in mind when developing learning because different
learners will be at different stages.
1. Unconscious Incompetence - In
this stage, the learner does not have a
skill or knowledge set yet. They do not
see any reason to learn it because they
do not consider it a need. You do not
know what you don’t know. For
example, as a noticeably young child
you do not yet realize the usefulness
of riding a bike.
2. Conscious Incompetence - By the

second stage the learner is aware of Four Stages of Learning
the skill that they lack and can under- ©mindwerx.com
stand that there is a deficit. The learner wants to learn because they are aware
of their lack of knowledge and it makes them uneasy.
3. Conscious Competence - This stage takes place when a learner has acquired
a skill but has not yet mastered it to the point where it comes naturally.
4. Unconscious Competence - You know the phrase, “It’s like riding a bike.
You never forget how to do it.” The fourth stage of learning encompasses just
that: you know it so well you do not even realize you are doing it. The skill is
so embedded that the learner does not even need to process what they are
doing.
Metacognition as the Key to Self-Directed Learning
Metacognition is the ability to examine how you process thoughts and feelings.
It was introduced as a concept in by John Flavell (1979), who is typically seen as a
founding scholar of the field. This ability encourages students to understand how they
learn best. It also helps them to develop self-awareness skills that become important as

72
they get older. People who have developed

metacognition are able to assess their
thought processes and reframe the way
they think to adapt to new situations.
Psychologist John Flavell identifies two
components of metacognition:
metacognitive knowledge and
metacognitive regulation. Metacognitive
knowledge includes knowledge of one’s Metacognition: Thinking about thinking
©Kissclipart.com
own cognitive abilities, knowledge of
cognitive tasks, and knowledge of the strategies to complete the cognitive tasks.
Metacognitive regulation refers to how an individual monitors and controls his or her
cognitive
processes.
Some everyday examples of metacognition include:
▪ awareness that you have difficulty remembering people's names in social situations
▪ reminding yourself that you should try to remember the name of a person you just
met
▪ realizing that you know an answer to a question but simply can't recall it at the
moment
▪ realizing that you should review an article you read last week because you have
forgotten many of the key points
▪ realizing that there is something wrong with your solution to a problem
Self-directed learning describes a process in which individuals take the initiative,

with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning
goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing
appropriate learning. Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, and Norman (2010) suggest
that “to become self-directed learners, students must learn to assess the demands of the
task, evaluate their own knowledge and skills, plan their approach, monitor their progress,
and adjust their strategies as needed” (p. 191), and decades of research has identified
these behaviors as predictors of academic success at all grade levels (e.g., Pintrich &
DeGroot, 1990; Young & Fry, 2012).
With increased learning demands at the college level, learning strategies that go
beyond memorization and passive knowledge acquisition are especially important
(Kitsantas, 2002). Many of our students, however, are underprepared for the
metacognitive demands of college (Cohen, 2012). This can be true of even our high-
ability students (Balduf, 2009), who may never have been sufficiently challenged to
prompt the development of metacognitive strategies. Even worse, students who continue
to use poor learning strategies often do so because they don’t have the metacognitive
skill to realize their mistakes (Kruger & Dunning, 1999); thus, “not only do they reach

73
erroneous conclusions and make unfortunate choices, but their incompetence robs them
of the ability to realize it” (p. 1121).
Ways to Be a Better Student
Sometimes, studying is not enough to become excellent in school. Attitude towards

what you are doing affects your performance as well. Every student can do better or even
the best, if only they practice a helpful and healthy routine that would lead them towards
success.
1. Love what you’re doing. When you choose a course in college, be sure that you
really want it, so you’ll not regret it in the end.
2. Be positive. Always be optimistic at school, you may encounter circumstances
that would test your patience and capabilities. When you encounter problems, be
courageous to face and solve them.
3. Have self-esteem. Do not be shy to stand up and speak in front of a large class.
Be confident with yourself, do not hesitate to share your ideas and strive to be the
best version of yourself.
4. Pick good friends in school. Choose your friends at school, be with a group
who can help you be more responsible in your studies. Making friends with the
right people is another way to enjoy your study.
5. Do advance reading. If you are having a hard time with a particular subject, do
some reading. Also, read the topic that you think will be discussed in the following
days, so whenever it is discussed, you’re already well-versed about it.
6. Be punctual and always show up. Your teachers will appreciate it when you
arrive early. It shows you are interested to learn from them, and that would also
make them be interested to teach you.
7. Visit a library and read. Reading is the best way to educate yourself, and do
not just read, try to digest the things you are reading. Spend your vacant time at
the library to study and make a research.
8. Make a To-Do-List. Be organized, that is one way to achieve success. List down
the activities that you need to do at home or even the other days to come. Your
to-do list will serve as your reminder and help you keep track of your progress.
9. Have self-discipline. Submitting your requirements on time is another form of
self-discipline. Being late is not a good attitude of a student. So get rid of all the
distractions, and do as much as you can to submit your requirements before
deadlines.
10. Take good care of your health. Health is wealth, and it’s true. So prioritize your
health, because if you are healthy, you can study well. Going to school requires a
lot of energy. Hence, be physically, emotionally, and mentally fit.
11. Never procrastinate. Everything that we rush fails most of the time. Hence, give
enough time for your assignments and projects. Study a week before your major
examinations, so you could have the chance to get a higher score.

