Logical Reasoning - Final eta le keel ea) Tia Reet eee Ee Toa]Follow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eiitritrnrintr ea) What is Square of Opposition The square of opposition is a chart that was introduced within classical (categorical) logic to represent the logical relationships holding between certain propositions in virtue of their form The square, traditionally conceived, looks like this: There are four types of Squares of oppositions a) Contradictory A contrary E b) Contrary ©) Sub-contrary d) Sub-alternation contradictory subalternation uo jeueyeqns PEsFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Joir resent the four b: Be shivavodnolovacnetic forms of propost The four corners of this chart Every Sis P NoSisP NAME] FORM TITLE A——— contraries a Every Sis P | Universal Affirmative E NoSisP | Universal Negative 1 Some SisP | Particular Affirmative subalterns contradictories. _subalterns © [Some Sisnot P| Particular Negative |All, Noun, Each, Pronoun, Every, Any, Only, The I ——— subcontraries oO - Some S is P Some Sis not P No, Never, None, Neither [Some, A few, Certain, Most, Many, Almost, Few [Some not, Hardly, Every (Not) ‘M.com (F-A), NET JRF CommerFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eiitrtrrnrintr ra) 1. ‘Some students are sincere’ is an example of which preposition? (a) Universal Affirmative (b) Universal Negation (c) Particular Affirmative (d) Particular NegationFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eiitrirrnrintr rari) Ans. (c) 2. “All tigers are animals". This is an example of which type of propo: (a) Particular Negative (b) Particular Affirmative (c) Universal Negative (a) Universal AffirmativeFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eiitrirrnrintr rea) Ans. (d) DE eaeFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Joir Plus Telegram grou Prone ea that every category contains at least one member, the following relationships, depicted on the square, hold: Contrary Opposition Every Sis P No SisP Ione is T the other must be F, but both can be F A E s|3 |e 3/2 2|2 5/2 Contradictory Opposition 3|s s|¢ Wone is F the ether must be T, Ee) S s)e if one is T the other must be F 2|S Gale 3|s 2 2 $ : 1 ° fone is F the other must be T, but beth can be T Some Sis P Some S is not P ‘M.com (F.A), NET JRF CommetFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Plus Telegram group: itr nt Firstly, A and O propositions are contradictory, as are E and I propositions. Propositions are contradictory when the truth of one implies the falsify of the other, and conversely © Here we see that the truth of a proposition of the form All S are P implies the falsity of the corresponding proposition of the form Some $ are not P: * It lies between Universal & particular For example, © if the proposition "all girls are cheaters" “A” is true, © then the proposition "some girls are not cheaters" “O” must be false. © Similarly, if "no girls are cheaters" “E” is false, © then the proposition "some girls are cheaters” must be true. ‘M.com (F.A), NET JRF CommetFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eitri nner yn 3. “All students cleared their examination" and "Few students did not clear their examination". This is.an instance of (a) Contradictories (c) Subaltern (b) Superaltern (d) Contraries PEsFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eiitminrnrintr ra) ‘Ans, (a) Secondly, A and E propositions are contrary. « Propositions are contrary When they cannot both be true. * It ies between Universal Eg., "all elephants have long trunks” cannot be true at the Same time as the corresponding E proposition: "no elephants have long trunks." inate nee contraries Se 7 ‘subalterns_ contradictories subaltems * Note, however, that corresponding A and E propositions, while contrary, are not contradictory. by Se oe | * While they cannot both be true, they can both be false. suboontraries esur catteal TIE en A ee eeFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eiitrtrrnrintr ara) Both Cannot be True All Boys are Love failures (if True) (A) No Boys are Love Failures (is False Definitely) | (E) | Both can be false; ‘All Boys are Love failures (if False) (A) No Boys are Love Failures (is