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MEASUREMENT
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The metric system or SI (International System) is the table to obtain the conversion factor.
considered as the world standard for measurement. 1 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 = 1000 𝑚𝑔
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Most nations have adopted it as their standard of
measurement and in many countries, it is used 150 𝑔 = 1 50 ´ 1000 𝑚𝑔
alongside the traditional Imperial System
= 150 000 𝑚𝑔
.
hs
Since the metric system is a denary or base ten
system, conversions between units are performed by (ii) To convert centimetres to metres, we consult
multiplying and dividing by powers of ten. The basic the table to obtain the conversion factor.
metric measure for length, volume and mass are the
metre (m), the litre (!) and the gram (g). Larger or
smaller units are derived from the standard units. at 1𝑚 = 100 𝑐𝑚
1
m
1𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚
100
The following table shows the prefixes for linear
1
s
measure. All other prefixes follow the same pattern,
3 600 𝑐𝑚 = 3 600 × 𝑚 = 36 𝑚
the basic units being one metre, one litre or one gram. 100
as
One hundredth 0.01 10-2 perimeter of a plane shape is the total distance along
(cm) the boundaries of the plane shape. Hence, the unit for
decimetre perimeter is the same as the unit for length. The
One tenth 0.1 10-1
(dm) common SI units of length are centimetres, metres
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(i) b
m
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Solution
Perimeter of triangle
(ii)
.
= 5 cm+ 9 cm + 10 cm = 24 cm
hs
c
Example 3 d
Calculate the perimeter of the parallelogram
shown below. at
m
(iii)
s
as
e
sp
Solution
Perimeter of parallelogram Solution
.fa
= (12 cm ´ 2) + (8 cm ´ 2)
(i) There are two unknown sides in this shape.
= 40 cm The length of side a = (2+5) cm = 7 cm
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or more basic plane shapes. Basic shapes refer to the Perimeter of shape = 4+2+4+2+4+2 = 24 cm
simple shapes such as squares, rectangles, triangles, (iii) There is one unknown side in this shape.
circles and other simple polygons. The length of side e = 4 + 6 =10cm
Perimeter of shape = 4+4+6+6+10+10 = 40 cm
To determine the perimeter of compound shapes, we
simply add the lengths of the sides that enclose the
shape. When solving problems involving compound
shapes, it is quite possible to have sides whose Area of Plane Shapes
lengths are not given. When this is so, we must first
calculate any unknown lengths using the properties of The area is a measure of a two-dimensional region
basic shapes. Some compound shapes are shown in and the unit of measure is the square unit. A square
example 4 below.
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m
drawn on a grid. To measure the area, we count
square units inside the shape. Instead of counting in
ones, we can multiply the number of square units
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along the length by the number of square units along
width or breadth.
.
Height of a trapezium Height of a parallelogram
Rectangle
hs
Area
=Number of
square units
=7´4 at
m
28 sq units
Square
Area of parallelogram
sp
Parallelogram Rectangle
Area of rectangle = Length x Breadth = lb
Area of square = Side x Side = s2
The base can be any side of the figure (it does not Area of a parallelogram = bh
have to be a horizontal line) and the height is the
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Solution
To calculate the area, we can divide the shape
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into two rectangles, A and B as shown below:
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Area of triangle = ½ 𝑏ℎ
.
hs
Area of Trapezium Area of rectangle A = 15 ´ 4 m2 = 60 m2
Area of rectangle B =12 ´ 2 m2 = 24 m2
Consider a trapezium with parallel sides of length a Area of entire shape = (60 + 24) m2 = 84m2
and b units and height h units. If we were to form a
parallelogram using two identical trapezia (one at
m
flipped), our parallelogram would look like this. Example 6
Calculate the area of the shape shown below.
s
as
sp
.fa
1
Hence, the area of one trapezium is = ( a + b ) ´ h
2
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Area of a trapezium
1
= (sum of parallel sides) × height
2
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Many shapes in real life cannot be divided into basic A circle is a plane figure whose boundary comprises
shapes. Land-forms, lakes, ponds, and forests, for points that are equidistance from a fixed point, called
example, can take any shape and this makes it the center.
difficult to calculate their exact areas. We can, For the purpose of this chapter, we will be only
however, estimate their area by placing a grid divided interested in calculating the perimeter and area of a
up into unit squares on the shape. The grid serves as a circle or parts of a circle. In a further chapter, more
measuring device and we can obtain a reasonable detailed information on the geometry of the circle
estimate by counting the number of squares that the will be presented.
shape covers.
Circumference of a circle
Example 7
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Estimate the area of the shape shown below. The The perimeter of a circle is termed its circumference.
grid drawn over the shape is made up of squares, To calculate the circumference, we use the following
each one square centimeter in area. formula.
