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MEASUREMENT
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With respect to other plane figures, we calculate Example 4
perimeter by adding up the lengths of the sides. Determine the perimeter of the each of the shapes:
a
Example 2
Calculate the perimeter of the triangle shown
below.
(i) b
Solution
Perimeter of triangle
= 5 cm+ 9 cm + 10 cm = 24 cm (ii)
c
Example 3 d
Calculate the perimeter of the parallelogram
shown below.
(iii)
e
Solution
Perimeter of parallelogram Solution
= (12 cm ´ 2) + (8 cm ´ 2)
(i) There are two unknown sides in this shape.
= 40 cm The length of side a = (2+5) cm = 7 cm
The length of side b = (1+4) cm = 5 cm
Perimeter of shape = 2+4+5+1+7+5 = 24 cm
Perimeter of compound shapes (ii) There are two unknown sides in this shape.
The length of side c = 4 cm
A compound shape is a plane figure made up of two The length of side d = 2 cm
or more basic plane shapes. Basic shapes refer to the Perimeter of shape = 4+2+4+2+4+2 = 24 cm
simple shapes such as squares, rectangles, triangles, (iii) There is one unknown side in this shape.
circles and other simple polygons. The length of side e = 4 + 6 =10cm
Perimeter of shape = 4+4+6+6+10+10 = 40 cm
To determine the perimeter of compound shapes, we
simply add the lengths of the sides that enclose the
shape. When solving problems involving compound
shapes, it is quite possible to have sides whose Area of Plane Shapes
lengths are not given. When this is so, we must first
calculate any unknown lengths using the properties of The area is a measure of a two-dimensional region
basic shapes. Some compound shapes are shown in and the unit of measure is the square unit. A square
example 4 below.
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unit has an area of 1(unit)2 and is represented by a perpendicular distance from the base to the highest
square whose side is 1 unit. The SI units for the area point on the figure. In some cases, it is not possible to
of small regions are square centimetres (cm2). For draw this perpendicular height, h, to fit inside the
larger regions, we use square metres (m2) or square figure. In such cases, the base side is extended to
kilometres (km2) accordingly. afford this accommodation. The length of the base
To measure the area of basic shapes we use formulae. remains the same, though, and does NOT include the
In this section, we will present the formulae but length of its extension (shown dotted).
sometimes it is not possible to use formulae and we
simply count the number of square units that make up Height of a triangle
the shape.
Area
=Number of
square units
=7´4
28 sq units
Parallelogram Rectangle
Area of rectangle = Length x Breadth = lb
Area of square = Side x Side = s2
The base can be any side of the figure (it does not Area of a parallelogram = bh
have to be a horizontal line) and the height is the
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Area of the triangle
Example 5
If we divide a parallelogram into two equal parts by Using the dimensions shown in the figure,
drawing a diagonal, we obtain two congruent calculate the area of the shape shown below.
triangles. We can, therefore, think of a triangle as one
half of a parallelogram.
Solution
To calculate the area, we can divide the shape
into two rectangles, A and B as shown below:
Area of triangle = ½ 𝑏ℎ
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Estimating the area of shapes -curved edges Measurement of the circle
Many shapes in real life cannot be divided into basic A circle is a plane figure whose boundary comprises
shapes. Land-forms, lakes, ponds, and forests, for points that are equidistance from a fixed point, called
example, can take any shape and this makes it the center.
difficult to calculate their exact areas. We can, For the purpose of this chapter, we will be only
however, estimate their area by placing a grid divided interested in calculating the perimeter and area of a
up into unit squares on the shape. The grid serves as a circle or parts of a circle. In a further chapter, more
measuring device and we can obtain a reasonable detailed information on the geometry of the circle
estimate by counting the number of squares that the will be presented.
shape covers.
Circumference of a circle
Example 7
Estimate the area of the shape shown below. The The perimeter of a circle is termed its circumference.
grid drawn over the shape is made up of squares, To calculate the circumference, we use the following
each one square centimeter in area. formula.
Area of a circle
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Example 8 SCALE DRAWINGS
In the circle shown below, the radius KC = 10 cm Often times, we may wish to measure distances or
ˆ = 112° . (Use p = 3.14 )
and KCL areas that cannot be measured directly. For example,
we may want to find the distance between two towns
or the area of a country. In these instances, we use a
method of calculation based on the use of scale
drawings.
A scale is usually expressed as a ratio since a
comparison is made between two measures of the
same types. Linear scale factors compare linear
measures with linear measures.