Doubtful) (E)Follow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Plus Telegram group: Eittrrnrintr ra) ext, | and O propositions are Subcontra © Propositions are Subcontrary when it is impossible for marta ate both to be false. ccontrares # Itlies between particular hs. Fl NS Fh * Because "some Tickets are free" is false, ais es akin "some Tickets are not free” must be true © Note, however, that it is possible for corresponding I an LZ > O propositions both to be true, bcotirates haste aa * as with "some nations are democracies," and "some nations are not democracies." Again, I and O propositions are subcontrary, but not contrary or contradictory. ‘M.com (F.A), NET JRF Commerco, NET M¢Follow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eiitmirrnrinr ra) Both Cannot be False ) Some Boys are Love failures (if Fal ‘Some Boys are NOT Love Failures (is True Definitely) Both can be True Some Boys are Love failures (if True) (A) ‘Some Boys are NOT Love Failures (is Doubtful) (E)Follow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eitrirrnrintr ra) 4, In which of the following propositions, both can be true simultancously but cannot be false simultaneously? (a) Contrary (b) Contradiction (c) Sub contrary (d) SubalternFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eitrirrnrintr ra) Ans. (c) 5. According to traditional square of opposition if two propositions are so related that they cannot both be false/ although they may both be true is called (a) Sub altern (b) Sub contraries (c) Contradictory (@) ContraryFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | J Ans. (b) Plus Telegram group: Eiitrtrenrietr a) 4. A and I propositions are sub alternations, as-are E and O propositions sub alternations. jy sis: Nosis? contraties ‘Two propositions are said to stand in the relation of sub alternation when the truth of the first ("the superaltern") implies the truth of the second ("the de oe Ot subaltern"), but not conversely. © A proposition stands in the Subalternation relation with the I subcontraries , Some Sis P Some Sis not P corresponding I propositions. * It lies between Universal & particular ‘M.com (F.A), NET JRF Commerco, NET M¢Follow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Plus Telegram group: Eitri nnn mr are synthetic," implies the truth of the ©The truth of the A proposition "all plast proposition "some plastics are synthetic." © However, the truth of the O proposition "some cars are not American made products" does not imply the truth of the'E proposition "no cars are American-made products.” In traditional logic, the truth of an A or E proposition implies the truth of the corresponding I or Q proposition, respectively. * Consequently, the falsity of an I or O proposition implies the of the corresponding A or E proposition, respectively. However, the truth of a particular proposit on does not imply. the. truth of the corresponding uniyersal proposition, nor does the falsity of an universal proposition carry downwards to the respective particular propositions. ‘M.com (F.A), NET JRF Commerco, NET M¢Follow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Erman Uni False Upward Downward Truth) Downward Particular -Affirmative (I Particular -Negative (O)Follow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Contrary Opposition <$________» Every Sis P No SisP If one is T the other must be F, but both can be F Eee Contradictory Opposition If one is F the other must be T, if one is T the other must be F Subalternation voeweyeqns descend with truth, rise with falsity ione is F the other must be T, but both can be T Some Sis P Some Sis notP oe Sub-contrary Opposition ‘M.com (F.A), NET JRF Commerce, NET Mgmt, (Ph.Follow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA" for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Sitrirr arin mea) Qualley aon eansitcostti veneer Categorical Propositions} affirmative and negative statements.