74
12. Think of your parents’ sacrifices. You are at school because of your parents’
efforts. Repay them by giving them good grades at the end of the semesters.
Excellent students are good children of their parents.
EVALUATION
Modified True or False: Write True if the statement is correct. If the statement is
wrong, changed the blackened word or group of words to make the statement correct.
__________1. Self-directed learning can be done individually.

__________2. When students' prior knowledge is inappropriate or inaccurate, it will
hinder learning.
__________3. The term "motivation" is frequently used to describe what a person
does something.
__________4. The learning process occurs initially in our nervous system in response
to environmental stimuli.
__________5. A learner might realize that a particular strategy is not achieving the
results they want, so they decide to try a different strategy. This is an
example metacognitive knowledge.
__________6. The most complex processing of sensory information occurs in the
cerebral cortex.
__________7. Brains learn best through active learning
__________8. Conscious competence phase starts when awareness is developed of
the things a person does not yet know or is not yet able to do.
__________9. A person needs to be motivated enough to pay attention while learning;
anxiety can decrease our motivation to learn.
__________10. Learning changes the physical structure of the brain.
ASSIGNMENT: Reflection Activity for Metacognition
Instructions: Answer the following questions
1. Describe your study strategies.

2. Analyze the mistakes you made.
3. Plan a study strategy for the next semester.
References:
Ambrose, S. A., Bridges, M. W., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M. C., & Norman, M. K. (2010). How
learning works: 7 research-based principles for smart teaching. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
Balduf, M. (2009). Underachievement among college students. Journal of Advanced

75
Academics, 20(2), 274-294.
Cohen, M. T. (2012). The importance of self-regulation for college student learning.

College Student Journal, 46(4), 892-903.
EMOTIV (2020). Neuroplasticity. Retrieved from

https://www.emotiv.com/glossary/neuroplasticity/
Kitsantas, A. (2002). Test preparation and test performance: A self-regulatory analysis.

Journal of Experimental Education, 41, 231–240.
Leadership Management Australia (n.d.) Understanding the 4 stages of learning.

Retrieved from https://leadershipmanagement.com.au/understanding-4-stages-
learning/
Pintrich, P. R., & DeGroot, E. V., (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning
components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 82(1), 33-40.
Royo, Angelica (2020). 22 Ways to be a better student. Retrieved from

https://inspiringtips.com/ways-to-be-a-better-student/
Saylor Academy (2012). What is metacognition? Retrieved from

https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_leading-with-cultural-intelligence/s06-02-
what-is-metacognition.html

76

Learning to be a Better Student
Name________________________________________Score ____________________
Year & Section ______________________________ Date _____________________
Reflection Activity for Metacognition
Instructions: Answer the following questions
Describe your study strategies.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Analyze the mistakes you made.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Plan a study strategy for the next semester.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

77
SETTING GOALS FOR SUCCESS

By: Asso. Prof. Alexandra Wanda L. Villon, RGC
“If you want to be happy, set a goal that commands your thoughts, liberates your energy
and inspires your hopes.” —Andrew Carnegie
OBJECTIVES:
1. At the end of the chapter, students are able to identify the types of motivation
2. Students can do SMART goals for long term and short-term goals.
3. Students can appreciate and reflect on his/her future self.
INTRODUCTION
Do you ever feel like you are sleepwalking through life with no real idea of what you want?
Perhaps you know exactly what you want to achieve but have no idea how to get there.
That’s where goal setting comes in. Goals are the first step towards planning for the future and
play a fundamental role in the development of skills in various facets of life, from work to
relationships and everything in between. They are the target at which we aim our proverbial arrow.
Understanding the importance of goals and the techniques involved in setting achievable goals
paves the way for success.
In the words of Pablo Picasso:
Our goals can only be reached through a vehicle of a plan, in which we must fervently
believe, and upon which we must vigorously act. There is no other route to success.
Goal setting is a powerful motivator, the value of which has been recognized in an abundance of
clinical and real-world settings for over 35 years.
‘Goals,’ as defined by Latham & Locke (2002, p.705) are “the object or aim of an action, for
example, to attain a specific standard of proficiency, usually within a specified time limit.” They are
the level of competence that we wish to achieve and create a useful lens through which we assess
our current performance.
Goal setting is the process by which we achieve these goals. The importance of the goal-setting
process should not go unappreciated, according to Locke (2019) “Every person’s life depends on
the process of choosing goals to pursue; if you remain passive you are not going to thrive as a
human being.”