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Circumference of a circle, C= 2pr
where r is the radius of the circle and p is a
.
II
constant, approximately equal to 3.14 or M
hs
Area of a circle
of a square centimeter that is left. It is reasonable length of an arc of a circle. In the circle shown below,
to approximate this part as one-half of a unit AB is an arc and the region AOB is a sector.
square.
J
.fa
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In the circle shown below, the radius KC = 10 cm Often times, we may wish to measure distances or
ˆ = 112° . (Use p = 3.14 )
and KCL areas that cannot be measured directly. For example,
we may want to find the distance between two towns
or the area of a country. In these instances, we use a
method of calculation based on the use of scale
drawings.
A scale is usually expressed as a ratio since a
comparison is made between two measures of the
same types. Linear scale factors compare linear
measures with linear measures.
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For example, if a map is drawn and the scale is given
as 1: 500 000. We interpret this as a distance of 1 cm
on the map is really a distance of 500 000 cm on the
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Calculate: ground.
i. the circumference of the circle
ii. the area of the circle The units in a scale can differ so that we could have
.
iii. the length of the minor arc, KL expressed the above scale as:
hs
iv. the area of the minor sector KCL 1cm represents 5 km.
Example 9
Solution
at A map is drawn using a scale of 1:10 000.
i. The distance between two towns on the
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i. Circumference of the circle
map is 3.5 cm. What is the actual distance
= 2p r between the two towns in kilometres?
= 2 ´ 3.14 ´ 10 cm
s
ii. If the actual distance between two towns
= 62.8 cm on the ground is 16 km, what is the
as
iii. To find the length of the arc KL, we use Setting up a proportion, we have:
the formula. Distance on the map
Arc length Actual Distance
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q 1 3.5
= ´ 2p r =
360 10 000 b
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b = (3.5 x 10 000) cm
iv. To find the area of the sector KCL, we use 3.5 ´ 10 000
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When a measurement is taken, there is some degree We learnt earlier that a line has a length only and is
of uncertainty in the value obtained. In mathematics, one-dimensional (1D), while plane shapes have
we refer to this uncertainty as the margin error in length and breadth (width) and are two-dimensional
measurement. The error is really the difference (2D). Solids, however, differ from lines and plane
between the result of the measurement obtained and shapes in that they are three-dimensional (3D),
the true measure. having length, breadth and height.
Measurement errors occur because of limitations in
the measuring device, human limitations in reading Solids occupy space and the amount of space
the instrument and errors caused by faulty procedures occupied is called its volume. A block of wood is an
in taking the measures. This error will depend on the example of a 3D shape, but an empty box, in
degree of accuracy of our measurement device. mathematics, is also considered a 3D shape. Both
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occupy space, but the empty box is a hollow solid and
The error in a measurement is defined as half the is said to have a capacity. The capacity of a container
least unit of measure. is the measure of substance it can hold.
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Common units for capacity are millilitres, litres and
If a length of an object is recorded as 13 cm, then it is kilolitres, while common units for volume are cubic
.
assumed that the instrument measures to the nearest centimetres and cubic metres. It should be noted,
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centimetre. Hence, the measurement error is half of 1 however, that both volume and capacity are
cm or 0.5 cm. properties of 3-dimensional regions.
Note that the minimum value of r includes 12.5. Hence, 1000 cm3 = 1000 ml = 1 litre
However, the maximum value of r is < 13.5. For
calculation purposes, this is taken as 13.5. This is Three-dimensional shapes also have the property of
.fa
because 13.5, rounded to the nearest unit will be surface area, a measure of the total area of all their
rounded to 14 and is out of the range. surfaces often called faces). Solids such as cubes and
cuboids have six polygonal faces while a cylinder has
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80
m
time. But, it is always better to use a more efficient
method.
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A quick way of doing this is to count the number of
unit cubes that fill the cross-sectional layer (base) and
.
A regular prism has a regular polygon as its cross multiply by the number layers (perpendicular height).
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section. An example of a regular and an irregular
triangular prism is shown below. Note that the cross- The cuboid, shown below, has 20 unit cubes on the
section of the regular comprises equilateral triangles, base layer and 3 layers in all. Hence, its volume is
while the cross-section of the irregular triangular
prism comprises scalene triangles.
at 20´3 = 60 cubic units.
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Cuboid
A Regular Triangular Prism
s
as
sp
Cube
The volume of the
cube:
= Base area ´ Height
= ( s ´ s) ´ s
= s3
The bases comprise scalene triangles
This prism has a height of 10 cm
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Volume of a cylinder
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Although the cylinder is not really a prism, it has a
regular cross-sectional area. Hence its volume can
be calculated in much the same way as the volume of
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a prism.
Cylinder Solution
.