| ality Positive = A & I Type Statements Negative = E & O Type Statements Gaversat [Az All men E: No cats jare mortal. are dogs: UALITY arty Quantity means universal and puacan Rpgomne bonis Sar Sine bis ‘Atfimative Negative particular. Universal = A & E Type Statements Particular=I & O Type StatementsFollow me on Unacademy and Use for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Bittner mena Summary of Square of Proposition (ASEBII Universal Universal 1] Undistributed Some S are ' Particular not P WTI e ae eT DistributedContradictory ao Different Different | E-l Not different (both lies Contrary AE Different : between Universal) No different (both lies Sub- Contrary 1-0 Different _ between Particular) sate = Not Different Different alternation E-O ‘M.com (F.A), NET JRF Commerco, NET M¢Follow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eitmirrnrinr rea) 6.As per the classical square of opposition, if 'A' proposition is given as true, then which one of the following is correct? (a) "E" proposition is false. "I" proposition is true and "O" proposition is false (b) "E” proposition is true, "I" proposition is true and "O" proposition is true (©) "E" proposi ion is true ion is false, "I" proposition is false and "O" proposi (a) "E" proposition is true, "I" proposition is false and "O" proposition is falseFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Ans. (a) Plus Telegram group: Eiitrinrnnienr nya) (Q.4) Among the following statements two are contradictory to each other. Select the code that represents them: Statements: (a) All judges are lawyers. (b) Some judges are lawyers, (©) Some judges are not lawyers. (@) No judges are lawyers. (a)(b) and (d) (b)(b) and (c) () (a) and (b) (a)(a) and (d) DeenFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eiitirrnrintr ea) Correct Answer: A (Q5) Among the following statements, two are contradictory to each other. Select the code that represents, them. Statements: (a) All surgeons are doctors. (©) Some surgeons are doctors. (©) Some surgeons are not doctors. (d) No surgeons are doctors. (a) (byand (©) (b) (b) and (d) (©) (@and (a) (d) (a)and (b) DeakFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Correct Answer: B Plus Telegram group: Eiitrimr nner mea) Q.6) Among the following statements, two are contradictory to each other. Statements: (a) Allen are humans. (») Some men are humans. (© Some men are not humans. (@) No men are humans. Select the code that represents them: (@) (a)and (b) () (a)and (c) (© — (b) and (c) (@) (a) and (d) ‘M.com (F.A), NET JRF CommetFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Plus Telegram group: Eitmnr nner mea) Correct Answer: B 7. Two propositions are contradictory when, Opt ns: ~ (@) Truth of one proposition rejects the falsity of the other and vice versa. (6) Truth of one proposition doesn’t guarantee the falsity of the other. (©) Truth of one proposition supposes the falsity of the other and vice versa. (@) Truth of one proposition implies falsity of the other and vice versa DEYFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eiitrimrnrintr rea) Corres Answer: ‘M.com (F.A), NET JRF CommerFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eiitrirrnrintr ra) Syllogism ‘M.com (F.A), NET JRF CommerFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram grou Eimear) | Basic Terms &Concepts | Terms & | Basic Terms &Concepts | A Proposition is a sentence that makes a statement giving a relation between| Proposition |PWment * Subject * Predicate * A Copula is a word used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate. For example; is, am, are, was, were. Proposition/Premise = Quantifier + Subject + Copula + Predicate All Cats are Dogs Quantifier: All, No, Some, Atleast, Atmost etc. All/No: (A/E); Universal Quantifier (as it refers to every object in a certain set) Some/Atleast/Atmost: (1/0) Particular Quantifiers (as it refers to atleast one existing object in a certain set). DEI e eee eTFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Joir Plus Telegram group: Eitrtrr nner ea) potent eras erence When a specific conclusion is derived| from a set of general statements, then! it is deductive logic When a general conclusion is derived from a set of| specific statements, then it is called inductive logic. Eg. Cow isa mammal. E.g., All mammals have lungs. Cow has lungs. Cow is a mammal. Cow has lungs. (Valid conclusion) NOTE: Deductive Logic Followed in| syllogism Conclusion: All mammals have lungs. ‘The conclusion in this case is not necessarily’ valid. It’s probable only Peo teem ae Coylus Telegram grouy Follow me on Unacademy and Use for 10% OFF | Je raceme STutsetce * An Immediate Inference is an inference which can be made from + Immediate Inference consists in passing directly froma single premise to a conclusion, Example: All Animals are mammals. Therefore, some Mammals are Animals. 