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SUMMARY
WRITING
ELECTIVE COURSE
How to Write a Summary

The purpose of a summary is to give the reader, in about 1/3 of the original
length of a text, an objective picture of the original text. The summary restates
only the main points of a text without giving examples or details.
In the introductory paragraph of your summary write an in-text citation of the

source and the author as well as a reporting verb to introduce the main idea.
ARTICLE:
In his/her article "______________________,” ___________________ (year)
(title, first letter capitalized) (author/ last name)
argues/claims/reports/contends/maintains/states that ______________________
(main idea/argument; S + V + C)
Example: In his article "Michael Dell turns the PC world inside out," Andrew
E. Serwer (1997) describes how Michael Dell founded Dell Computers and
claims that Dell’s low-cost, direct-sales strategy and high quality standards
account for Dell’s enormous success.
Other examples of frames:
According to ___________________, ________________________________________.

(author's last name, year) (main idea; S + V + C)
___________'s article on ______________ (year) discusses the ____________________.

(author's last name) (topic) (main idea; Noun Phrase)
____________, in his/her article, "______________" argues that ___________.

(author's last name, year) (title of article) (main idea; S + V + C)
http://academics.smcvt.edu/cbauer-ramazani/AEP/EN104/summary.htm
Verbs for Summaries:
Claiming: claims, argues, contends, submits, asserts, declares, proclaims,

advocates, alleges, holds, thinks, feels, believes, reasons, maintains
Criticizing: criticizes, challenges, opposes, contests, denies, repudiates,

renounces, rejects, accuses, charges, attacks, protests, doubts, denies
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Praising: praises, commends, compliments, worships, exalts
Suggesting: suggests, recommends, proposes, hypothesizes, guesses, speculates
Implying: implies, hints, intimates, insinuates
Questioning: questions, asks, wonders
Reporting/Explaining: reports, records, notes, observes, recognizes, points out,

perceives, explains, indicates, defines, elaborates, clarifies
Demonstrating: demonstrates, shows, illustrates
Conceding: concedes, admits, acknowledges, grants
ALSO: demands, insists, pleads, requests, emphasizes, stresses, underscores,

highlights, underplays, downplays, minimizes, encourages, promotes, fosters
cautions, warns, writes, states
http://en100.files.wordpress.com/2007/08/strategies-for-writing-a-summary-of-
an-article.doc
The summary is usually written in the present tense.

But past events may be reported in the past, future events may be reported in the
future. If you must use the words of the author, cite them. There is customarily
no conclusion to a summary. When summarizing direct speech be careful to
observe the rules concerning reported speech.
TENSE CHANGES WHEN USING REPORTED SPEECH
Normally, the tense in reported speech is one tense back in time from the tense
in direct speech:
She said, "I am tired." = She said that she was tired.
Phrase in Direct Speech Equivalent in Reported Speech

Simple present Simple past
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I always drink coffee", she said She said that she always drank
coffee.
Present continuous Past continuous
"I am reading a book", he He explained that he was

explained. reading a book
Simple past Past perfect
"Bill arrived on Saturday", he He said that Bill had arrived on

said. Saturday.
Present perfect Past perfect
"I have been to Spain", he told He told me that he had been to

me. Spain.
Past perfect Past perfect
"I had just turned out the light," He explained that he had just turned
he explained. out the light.
Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous
They complained, "We have They complained that they had been
been waiting for hours". waiting for hours.
Past continuous Past perfect continuous
"We were living in Paris", they They told me that they had been
told me. living in Paris.
Future Present conditional
"I will be in Geneva on He said that he would be in

Monday", he said. Geneva on Monday.
Future continuous Conditional continuous
She said, "I'll be using the car She said that she would be
next Friday". using the car next Friday.
You do not need to change the tense if the reporting verb is in the present, or if
the original statement was about something that is still true, e.g.
He says he has missed the train but he'll catch the next one.
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We explained that it is very difficult to find our house.
These modal verbs do not change in reported speech: might, could, would,
should, ought to:
We explained, "It could be difficult to find our house." = We explained that it

could be difficult to find our house.
She said, "I might bring a friend to the party." = She said that she might bring a
friend to the party.
Conversions
now then / at that time