78
GOALS
(Go-Monilla,M.J. and Ramirez,,N.C.,2018)
A goal is the object toward which the behavior is directed, usually within a specified period.
Within the context of industrial/organizational psychology, goal is defined simply as what the
individual is consciously trying to do. For Edwin Locke and Gary Latham (2006), goals direct
attention, effort, and actions. Goals motivate people to develop strategies that will enable them to
perform better. Accomplishing the goal can lead to satisfaction ang higher motivation, or frustration
and lower motivation if the goal is not accomplished. Goals can be classified into two categories:
short term goals ang long term goals. Generally, short-term goals are those that can be achieved in
a day, week, or a year while long-term goals are usually achieved over a year or more.

79
FACTORS WHICH MAY INFLUENCE GOALS

(Go-Monilla ,M.J.and Ramirez,,N.C.,2018)
Need also activate and direct behavior. Motivation is usually aroused by a need for or lack of
something that may propel a person to act. According to drive-reduction theory, humans are
motivated to satisfy needs to maintain homeostasis or internal equilibrium (Atkinson, Atkinson, Smith,
Bem, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000). Unmet needs will cause a state of bodily tension and, consequently,
homeostasis is disturbed. There are two classifications of needs: physiological and psychological
needs. Physiological needs are innate need of the body such as food, water, air, sleep, and sex.

80
Psychological needs arise from relationship with other people such as affiliation, achievement,
altruism, esteem, and status.
The theory of psychologist Abraham Maslow suggests how needs motivate behavior. Maslow
developed the theory of hierarchy of needs presented in the shape of a pyramid with the biological
or physiological needs at the bottom and the need for self-actualization at the top. Once the
biological needs are satisfied, safety or security needs become important, such as the need to be
safe from danger, illness, and threat. Once these needs are met, individuals may be able to achieve
love and fulfill the need for belonging. Eventually, individuals can achieve self-esteem and realize
self-actualization. Self-esteem includes being accepted, respected, and valued by others. Self-
actualization refers to self-fulfillment or achievement of one’s potentialities. A student may satisfy
the need for self-actualization by striving to get a high grade and becoming a better student.
GOAL-SETTING
(Go-Monilla ,M.J.and Ramirez,,N.C.,2018)
In the context of industrial/ organizational (I/0) psychology, goal setting is the process of
improving work performance of individuals (Locke 7 Latham, 2006). For goal setting to be most
successful, goals should be SMART-specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound.
SMART embodies the fundamental practices necessary for achieving increased motivation (Rubin,
2002). Individuals perform at higher levels when asked to meet a goal that is concrete, achievable
and realistic, and important to them. Goals also work best when there is a time frame for their
completion (Aamodt, 2013). Locke and Latham (Lunenburg, 2011) suggest that the most effective
performance results are attained when goals are specific and challenging, when there is feedback
on the results, when they are used to evaluate performance, and when they create commitment and
acceptance.
The Rules of Goal Setting
 Set goals that motivate you. When you set your goals, it is important that they are personally
important to you.
 Set SMART goals. Your goals must be clear and well defined so that you can measure the degree
of your success. Be sure that your goals are attainable and personally relevant to you. Your goals
must also have a time frame.
 Write your goals. Make a chart and write a list of all the goals you want to achieve. Prioritize the
items on the list, discard those unimportant, and make space for all the important and urgent
activities you want to do such as studying your lessons.
 Develop an action plan for your future. Write the step to attain your life goals.
 Start working toward your life goals.

81

82
TOWARDS AN OPTIMISTIC FUTURE

(Macayan,J.V., et. al., 2019)
Understanding the self is not just about knowing and recognizing oneself as a product of different
life factors. The self, and its potentials and limits can be more thoroughly understood by using a
time-oriented lens which focuses on how the elf evolves from being the self of the past, of the
present, and the possible self in the future.
There is now a growing interest among scholars in studying the future-oriented aspect of the concept
of the self. Studying this primarily deals with the motivational and socio cognitive aspects of an
individual’s conceptualization of who he or she is and who he or she can become in the future. This
time-oriented conceptualization of the self-importantly explains how individuals construe their sense
of self by using temporal perspectives in self interpretations, and the process that individuals use in
conceptualizing what one can possibly or potentially become.
Soren Kierkegaard once said, “life can only be understood backwards, but it must be lived forwards.”
What he meant in this quote is that an individual has the capability to plan for his or her future if he
or she is able to understand and retrospectively reflect on experience, past choices and decisions,
and past behaviors. Apart from the past, one also has a more direct control over present
circumstances; one may not be able to change what he or she has gone through in the past but he
or she can certainly do something in the present. Understanding the past and taking control of the
present can lead to an optimistic future.