1) If Statement is Positive then Conclusion must be Positive, Example: All Animals are Mammals. Some mammals are animals. 2) If Statement is Negative then Conclusion must be Negative. Statement- No Pensare Pencils. No Pencils are Pens. TY TE +ve = Positive Conclusion -ve = Negative Conclusion PELL Rules of STs tcg i ecitas SOR eAFollow me on Unacademy “SHIVAVODNALA’ Join in Plus Telegram gi immediate Pasa IMPLICATION Pee SCO Pa en” A el E o J E i E I Noconcuusion | A T ° NO CONCLUSION NO CONCLUSION Implication: Subject and Predicate remains same. Ey 1.All Apples are Fruits- (A); Some Apples are Fruits- (I); 2.No Apples are Fruits- (E); Some Apples are not Fruits- (0) 3.__Cannot implicate Land 0. Conversion: Subjectis converted into Predicate and Predicate is converted into Subject. Premise: No A are B Conclusion: No B are A. eTFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Stn nner) Conversion: Subject is converted into Predicate and Predicate is converted into Subject. 1.A into: All Roses are Red- (A); Some Red are Roses - (1) 2. E into E: No Rose are Red- (E); No Red are Roses- (E). 3. Linto I; Some Roses are Red- (I); Some Red are Roses- (1) 4. We cannot convert O. Mediate Inference consists in derivinga conclusion from two or more logically interrelated Premise, * To derive conclusion, one must merge two or more statements. * Involvingan advance in knowledge, it is reasoning that involves the intermediacy of a middleterm or second proposition which warrants the drawing ofa new truth. © Example; P1; All true Christians are theist. P2; Paul is a true Christian. Therefore, Paulis theist. | +ve Plus +ve = POSITIVE CONCLUSION, +ve Plus -ve = NEGATIVE CONCLUSION Miesutey Ve Plus-ve = NO CONCLUSION, At+A=A AtE=E E +A =0 Reverse E+1=0 Reverse I+A=1 DeereFollow me on Unacademy r 10% Plus Telegram group: Bim ner een Statement; All Cars are Rats Statement; All Cars are Rats All Rats are Bats No Rats are Bats All Cars are Bats. Conclusion: No Cars are Bats. E+A = O Reverse eR contd ‘Statement: No Cars are Rats | Statement; No Cars are Rats All Rats are Bats | Some Rats are Bats Some Bats are not Cars. Some Bats are not Cars Em ‘Statement; Some Cars are Rats Statement; Some Cars are Rats All Rats are Bats No Rats are Bats Conclusion: Some Cars are not Bats. Some Cars are Bats DE e eneFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Greener it is Mediate Inference, then Check alignment: To merge Questions Common Term (Middle term) should be __ | Predicate in first statement and Subject in second statement If NOT then in that case | We change order Convert on the basis of IEA or Do both as per situation TALE eA SeeFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eiitrimrnrintr ra) DE e kesFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eiitrimrnrintr ra) DE e kesFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eiitrimrnrintr ra) DE e kesFollow me on Unacademy and Use “SHIVAVODNALA” for 10% OFF | Join in Plus Telegram group: Eiitrimrnrintr ra) DE e kesMOOD & FIGURE Rules of Mood & Figure | Categorical & Hypothetical Proposition | 3 Elements of Categorical Propo: Minor, Major & Middle Term | Steps in Mood & Figure Unconditionally Valid Table (Boolean) | Conditionally Valid Table (Aristotle) ionTes. — Sees Categorical Proposition Express an judgement. All Ros cae EXAMPLE: The Japanese people are hard working. (It doesn’t impose any, condition). PAZ eiCaeleiM@ | Hypothetical Proposition Express a judgement. Pay esis | EXAMPLE: If it rains today then the road is wet. | Itis an argument with 2 Premises/Statement / Equation and 1 Conclusion. |The copula is that part of the proposition which denotes the which is affirmed or denied] | relation between the subject about the subject. and the predicate. a) oT) | Rep | | are | BLUE Copula ‘The Predicate is the part of the The subject is that about} | proposition