Example 9
Solution
A map is drawn using a scale of 1:10 000.
i. The distance between two towns on the
i. Circumference of the circle
map is 3.5 cm. What is the actual distance
= 2p r between the two towns in kilometres?
= 2 ´ 3.14 ´ 10 cm ii. If the actual distance between two towns
= 62.8 cm on the ground is 16 km, what is the
distance between the towns on the map?
ii. Area of the circle = p r 2
Solution
= 3.14 ´10 ´10 cm2
= 314 cm2 i. The actual distance between the towns
can be represented as b km.
iii. To find the length of the arc KL, we use Setting up a proportion, we have:
the formula. Distance on the map
Arc length Actual Distance
q 1 3.5
= ´ 2p r =
360 10 000 b
b = (3.5 x 10 000) cm
iv. To find the area of the sector KCL, we use 3.5 ´ 10 000
the formula. b= km [1 km = 100 000 cm]
100 000
Area of the sector
0.35 km
q
= ´p r2 ii. Since the distance on the map is in
360 centimetres, we need to convert 16 km to
112
= ´ ( 3.14 ´ 102 ) centimeters and set up the proportion as
360 follows:
112 1 d
= ´ 314 =
360
10 000 1600 000
= 97.7 cm 2 correct to one decimal place 1600 000
d= cm = 160 cm
10 000
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Errors in a measurement Volume and Surface Area
When a measurement is taken, there is some degree We learnt earlier that a line has a length only and is
of uncertainty in the value obtained. In mathematics, one-dimensional (1D), while plane shapes have
we refer to this uncertainty as the margin error in length and breadth (width) and are two-dimensional
measurement. The error is really the difference (2D). Solids, however, differ from lines and plane
between the result of the measurement obtained and shapes in that they are three-dimensional (3D),
the true measure. having length, breadth and height.
Measurement errors occur because of limitations in
the measuring device, human limitations in reading Solids occupy space and the amount of space
the instrument and errors caused by faulty procedures occupied is called its volume. A block of wood is an
in taking the measures. This error will depend on the example of a 3D shape, but an empty box, in
degree of accuracy of our measurement device. mathematics, is also considered a 3D shape. Both
occupy space, but the empty box is a hollow solid and
The error in a measurement is defined as half the is said to have a capacity. The capacity of a container
least unit of measure. is the measure of substance it can hold.
A measurement recorded as 13 cm may, therefore, It is important to note that the units for volume and
have an actual value in the range between the lowest capacity are connected in the metric system. A unit
possible value and the highest possible value. cube with an edge of length one cm has a volume of
one cubic centimetre. This space occupied by one cm3
The maximum value will be 13 + 0.5 =13.5. is the same as the space occupied by one millilitre.
The minimum value will be 13 − 0.05 = 12.5.
Note that the minimum value of r includes 12.5. Hence, 1000 cm3 = 1000 ml = 1 litre
However, the maximum value of r is < 13.5. For
calculation purposes, this is taken as 13.5. This is Three-dimensional shapes also have the property of
because 13.5, rounded to the nearest unit will be surface area, a measure of the total area of all their
rounded to 14 and is out of the range. surfaces often called faces). Solids such as cubes and
cuboids have six polygonal faces while a cylinder has
Example 10 a curved surface and two flat circular faces.
A thermometer measures temperature in degrees
centigrade, correct to the nearest degree. A Right Prisms
temperature, t, is read as 23.8 0C. State:
(i) the smallest unit of measure A prism is any solid with two congruent, parallel
(ii) the error in the measurement surfaces. A prism has a uniform cross-section, that is,
(iii) the range within which the measurement if we cut across a prism parallel to its congruent
must lie. surfaces, all the ‘slices’ will be identical. The uniform
cross section of a prism is always in the shape of a
Solution polygon. A right prism is one whose vertical sides
(i) The smallest unit of measure is 0.10C. and faces are perpendicular to its the base. If the
(ii) The error is one half of the smallest unit joining edges and faces are not perpendicular to the
of measure or 0.050C. base faces, it is called an oblique prism.
(iii) The range is.
Prisms have no curved edges. Hence, solids with
curve edges like cylinders, cannot be classified as
prisms even though they can have a pair of congruent,
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parallel faces. However, these solids have all Volume of prisms
properties of a prism as we shall soon see when we
learn how to calculate their volumes. In the same way, we measure the area of a plane
Prisms are named according to the shape of their figure by counting the number of unit squares inside a
uniform cross-sections. Prisms with triangular cross two-dimensional region, we can also measure the
sections are called triangular prisms. Prisms with volume of a solid by counting the number of cubes
rectangular cross sections are called rectangular inside a three-dimensional region. We will now
prisms (cuboids). These congruent faces are called derive the formula for the volume of any prism.
the bases of the prism. The perpendicular distance
between the parallel faces is the height of the prism. We can illustrate this principle by using one of the
simplest solids, a cuboid. The diagram below shows a
cuboid made up smaller cubes each measuring one
cubic unit in volume. To calculate the volume of the
cuboid, we may count the number of cubes one at a
time. But, it is always better to use a more efficient
method.