83
ACTIVITY
1. What do you want to do with your life next year,or in the next 3 years? Make an outline
based on the given categories.
CATEGORIES SHORT-TERM GOALS

CAREER
FINANCIAL
EDUCATION
FAMILY
ARTISTIC
ATTITUDE
PHYSICAL
PLEASURE
PUBLIC SERVICE
SPIRITUAL/RELIGIOUS

84
2. What do you want to do with your life in the next 10 years? Make an outline based on the
given categories.
CATEGORIES LONG -TERM GOALS

CAREER
FINANCIAL
EDUCATION
FAMILY
ARTISTIC
ATTITUDE
PHYSICAL
PLEASURE
PUBLIC SERVICE
SPIRITUAL/RELIGIOUS

85
REFLECTION:
Watch the movie, “The Three Idiots”, and write a reflection in relation to our topic to our topic.
REFERENCES:
Go-Monilla, Ma. Jocelyn, A & Ramirez, Normaliza, C. (2018) Understanding the Self
Manila: C & E Publishing Inc.
Macayan, Jonathan, V, et. al. (2019) Undertanding the Self

Manila: C & E Publishing, Inc.
https://positivepsychology.com/goal-setting/
https://www.briantracy.com/success/personal/op/14-step-goal-setting-guide-1.html

86
TAKING CHARGE OF ONE’S HEALTH

By: Asst. Prof. Michelle V. Ramirez, RGC
Life is a journey, it’s like a roller coaster ride, full of ups and downs. But that’s what
makes life worth living. Facing each other’s battles and turning our fear into faith. We are social
being, yes but we as a person is the most responsible person to take charge on our own health
be it mentally, physically, emotionally, financially and spiritually. We live with number of options,
taking into considerations what would be best not only to oneself but to others as well. Filling
ourselves with love, kindness and compassion for when we have all these we can freely share it
to others.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the discussion, students are expected to:

• Define stress
• Identify the different types of stress
• Explain Dr. Selye’s Stress Theory
• Understand the different stages of stress
• Enumerate signs and symptoms of stress
• Identify one’s type of personality relevant on managing stress
• Learn ways on managing stress
Man needs difficulties; they are necessary for health.

- Carl Jung
Stress is inevitable in our lives. These life’s events could either help us to adjust to varied
circumstances or can cause harm depending on how we react on it. As we either “fight or flight”
on those aforementioned condition we sometimes unconsciously use strategies called as defense
mechanisms. Seemingly shield or armor to protect ourselves from any kind of threat or harm.
As the law states on how we can maintain high mental health, experts in the fields suggest
positive ways on how we can manage stress. This chapter defines stress and presents the factors
that cause stress. It gives emphasis on Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome and Richard
Lazarus Cognitive Theory of Stress.
STRESS DEFINED
Stress refers to events that are perceived as challenging, damaging or threatening to one’s
physical or psychological well-being. These events are called as stressors and the way people
respond to them is called stress response (Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus &
Wagenaar,2009). Stress is experienced by all people but in different degrees, from mild to severe,
depending on how people interpret the situation. Everyday people encounter stressors: eustress
and distress. Eustress occurs when people experience positive events but requires them to
adjust. Distress occurs when people experience negative events and make great deal of
demands on them.

87
Name: __________________________________________ Date: _______

Course & Year: _________________________________
Activity 1. Answer this Stress Test, this is designed to help you recognize the symptoms of
stress and discover your stress level. Indicate your responses and discover your stress level.
Indicate your responses by checking the appropriate column that corresponds to your choice
using the following scale:
Rating Description
0 I never experience this symptom at all.
1 I almost never (perhaps once a month) experience this symptom.
2 I sometimes experience this symptom (more than once a month).
3 I often experience this symptom (once a week).
4 I very often experience this (more than once a week).
Symptoms Very Fairly Sometimes Almost Never

Often Often Never
4 3 2 1 0
1. Headache
2. Stiffness in neck, shoulders,
arms, jaw, stomach, or legs
3. Coldness of feet or hands
4. Excessive perspiration
5. Nausea or dizziness
6. Chest pain or increased
heartbeat
7. Difficulty in breathing
8. Diarrhea or constipation
9. Allergies and rashes
10. Difficulty in falling or staying
asleep
11. Loss of appetite
12. Absenteeism and tardiness
13. Moodiness, irritability or
anger
14. Worry, anxiety or
restlessness
15. Sadness or depression
Score Interpretation
12 or Lower Indicates a low degree of personal stress reactions
13 to 24 Reflects a moderate degree
Higher than 24 Indicates that you are experiencing high degree of stress

88
STRESSORS AND RESPONSES
From the book of Cicarelli and White in 2012, as cited by Ramirez and Monilla(2018),
according to Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe – any life event that requires people to change,
adapt or adjust would likely to result in stress. There are factors that cause stress. It includes
major life events they are either classified as positive or life events depending on how a person
perceive it.
Activity 2. Identify your stressors (those that cause you stress, they could either be people,
situations, etc.
List at least 10, on the table presented below.
Physical
Emotional
symptoms of Classify the
Stressors responses to
stress: types of Stress
stress Actions
determining the
effects of Write Eustress
Write potentially Identify how What did you do
stressors for positive
triggering you feel about to manage your
What I feel stress and
situations, the source of stress?
about the Distress for
people, etc. stress and its
people, things, negative stress
effects
situations?