denoting that which something is said. Ezeee ce Mom CMR CULE asd Itis PREDICATE of Itis of CONCLUSION. It appears twice or the term which is present in BOTH the statement EXAMPLE: [etait but NOT in Conclusion, All Red are Blue All Red are Blue Example: All Red are = Predicate All are Blue Blue = Therefore, All Red are for MINOR and MAJOR Term will be checked or} are ROSES >>>>>>> All ROSES are BLUE --}>>>>>> All RED are BLUE. BLUE = 2 TimesStep 1: Make Argument in Standard Form. BSUS CTT. | step 2: Determine the Step 3: Determine the Figure of the Argument. Step 4: Check the In previous example we will arrange the equations & Major term equation will come| firstand Minor term second. All Blue are Roses FS) Statement 1 Ce o> ce & » Standard Form pene es tes >Step 1: Determination of Mood Moods Depends upon the Type of Propositions (A, E, I, 0). * Mood: The Mood of the Categorical syllogism is a series of three letters corresponding to! the type of Proposition the major premise, and the conclusion are (A, E, I, 0). A- Type E-Type 1- Type Some Aare not B---}>>>>_ 0- Type Statement 1 All Roses are Blue A Statement 2 All Red are Roses A Conclusion AllRedare Blue A - Which means Mood is AAATEP 3: Determine Figure Prey per Figure: the figure of a categorial syllogism is a number which corresponds to the placement of the! two middle terms. * The FIGURE of a categorial syllogism consist of the arrangement of the terms in the premise. The figure of a syllogism is faethe ae! eS my M eee AYN MEN B em Statement 1 ——» All are cat Seca eae ee oe «There are categorial syllogism using the A, E, and O statement form in the square of opposition. * Of the 256, only 24 are valid forms. # 15 are unconditionally valid (given by- Boolean). * Yare conditionally valid (given by- Aristotle). eo ee rer earvv eens Unconditionally validHHH ONLY IN 1stFIGURES IN ALL FIGURES 1st AND 204 34 AND 4 1tAND 3°# 2nd AND 4th ONLY 24 ONLY 3"!1: All Animals are Rats. P1: All Dogs are animals. 2: All Animals are Rats. > 2A Dogsare mals Conclusion: Therefore, All Dogs are Rats. Mood: AAA Fi PLAZA P1: All Cows are mammals. Conclusion: Therefore, All Dogs are Rats. re: 1 P2: No Cats are‘Cows Conclusion: Therefore, No Cats are mammals. Mood: AEE Figure: 1 (AEE Mood is valid in Figure 2 & 4)Condi ae WANTCe. een | isanaae | 1: All Chocolates are Rubbered All the figures | P2: No Cat is Rubbered. 2naand 4th | Conclusion: Some Cats are not Mood: AEO Figure: 24 & 4mIn logic and philosophy, an argument is a series of statements called the Premise, Intended to determine the degree of truth of another statement, the conclusions. Logic is the study of the forms of reasoning in arguments and the development of standard and criteria to evaluate arguments. Deductive DEDUCTIVE INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT ARGUMENT ono Spa. Deduetive Reasoning Indctve Restoring ee eat > probatle > absolutely » plausible 2S > dotitaly > tkely > reasonable to concudeeat yy INDUCTIVE REASONING || DEDUCTIVE REASONING aoa DEDUCTIVE a |__ THEORY THEORY HYPOTHESIS HYPOTHESIS + Categorical Deductive [Rigaud > Valid/invalid + Truth-functional ‘argument PATTERN reer > Soundiuneound [ CONFIRMATION | + Analogical argument Late Tets\ Toda > HY »Strongiweak generalization »Cogenviuncogent + Causal argument gists CoresDEDUCTIVE REASONING + Deductive argument can be valid or sound. « Ina valid argument, premise necessitate the conclusion, even if one or more of the premises is false and the conclusion is false. Deductive Arguments attempt to cite evidence making conclusion inescapable. Valid: the conclusion is inescapable in the sense that it is impossible for it to be false if all premises are true Invalid & Unsound Invalid: the conclusion is Escapable! given the premises it could be false. Unsound: either invalid or: there is at least one false’REASONING New discoveries may disconfirm what was earlier believed. Therefore, Conclusion of an Inductive argument cannot be absolutely curtained. Inductive Arguments attempt to cite evidence making conclusion probable. Strong: the conclusion is probable in the sense that. is unlikely for it tobe false if all premises are true. Weak: the conclusion is not likely, given the premises.