Cube
The volume of the
cube:
= Base area ´ Height
= ( s ´ s) ´ s
= s3
The bases comprise scalene triangles
This prism has a height of 10 cm
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Triangular prism Example 12
The diagram shows a rectangular prism of length
Volume of Triangular 15 cm, volume 960 cm3 and has a square cross-
prism section ABCD.
= Base area ´ Height (i) Calculate the length of AB.
= Area of triangle ´ h (ii) The total surface area of the prism.
Volume of a cylinder
Cylinder Solution
The volume of the (i) We know that the volume of a prism
cylinder: = Cross sectional area × Height
Volume of prism = 960 cm3
Base area ´ Height
Area of ABCD ×15 = 960
= Area of circle ´ Height
Area of ABCD = 960 ÷ 15 = 64 cm2
= p r 2h Length of AB = 8 cm
Solution
i. Volume of nugget:
Base area ´ height
22
´ 7 ´ 7 ´ 3 cm2 = 462 cm3
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ii. Volume of 5 nuggets:
5´ 462 cm3 = 2310 cm3
Solution
Volume of cube: s 3 = 2310 Volume of prism
s = 3 2310 = Area of triangular base × Height
= 13.2 cm 1
(2 × 1.5) × 10 = 150 𝑐𝑚R
2
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Right Pyramids Volume of pyramid
A pyramid is a solid with a polygonal base and If we were to compare the volume of a pyramid and a
triangular faces that meet at a common point called its prism of the same base area and height, a relationship
apex. A right prism is one whose apex is directly emerges. The volume of a pyramid is one-third the
above the center of its base. Pyramids are named after volume of a prism of the same base area and height as
the shape of its base. the prism.
Square– based pyramid A pyramid and prism of the same height and base
J
Triangular – based pyramid Volume of Pyramid = R × Volume of prism
J
= R (Base Area × Height)
height
𝑠 I = ℎI + 𝑟 I
Pentagonal – based pyramid
𝑠 = SℎI + 𝑟I
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Volume of cone A cuboid and its net
Apex
Here are some examples of nets of solids.
Height
Radius
Triangular Prism
Cylinder
1
The volume of a cone: ´ Base area ´ height Cone
3
Some 3-D shapes, when cut open can be laid out flat. Some solids have only one net, while others have
The two-dimensional shape formed is called its net. many different nets. For example, a cube has eleven
The net does not only represent all the faces of the nets. Each of these nets is different, yet when folded
solid, but it represents an arrangement of the faces forms a cube. It must be noted too, that not all shapes
such that, when folded, forms back the solid. made up of six squares will form a cube when folded.
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The eleven nets of a cube are shown below. Surface area of right pyramids
Nets of a cube All pyramids have a base and a set of slant faces. For
example, the pyramid shown below has a square base
and 4 triangles. The sum of the areas of these shapes
is the surface area. To derive the formula for the
surface area of a pyramid. the following
J
The area of each triangle is I 𝑏 × 𝑠, where s is the
height of the triangle and 𝑏 is the length of one side
of the square.
J J
The area of 4 triangles = 4 \I 𝑏 × 𝑠] = 4𝑏 × I 𝑠
But the Perimeter of the square base is 4𝑏, 𝑝 = 4𝑏
Replacing 4b by p in the formula for the area of
triangles, we have:
J J
The area of the 4 triangles = 𝑝 × I 𝑠 = I 𝑝𝑠.
Surface area of solids This area is added to the area of the base to obtain the
formula:
When we draw the net of a solid we readily see all the J
Surface Area of pyramid = Base Area + I 𝑝𝑠.
faces that make up the solid. The surface area of a
solid is simply the total area of all the faces that form This formula holds for all right pyramids.
the net of the solid.
We can determine the surface area by observing their Surface area of a pyramid
nets counting the area of simple shapes (squares or
rectangles).
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Example 14
A pyramid has a square base of side 6 cm and a slant
edge of 5 cm.
𝜃
o
= 25 - 9
Area of sector, ACB =
p
× 𝜋𝑙 I = 𝜋𝑟𝑙 = 16
s = 16
= 4 cm
Measurement of the sphere (ii)
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