89
Another factor that causes stress is frustration, especially when our dreams, plans or goals
in life are thwarted which keeps us unsatisfied. Conflict is another factor of stress.
Conflict happens when a person needs to choose between two or many options. There
are four types of conflict:
1. Approach-approach conflict when a person needs to choose between two options that are
both attractive
2. Avoidance-avoidance conflict occurs when a person needs to choose between options that
he or she finds unpleasant

90
3. Avoidance-avoidance conflict occurs when a person needs to choose between options that
he or she finds both unpleasant
4. Approach-avoidance conflict occurs when a person needs to choose between options that
have both positive and negative consequences
5. Multiple conflict occurs when there are more than two options
To deal with frustrations, conflicts and stress, people sometimes use unconscious
strategies called defense mechanisms to cope with the pain and deal with anxiety.
Forms of defense Definition Cite actions committed which

mechanisms shows the defense
mechanisms and mention the
specific situations when these
actions are exhibited.
Done when the person
exhibits behaviors that stand
apart from the norms of the
Beatnik Reaction
society and avoids most
responsibilities of a good
citizen
Aggressive reactions of a
person such as destroying
Displacement
things or harming another
person
When a person refuses to
Denial accept a painful reality or
truth
Imitating the characteristics
of a person he or she
Identification
admires to deal with his or
her insecurities
Avoiding negative emotions
by focusing on the
Intellectualization
intellectual aspects of one’s
life
Attributing one’s weaknesses
Projection or shortcomings to someone
else
Making up plausible
explanations or excuses to
Rationalization
cover up negative feelings
such as guilt
Acting opposite to what the
Reaction formation
person truly feels
A person reverts to an earlier
Regression psychosexual stage and
begins to behave like a child

91
Pushing unacceptable
Repression impulses or urges into the
unconscious
THE PHYSIOLOGICAL AND COGNITIVE FACTORS OF STRESS
Source: Stress Curve and Phases (General Adaptation Syndrome) Retrieved from
fabezuglyxadid.holidaaysananto last July 8, 2020.

92
The Stress Curve and Phases shows that during the Alarm Stage our body sends signals
that something isn’t right, example we’ll be having a field trip in a related agency to a course- the
experience seems to be exciting and a rewarding one but on the day of the trip we felt dizzy,
restless which are some of the physical signals-what’s yours? Followed by the Resistance Stage
where our physical, psychological and emotional state find ways to fight back those signals to
have a renewed strength and go back to our homeostasis (good health. But when unable to do
so, we might fall into Stage of Exhaustion – which if not manage wisely will either lead to an ill-
condition, mental illness or even death.
The model Theory of Cognitive Appraisal was proposed by Lazarus and Folkman’s in 1984
and it explained the mental processes which influence the stressors.
What is Cognitive Appraisal?
Lazarus stated that cognitive appraisal occurs when a person considers two major factors
that contribute in his response to stress, which are as follows:
1. The threatening tendency of the stress to the individual
2. The assessment of resources required to minimize, tolerate or eradicate the stressor and
the stress it produces
There are two types or stages: primary and secondary appraisal.

• In the stage of primary appraisal, an individual tends to ask questions like, “What does
this stressor and/or situation mean? “how can it influence me?”
The typical answers are
1. This is not important
2. This is good
3. This is stressful
• Secondary appraisal compares to other stages actually happens simultaneously with

the primary appraisal. As a fact, there are times that secondary appraisal becomes the
cause of a primary appraisal. Secondary appraisals involve feelings related to dealing with
the stressor or the stress it produces.
Statements that shows positive secondary appraisal.
1. I can do it if I do my best
2. I will try whether my chances of success are high or not
3. If this way fails, I can always try another method
Statements that shows negative secondary appraisal
1. I can’t do it I know I will fail
2. I will not do it because no one believes I can
3. I won’t try it because my chances are low
Although primary and secondary appraisals are often a result of an encounter with a
stressor, stress doesn’t always happen with cognitive appraisal. For example, when a
person gets involved in a sudden disaster, such as the Taal Volcano eruption, where the
person doesn’t have more time to think.

93
According to John Hopkins Bayview Medical Center (2020) we can call ourselves
COPERS- copers are not passive and helpless, they look for ways to take control of their
lives.
To be a coper means to have skills in:

• Stress management
Develop a Battery of Coping Skills: 9 Ways to Manage Stress
1. Spend time in nature
2. Spend time with friends
3. Say your prayers
4. Practice yoga
5. Do your exercises
6. Manage time
7. Practice Art
8. Read books
9. Think positive
• Time management
• Problem-solving
• Decision-making
• Life-style management
Another way we can improve our coping mechanisms is to improve

or enhance our resilience. (include meaning of resilience) Let us all be reminded that RESILIENCE
is not something we are born with, but it is something that everyone can learn to develop.
According to the American Psychological Association, among those most contributing

factors to resilience is having caring and supportive relationships that create love and trust.
Including the capacity to make and carry out realistic plans; having a positive view of yourself;
being confident in your strengths and abilities, enhance one’s communication and problem-solving
skills and manage your strong impulses and feelings.
How can we build resilience?