today that day
yesterday the day before
last week the previous week
tomorrow the next day / the following day
Types of Summaries
DESCRIPTIVE Summaries
Descriptive summaries depict the original text (material) rather than directly
presenting the information it contains. A descriptive summary should portray, in
an objective way, the texts structure and main themes.
Descriptive summaries often play the role of reviews for fictional or literary
works: books, movies, video clips, articles, essays etc. In this case, the
descriptive summary can include statements about sense and significance of the
summarised work.
A descriptive summary of the essay “A Modest Proposal” (132 words)
“A Modest Proposal is preventing the Children of poor People in Ireland, from

being a Burden to their Parents or Country and for making them beneficial to the
Public”, is a satirical essay written in the 18th century by author Jonathan Swift.
The essay, curtly named “A Modest Proposal”, is one of the most savage and
ironical pamphlet ever written. The speaking character in the essay, called the
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“Proposer”, is an unknown personage who, “innocently” and “modestly”
proposes to combat poverty in (18th century) Ireland “by using the children of
Irish poor people as food for wealthy citizens”. The essay imitates the style of a
scientific social-survey, being organised as a classical rhetoric work defending
an idea or principle.
“A Modest Proposal” satire shows Swift’s outrage at the cruelties and stupidities
of his contemporary society. In a broader sense, the pamphlet combats the
tendency of modern human to “social cannibalism: the murder of humans in the
name of bettering the lives of others”.
INFORMATIVE Summaries
Informative summaries accurately convey the information contained in a text or

in other type of resource. An informative summary should be objective i.e.
“without personal opinions in presenting the ideas in the source text”.
Thus, informative summaries are recommended for scientific, non-fictional

works or to present objective reports of factual content.
The main types of informative summaries are: outlines, abstracts, and synopses.
Outlines present the plan or the “skeleton” of a written material.
Outlines show the order and the relation between the parts of the written
material.
In actuality, most summaries are not entirely descriptive or informative. Rather,

most summaries are combinations of the two:
New Chemical Process for Eliminating Nitrogen Oxides From Engine and
Furnace Exhausts
This paper introduces a new chemical process for eliminating nitrogen oxides
from engine and furnace exhausts. Nitrogen oxides are a major ingredient of
smog and contribute heavily to acid rain. In our process, isocyanic acid—a
nontoxic chemical used to clean swimming pools—converts the nitrogen oxides
into steam, nitrogen, and other harmless gases. While other processes to reduce
nitrogen oxides are expensive and, at best, only 70 percent effective, our new
process is inexpensive and almost 100 percent effective. In laboratory tests, our
process eliminated 99 percent of nitrogen oxides from the exhaust of a small
diesel engine. If incorporated into diesel engines and industrial furnaces, this
new process could greatly reduce the 21 million tons of nitrogen oxides released
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each year into the atmosphere of the United States. Besides presenting
experimental results, this paper also presents a scheme of chemical reactions to
explain how the process works [5].
Most of the sentences in this summary are informative. These sentences

present the most important results: what distinguishes the new process and how
effective it is at reducing nitrogen oxides from the exhaust of a test engine. The
last sentence of the summary, though, is descriptive. Instead of actually
presenting the scheme of chemical reactions that explain the process, the
summary just states that the reactions will be given. Such a descriptive treatment
was necessary because the format did not allow room for a listing of the six
chemical reactions.
Once we recognize the overall pattern of the original information, we can

duplicate that structure, in miniature form, in a summary that contains the high-
priority elements of information. This means that a summary of a Problem-
Solution text is still a Problem-Solution text, a summary of a Cause-Effect text
is still a Cause-Effect text, a summary of a description is still a description, etc.
For reports that provide details, effects, causes, conclusions and
recommendations, the summaries will also reflect that sequence and information
type although there may be greater emphasis on the conclusions and
recommendations. Similarly, summaries for experimental reports that deal with
problem statement, method, results, analysis and conclusions will also contain
those categories of information, although again with emphasis on the aim,
analysis and conclusions.
The Five Ws
Perhaps echoing Burke's pentad, the well-known journalistic formula or "Five

Ws" (Who?, What? When? Where? Why?-plus How?) (e.g., Corbett, 1977, p.
27-29) is a somewhat different type of multi-item pattern, as it provides a useful
guide to contents though not so reliably to structure. The What? of a story is
arguably fundamental, although the extent of discussion for this item is highly
dependent on the circumstances. Journalists are usually trained to emphasize the
Who? element to introduce the "human element;' which is usually claimed to
increase interest in the story. The other items of the account also depend very
significantly on the situation.
SAMPLE SUMMARY
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"The ceasefire is over" IRA bombers blast London
Children among injured as explosion hits Docklands rail station
CHARLES ARTHUR; JASON BENNETTO; NICHOLAS