(i) We know that the volume of a prism
The volume of the
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cylinder: = Cross sectional area × Height
Volume of prism = 960 cm3
Base area ´ Height
Area of ABCD ×15 = 960
= Area of circle ´ Height
= p r 2h
at Area of ABCD = 960 ÷ 15 = 64 cm2
Length of AB = 8 cm
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(ii) Surface area of the 2 square faces = 64 ´ 2
=128 cm2
s
Example 11
Area of the 4 rectangular faces = (8 ´15) ´ 4
as
Example 13
ii. Five of these nuggets are melted and
Calculate the volume of the triangular prism using
moulded to make a cube. State, to one
the dimensions shown.
decimal place, the dimensions of the
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22
cube. [Use p = ]
7
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Solution
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i. Volume of nugget:
Base area ´ height
22
´ 7 ´ 7 ´ 3 cm2 = 462 cm3
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ii. Volume of 5 nuggets:
5´ 462 cm3 = 2310 cm3
Solution
Volume of cube: s 3 = 2310 Volume of prism
s = 3 2310 = Area of triangular base × Height
= 13.2 cm 1
(2 × 1.5) × 10 = 150 𝑐𝑚R
2
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A pyramid is a solid with a polygonal base and If we were to compare the volume of a pyramid and a
triangular faces that meet at a common point called its prism of the same base area and height, a relationship
apex. A right prism is one whose apex is directly emerges. The volume of a pyramid is one-third the
above the center of its base. Pyramids are named after volume of a prism of the same base area and height as
the shape of its base. the prism.
Square– based pyramid A pyramid and prism of the same height and base
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Triangular – based pyramid Volume of Pyramid = R × Volume of prism
.
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hs
= R (Base Area × Height)
height
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follows: = R (Area of Triangle × Height)
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𝑠 I = ℎI + 𝑟 I
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Apex
m
Here are some examples of nets of solids.
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Slant Solid Net
Height
Height
.
hs
Radius
at Triangular Prism
m
If we were to compare the volume of a cone to the
volume of a cylinder of the same base area and
height, the relationship is the same as that of any
s
pyramid and prism.
as
Cylinder
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w
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1
The volume of a cone: ´ Base area ´ height Cone
3
Some 3-D shapes, when cut open can be laid out flat. Some solids have only one net, while others have
The two-dimensional shape formed is called its net. many different nets. For example, a cube has eleven
The net does not only represent all the faces of the nets. Each of these nets is different, yet when folded
solid, but it represents an arrangement of the faces forms a cube. It must be noted too, that not all shapes
such that, when folded, forms back the solid. made up of six squares will form a cube when folded.
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Nets of a cube All pyramids have a base and a set of slant faces. For
example, the pyramid shown below has a square base
and 4 triangles. The sum of the areas of these shapes
is the surface area. To derive the formula for the
surface area of a pyramid. the following
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The area of each triangle is I 𝑏 × 𝑠, where s is the
height of the triangle and 𝑏 is the length of one side
of the square.
J J
The area of 4 triangles = 4 \ 𝑏 × 𝑠] = 4𝑏 × 𝑠
I I
But the Perimeter of the square base is 4𝑏, 𝑝 = 4𝑏
Replacing 4b by p in the formula for the area of
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triangles, we have:
J J
The area of the 4 triangles = 𝑝 × I 𝑠 = I 𝑝𝑠.
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Surface area of solids This area is added to the area of the base to obtain the
formula:
When we draw the net of a solid we readily see all the J
Surface Area of pyramid = Base Area + I 𝑝𝑠.
.
faces that make up the solid. The surface area of a
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solid is simply the total area of all the faces that form This formula holds for all right pyramids.
the net of the solid.
We can determine the surface area by observing their Surface area of a pyramid
nets counting the area of simple shapes (squares or
rectangles). at
m
Surface Area of Cube = 6𝑠 I Surface Area of Cuboid
s
= 2LW + 2LH + 2WH
as
sp
.fa
in the sector can vary, but the radius of the sector will
always be the length of the slant height of the cone.
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m
Now the angle at the center, 𝜃 is proportional to
the arc length. Hence, i. Calculate the slant height of the pyramid.
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ii. Draw the net of the pyramid.
𝜃 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝐴𝐵 iii. Calculate the total surface area of the
=
360 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝑙 pyramid.
.
Solution
hs
k Ino o
= = .
Rlm Inp p (i) Using
k
Area of sector, ACB = × 𝜋𝑙 I , Pythagoras’
Rlm
Replacing
Rlm
k o
𝑏𝑦 p ,
at Theorem
s 2 = 52 - 32
m
o
= 25 - 9
Area of sector, ACB = × 𝜋𝑙 I = 𝜋𝑟𝑙 = 16
p
s
s = 16
as
= 4 cm
Measurement of the sphere (ii)
sp
to a flat shape.
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