1. Make connections
2. Avoid seeing crises as insurmountable problems
3. Accept that change is part of living
4. Move toward your goal
5. Take decisive actions
6. Look for opportunities for self-discovery
7. Nurture a positive view of yourself
8. Keep things in perspective
9. Maintain a hopeful outlook
10.Take care of yourself

94
Research Findings on the Study of Stress

95
Coping with stress is the process by which a person consciously attempts to

master, minimize, or tolerate stressors and problems in life.

96
Coping Mechanisms
Psychologists Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman scientifically defined coping as the sum
of cognitive and behavioral efforts, which are constantly changing, that aim to handle
particular demands, whether internal or external, that are viewed as taxing or demanding.
Simply put, coping is an activity we do to seek and apply solutions to stressful situations
or problems that emerge because of our stressors. Actually, the term "coping" is more
associated with "reactive coping", because in general, we see coping as a response to a
stressor. On the other hand, there's also what we call "proactive coping", wherein the
coping response is aimed at preventing a possible encounter with a future stressor.
Types of Coping Strategies

1. Problem-Focused Coping Strategies
Problem-focused coping centers around the source of your stress, so the first step is to
identify the problem.
Confrontative coping: Face it!
Seeking social support for instrumental reasons
Plan full-problem solving
2. Emotion-focused coping strategies aim to reduce and manage the intensity of

the negative and distressing emotions that a stressful situation has caused rather than
solving the problematic situation itself.
A few example of behavioral emotional focused coping could be listening to music,
massage, meditation, getting physical exercise, going out with a friend, writing in a journal
or diary, taking a hot bath, expressing your emotions creatively (i.e. painting); humor
(jokes or funny movies) etc.
THE NEED FOR SELF-CARE AND COMPASSION

People who are high in self-compassion treat themselves with kindness, care and
understanding when they experience stressful events or situations. This entails self-
kindness when confronted with life difficulties rather than being angry. Self-compassion
has shown to reduce anxiety, stress, exhaustion and depression (Neff, 22012).
Stress is part of our everyday lives, but having a sense of self-awareness and
training on different stress management techniques could be of help for people to manage
its effect, especially the negative physiological, psychological and spiritual effect of life’s
events.
STRESS MANAGEMENT PROGRAM (SMP)

Stress Management Program could be of help to students, family members, or people
at work, especially for the executives - this is designed precisely to help the executive
discern, diagnose, and understand his different sources of stress, to develop his skills, and
to enlarge his perspectives towards the management of his own lifestyle. SMP was born
out of the scientific findings and empirical data on human personality development
gathered from numerous experiments and stress management seminars conducted by
Ms. Maraya Chebat and her colleagues. The more pioneering works were initiated by Dr.
Hans Selye (Austrian-Canadian endocrinologist of Hungarian origin, acknowledged as the
Father of the field of stress research, 1907-1982) of the Montreal’s institute of

97
Experimental Medicine and the Bioenergetics Approaches of Alexander Lowen (American

physician and psychotherapist, 1910-2008); CORE ENERGY in the Philippines, and the
faculty and students of the Ateneo University in Metro Manila.
Suggestions on how to manage stress and practice self-compassion

• When you are stressed, find a quiet place where you will not be disturbed.
• Pray or meditate.
• Read spiritual materials such as the Bible, self-help books or magazines.
• Be mindful of your thoughts and feelings.
• Keep a diary or journal where you can write down and process your thoughts and feelings.
• Develop good habits, eat the right kind of food, drink lots of water, sleep at least 8 hours
a day, exercise regularly and relax.
Additional best fit practices according to Dr. Adelaida C. Gines, a Registered Guidance
Counselor, Registered Psychologist and currently the Philippine Guidance and Counselors
Association (PGCA) National president.
• Music and dance therapy (Listening to music and dancing therapy)
• LAMBILOS therapy (Lambing, HapLOS, Biro)
• Eight H’s therapy
HUGS on the air
HALIK on the air
Hi! Hello greetings
HALAKHAK
HAPPY lang expression
HAPLOS
Giving HOPE
HUMOR
• F’s therapy
Sharing of food
Financial support
Family and friend support
Strong faith to the Lord
• Language of Encouragement (process of focusing on person’s strengths to build self-
confidence)
• Art therapy
References
Fleron, Benjamin & Foster, Jessica (2017). Stress and Coping Mechanisms: Manage Your Stress
and Live a Happier Life 50Minutes.com, ISBN:2806289173.
Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center, Johns Hopkins Health System Corporation (2020). Called
to Care Retrieved from Hopkins.medicine.org.
Lazarus and Folkman, Stress and Cognitive Appraisal Retrieved last July 8, 2020 from https://
explorable.com>stress-and-cognitive appraisal.