SCHOON AND DAVID MCKITTRICK
The IRA last night appeared to have called off its 18-month ceasefire and
re-launched its bombing campaign on the mainland with a huge device near
the Canary Wharf development in London's Docklands.
The Irish Republic's RTE television and radio network received a

statement saying the ceasefire was over.
The statement said that "with great reluctance", the leadership of the IRA
"announces that the complete cessation of military operations will end at
six o'clock".
The bomb exploded on the track at South Quay station on the Docklands
Light Railway. The station and surrounding buildings had been evacuated
about an hour before the bomb went off at 7.02pm.
A Scotland Yard spokesman said officers were given about an hour's

warning before the blast and that there were six casualties, including two
children, taken to hospital.
He said: "We were warned about an hour ago that there was a bomb at
Canary Wharf. A recognised code word was given. We were getting people
ready to react to any possible emergency. Everyone has now been alerted."
Early indications were that no one had died in the bomb, although there
were numerous injuries, largely superficial cuts caused by flying glass.
Windows were sucked out of buildings more than a quarter of a mile away.
Police immediately started searching for another suspect device in a nearby

office development.
The Irish Government was taken by surprise by the IRA statement, which a
spokesman said came only from Irish television. "We have no advance
warning of this from the normal contacts [ with Sinn Fein ]."
Irish ministers met Sinn Fein President Gerry Adams and Vice-Presidents
Pat Doherty and Martin McGuinness, just 48 hours before the blast in
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Dublin, and no indication of a ceasefire breakdown was signalled then, a
spokesman said.
No formal statement from the Taoiseach, John Bruton, was made for some
time after the blast, because a source emphasised Dublin was not yet certain
if the explosion was the work of a splinter group or was authorised by the
IRA.
Ken Maginnis, security spokesman of the Ulster Unionists, said on Sky

Television: "We have been saying for 18 months that the ceasefire was a lull
to gain some political advantage".
Terry Walker, who works for a publishing company near South Quay
station, said:" We were thrown to the floor and showered with glass. It
ripped off the front of the building next to the station. We had been given a
warning."
Another eyewitness, Chandra Shah, said: "We were in a pub under the
station. It damaged the roof and shattered the glass atrium. I'm shocked
because I thought the bombings were over. Somebody in a uniform
mentioned the IRA. It was a hell of a loud bang and now the police have
told us there might be a second device."
Lee Hickinbottom, 23, who works in an office near the station, was also in
the Tradewinds pub beneath: "Things were just falling down. Radiators,
shelves, glass - we all just ran for cover to the toilets".
Mark Sutton, a bodyguard, said: "I had been training at London Arena, it
was unbelievable, it blew the car from side to side. It blew all the windows
of Westferry Road right open. I have heard some bombs in my time, but
that was bigger than most."
Will Kevans, cartoonist, said: "I saw it from my flat and it looked like the
top of the Plaza had been blown off." Tim Hawkins, a freelance
photographer, said: "I was just standing there and the roof of the Plaza, the
building next to South Quay station, just came right off."
(words 625)
Summary
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In the first part the reporter states that the IRA appears to have called off
its 18 month cease-fire and to have relaunched its bombing on the mainland
with a huge device near the Canary Wharf development in London's
Dockland.
In the next part the reader is told that the Irish Republic's RTE television
and radio network has got a statement that the ceasefire of the IRA will end
at six o'clock.
Next we are told that the people in the area have been evacuated, before the
bomb goes off at 7.02 p.m. Although everyone has been alerted there are
numerous casualties caused by flying glass of windows which are blown off
by the explosion more than a quarter of a mile away.
The author goes on with his description of the effects of the blast. People
are thrown on the floor, the front of the building next to the station is
ripped off, the roof is damaged and the glass atrium is shattered.
We read that another device is suspected in a nearby office development.
Finally the journalist sums up the reaction of the different parties involved
in the conflict:
The Irish Government has got no indication of a cease-fire from the normal
contacts with Sinn Fein. Dublin is not sure if the explosion is the work of a
splinter group or is authorised by the IRA.
The Ulster Unionists call the 18 month cease-fire a lull to gain some political
advantage.
As a conclusion the INDEPENDENT states that the cease-fire is over.

(words 254)
http://www.kfmaas.de/s
um_inde.html
Ways to Paraphrase
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Here are different ways to write a paraphrase. USE A COMBINATION OF
TECHNIQUES to create your paraphrase. DON’T JUST USE SYNONYMS.
Practice using different techniques to become comfortable with them and
develop your paraphrasing skills.
1. Similar words
The original passage:
• “Artistic, diverse and ever-changing, Vancouver is a hub of cultural

activity. The fact that the city boasts a number of notable cultural institutions,
such as the Vancouver Art Gallery and the Vancouver Opera, is known to
many” (Lang 20).
The paraphrase:
• Vancouver is a major cultural centre on Canada’s west coast. The

Vancouver Art Gallery and the Vancouver Opera are just two examples of its
many famous cultural venues (Lang 20).
• “cultural centre” instead of “hub of cultural activity”
• “Venues” instead of “institutions”
2. Substituting Definitions
Example:
• Original: The defendant waited anxiously for the jury’s verdict at his
murder trial.
• Paraphrase: The accused murderer nervously waited for the final

judgement at his trial.
3. Exchanging Verbs & Nouns
Examples:
• Original source: The researchers started their investigation of the work

habits of teenagers last week. (noun)
• Paraphrase: The researchers recently investigated youth work ethic. (verb)
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• Original source: Sami insisted on the truth even if it might cause her pain.
(verb)
• Paraphrase: Sami’s insistence on honesty, no matter the personal cost,

makes her an admirable character in this novel. (noun)
4. Combine Sentences
This method requires 2 stages: 1) combining the original sentences, 2)

rewording the combined sentence so that it is a paraphrase and not a direct
quote.
Using Conjunctions:
When combining two sentences, here are some things to remember about
selecting which word to use:
• For, tells us the reason
• Because, also tells us the reason
• And, means addition
• Nor, is negative
• But, shows contrast
• Or, gives another reason or choice
• Yet, also shows contrast
• So, tells us the result
Examples:
• Original source: The initial stages of the experiment involved sorting

through potential test subjects. The scientists had to ensure there were sufficient
representatives from each gender, age group and ethnicity.
• Paraphrase Step 1: The initial stages of the experiment involved sorting

through potential test subjects because the scientists had to ensure there were
sufficient representatives from each gender, age group and ethnicity.
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• Paraphrase Step 2: Before any actual testing began, the scientists reviewed
possible participants because a successful experiment depends on their subjects
representing a good cross-section of the entire population.
Using Relative Clauses:
Combining two sentences with relative clauses involves using one of three
relative pronouns: “which”, “that”, or “who”. Typically, if we are referring to a
person or people, we use ‘who’.
Examples:
• Original source: Ballroom dancing is an enjoyable pastime. It is loved by

many young people.
• Paraphrase Step 1: Ballroom dancing is an enjoyable pastime that is loved

by many young people.
• Paraphrase Step 2: One fun activity that many teens really enjoy is
ballroom dancing.
________________________________________________________________
• Original source: Math was the hardest subject for me at school. I never
liked math.
• Paraphrase Step 1: Math was the hardest subject for me at school, which
is why I never liked math.
• Paraphrase Step 2: Math was the subject I found the most challenging,
which is why I never really enjoyed it.
_______________________________________________________________
• Original source: Stephen B. Hawking is a greatly admired scientist. He is

famous for his work in theoretical physics.
• Paraphrase Step 1: Stephen B. Hawking is a greatly admired scientist who

is famous for his work in theoretical physics.
• Paraphrase Step 2: One of the most distinguished scientists of our age is