98
Neff, K. (2012). The science of self-compassion. In Germer, C. & Siegel, R (Eds.), Compassion
and wisdom in psychotherapy. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B., & Loftus, G. (2009). Atkinson and Hilgard’s introduction to
psychology. United States: Wadsworth Publishing company.
Ramirez, Normaliza C. & Monilla, Ma. Joycelyn A. (2018). Understanding the Self.C & E Publishing,
Inc.
Ramos, Brian P. (2019). The Art of Stress- Free Living: Reprogram your life from the Inside Out,
McLean Virginia U.S.A.
Webinars
Gines, Adelaida C. (June 25, 2020), Best Fit Therapeutic Practices During the COVID-19
Contagion, Philippine guidance and Counseling Association Facebook page.
Kintanar, Niel Steve (June 27, 2020). PERMA-V Way: tips on Flourishing Life, Psychological
Association of the Philippines Facebook Page.

99
EVALUATION
Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _____
Course & Year: _____________________________________
IDENTIFICATION. Identify the term being referred to in each item.

1. ____________________ refers to events that are perceived as challenging, damaging or
threatening to one’s physical or psychological well-being.
2. ____________________, these are type of stress which arises from positive life situations.
3. When we failed to meet our desired goal it often results to __________________.
4. __________________ was acknowledged as the Father of the field of stress.
5. The General Adaptation Syndrome has three stages: alarm, resistance and
_________________.
6. _________________________________ this is designed precisely to help the executive
discern, diagnose, and understand his different sources of stress, to develop his skills, and
to enlarge his perspectives towards the management of his own lifestyle.
7. People who are optimistic tend to have __________________ outlook in life.
8. LamBiLos according to Dr. Adelaida Gines includes lambing, ______________ and haplos.
9. True or False (Encircle the correct answer). Those people who are reared with the use of
touch therapy grows as affectionate persons.
10. The Quarantine protocols brought by the COVID-19 pandemic is an example of
_______________ which can cause high level of stress.

100
Name: ___________________________________________ Date: _____

Course & Year: _________________________________
MY SHIELD

101
Instructions:
This activity is a form of Situational Reflection, answer the following questions with all honesty.
• Answer the following questions, place your answer on your desired spot on the shiled.
1. What makes you happy? What are the things that you enjoy doing that seems time
stops?
2. What makes you excited to wake up in the morning? Who makes your heart sing?
3. What are your accomplishments and goals?
4. What do you do to make your body and mind healthy?
• Write your name on the space below the shiled.
• At the back of your paper, enumerate the situations where you felt you needed to use a
shield. List at least 10 and state your actions taken after that hurting or painful
situations.
Source: Kintanar, Niel Steve (June 27, 2020). PERMA-V Way: tips on Flourishing Life,
Psychological Association of the Philippines Facebook Page.

102
APPENDIX

103
Rules for Online Learning: “Netiquette” to live by

(Adapted from LAMAR CISD, Online 2020)
To ensure a respectful, polite and conducive online learning atmosphere,

everyone is encouraged to observe the following netiquette suggestions:
1. Before posting your question in class, check if anyone has asked it already and
received a reply.
2. Stay on topic. Don’t post irrelevant comments, links, thoughts, or pictures.
3. Don’t write anything angry/ sarcastic, even as a joke. Without hearing your tone,
others might not realize your’re joking.
4. Don’t type in ALL CAPS. Others may misinterpret it to a negative connotation.
5. Respect the opinion of your classmates. If you feel the need to disagree, do so
respectfully.
6. If you reply to a question from a classmate, make sure your answer is accurate. Do
not guess/ or even make false claims.
7. Remember to say “Please” and “Thank You” when asking for help from your
classmates.
8. Be brief. If you write long responses, it’s unlikely anyone will spend the time to
read it all.
9. If you ask a question and many people respond, summarize all the answers and
post it to benefit the whole class.
10. If you refer to something your classmate said, quote a few lines from their post so
others know which post you’re referring.
11. Don’t badmouth others or call them names. You may disagree with their ideas, but
don’t mock the person. Avoid cyber bullying in any or whatever forms.
12. Run a spelling/ grammar check before posting. Use complete words and sentences
in all posts. Do not abbreviate or use jejemons.
13. Be forgiving. If your classmate makes a mistake, don’t tease him/ her for it.
Maintain a cooperative and respectful online atmosphere.
14. Before asking a question, check the lesson content or the topic for the day. Ensure
that before attending online class, you have read responsibly or reviewed your
module required for the online session.
15. Reach out to your teacher if you have any questions/ issues. They are still here to
help, even virtually. Hence, strictly observe the consultation time s/he alloted for
the class. Post, send message and expect response from your teacher only during
his/ her prescribed schedule (day/ time). Respect your teacher’s personal time.

104
AUTHOR’S PROFILE
Gino A. Cabrera, CSIOP, RPm Ma. Elna R. Cosejo, Ph.D.

BS Psychology - MSEUF AB Psychology – SLPC
MPsy, PUP – Manila MA Special Education – MLQU
PhD. In Forensic Psychology (Cand.) – FEU MA School Psychology (Acad.) – PNU Manila
PhD in Psychology – MLQU
pp
Marissa C. Esperal, Ph.D., RGC, RP Helene D. Daya, Ph.D., LPT, RGC
AB Psychology – SLSU BS Industrial Psychology – FEU Manila
MA Clinical Psychology – UP Diliman MA in Special Education – University of Visayas
MAEd in Guidance and Counselling – PNU (Cebu)
Manila MAEd in Guidance and Counselling – PNU
PhD in Clinical Psychology – UP Diliman Manila
PhD in Psychology – MLQU
Post-Doctorate in Total Quality Management in
Higher Education – CEU Manila
Noreen P. Echague, LPT, RGC, RPm Mari Jane A. Lee, Ph.D.

BS Psychology – Colegio de San Sebastian – AB Psychology – SLPC
Recoletos Manila MA in Psychology – MLQU
MA Ed in Guidance and Counselling – PNU MA in Educational Measurement and Evaluation
Manila (Acad.) – PNU Manila
EdD in Industrial Educational Management PhD. In Psychology - MLQU
(Cand.) – TUP Manila

105
AUTHOR’S PROFILE
Fides Joyce O. Llegado, RGC, RPm Michelle V. Ramirez, RGC

AB Psychology – MSEUF AB Psychology – SLPC
MAEd in Guidance and Counselling – MSEUF MAEd in Guidance and Counselling – MSEUF
MA in Clinical Psychology (Acad.) – UST PhD in Industrial Psychology (Cand.) - EARIST
PhD in Industrial Psychology (Cand.) - EARIST
Alexandra Wanda L. Villon, RGC Rene P. Zubieto, RPm

BS Psychology – UP Visayas AB Psychology – SLPC
MA in Counselling – DLSU Manila MA Ed Administration and Supervision – SLPC
PhD in Counselling Psychology (Cand) – DLSU MA in Psychology – UP Diliman
Manila PhD. in Developmental Psychology (Cand.) – UP
Diliman

UTS Student Copy 2021

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

UTS Student Copy 2021

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

Philosophical Perspectives of the Self

By: Asst.Prof. Gino A. Cabrera, MPsy, CSIOP, RPm

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

“An unexamined life is not worth living.” - Socrates

GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Socrates (470 - 399 BC)

Socrates was known for his expression “an unexamined

Plato (428/427 - 348/347 BC)

Plato, also a Greek thinker, is credited as one of the

GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

as “knower,” “thinker,” and “determiner” of individual’s actions (Aguierre et al., 2012).

Aristotle (384 - 322 BC)

Aristotle studied philosophy under Plato in Athens. He

GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

St. Augustine (354 - 430 AD)

St. Augustine of Hippo was born in North Africa of a

René Descartes (1596 - 1650)

Descartes is revered as a philosopher, a mathematician, and a psychologist who

GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

the act of thinking about the self or of being self-conscious

John Locke (1632 - 1704)

Locke was born in England and was educated in

GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

David Hume (1711 - 1776)

Hume was a Scotsman who believed that the mind is

Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804)

GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Rationality consists of the mental faculty to

Gilbert Ryle (1900 - 1976)

Gilbert Ryle was born in Brighton, Sussex, England. He

Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908 - 1961)

Maurice Merleau-Ponty, a French philosopher and public intellectual, was the

GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

He asserted that the mind-body issue that has

Paul Churchland (born 1942) Maurice Merleau-Ponty. © prabook.com

Paul Churchland is a Canadian philosopher and author

Paul Churchland. © alchet

GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

2. Complete the following matrix.

Philosopher Concept about the self

Criteria for Assessment/ Rubrics for Scoring:

GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Go-Monilla, M. J. A. & Ramirez, N. C. (2018). Understanding the self. Manila, Philippines:

Rathus, S. A. (2012). Psychology (2nd ed.). Singapore: Cengage Learning.

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2016). Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Retrieved August

GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

The Western and Eastern Concepts of Self

One of the most effective ways to learn about oneself is by taking

II. LEARNING OUTCOMES

GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Glimpse on Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives of Self

GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Western Concept of Self

GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

for self-fulfilment, it also increases the likelihood of experiencing alienation and

The Historical Development of the Western Concept of Self

Stage Period Historical Development

GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Eastern Concept of Self

The Self in Four Great Systems of Eastern Thought

Hinduism views the essence of human life as consisting in suffering and

According to Monilla and Ramirez (2018), the Hindu concept of self is

Moreover, Monilla et al., (2018), explained that vedanta characterizes