Stephen B. Hawking, who is best known for his ground breaking work in
theoretical physics.
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5. Creative use of Time, Numbers & Dates
Time
There are different ways to express time. You can convert time into different
units. For example:
Weeks could be expressed in months or days or vice versa
• 12 weeks = 3 months = 84 days
Days may be expressed in hours
• 3 days ago = 72 hours
Time can also be expressed in more general terms
• 10 a.m. could be described as “mid-morning” or before noon.
• 2 p.m. could be in the afternoon
• Noon could be in the middle of the day
• Night times could be expressed as before/after sunset or midnight
• Very early morning could be described as before dawn or sunrise.
Numbers & Statistics
In English there are different ways to express multiples.
• 2 might be expressed as: a couple, twice, double.
• 3 might be expressed as: a trio, or triple
Statistics can be reversed:
• For Example:
• If a statistic says 60% of people did something that means 40% didn’t do
it
• Conversely, if 50% voted against, then that means 50% voted for it.
Statistics can also be generalized:
• For Example:
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• If a statistic says 60.48% of eligible voters voted in the last election, you
can say:
• Just over 60% of eligible voters voted.
• Almost 40% of eligible voters didn’t vote.
Dates
• If the date isn’t important to your summary, you may omit it.
• A specific year, such as 1989 can be expressed as the late 1980’s.
• It could also be expressed as before the 1990’s.
Dates can also be expressed relative to an important, relevant historical figure.
• Example:
• Space flight became a regular occurrence during the Kennedy era.
• (i.e. Early 1960’s when J.F. Kennedy was the U.S. President)
Dates can also be relative to a specific historical time period
• Examples:
• Engines powered by water have been with us since the Industrial

Revolution.
• Human artistic expression dates back to the Stone Age, when pictures of
successful hunts were painted on cave walls.
Examples of Paraphrasing and Summarizing to Compare

Original Passage
“Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and as a result

they overuse quotations in the final paper. Probably only about 10% of your
final manuscript should appear as directly quoted matter. Therefore, you should
strive to limit the amount of exact transcribing of source materials while taking
notes.” Lester, James D. Writing Research Papers. 2nd ed. (1976): 46-47.
Which of the following paragraphs is a summary and which is a paraphrase of

the original text?
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Example: In research papers students often quote excessively, failing to keep
quoted material down to the desirable level of 10% of the final draft. Since the
problem usually originates during note taking, it is essential to minimize the
material recorded verbatim (Lester, 46-47).
Example: Students should take just a few notes in direct quotations from
sources to help minimize the amount of quoted material in a research paper
(Lester, 46-47).
Read the article and choose the best answer to the questions:
Am I Blue?
Doctors can grow so accustomed to hunting disease, they may overlook the
possibility that sometimes symptoms aren't symptoms at all. Physician Meyer
Schwartz described such a case in a letter to the Journal of the American
Medical Association.
Schwartz was on duty at a clinic one morning a few days after Christmas when
a man came in complaining only of "blueness to his face of one hour's duration."
He reported no other symptoms, no itching, dizziness, or shortness of breath,
and no history of heart disease or bleeding disorders.
It was only 10:15 A.M. and all the patient had done that day was shower, shave,
and dress. So far, his hands and body were still their normal color and his face
was not tender or swollen, but on both sides it was distinctly blue up to the
cheekbones. Knowing that blue skin may indicate an oxygen deficiency in the
blood or an adverse drug reaction, Schwartz checked the patient thoroughly. But
finding nothing else out of the ordinary, he sent the blue man home. At 5:30 the
man called Schwartz to report that he had "washed his face and the blue came
off." He had received blue towels for Christmas and had used them that morning
for the first time.
Summary
1. Conclusion of the story

A. At 5:30 P.M. the patient called Dr. Schwartz to tell him that the blue had
disappeared.
B. The patient called the doctor to tell him about what he had received for
Christmas.
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C. The patient's wife liked to give him Christmas presents which would also
serve to decorate the house.
D. Later that day, the patient called the doctor to report that the blue had washed
off his face, and had been caused by his use of new blue towels.
2. Main / Controlling Idea
A. The man showered, shaved and dressed that day, but had no other activity.
B. Dr. Meyer Schwartz wrote about a strange case in the "Journal of the
American Medical Association".
C. Not all symptoms are symptoms of disease.
D. Sometimes towels can cause problems.
3. Major Event of the Story
A. The man didn't have any symptoms such as dizziness, itching or shortness of
breath.
B. Even though a man's face turned blue, when he went to see a doctor, the
doctor sent him home because he found no other signs of illness.
C. Dr Schwartz knew that blue skin may indicate an oxygen deficiency, so he

checked the patient thoroughly.
D. Dr. Schwartz was on duty one day when a man came in complaining about
"blueness on his face of one hour's duration".
A Miracle Cure?
One year ago, Matt Bloomfield was told he had cancer. His doctors decided to
treat his cancer immediately. A few months after the treatments, however, Matt
found out that the cancer was still growing. He became sick and depressed.
Because he always had pain, the doctors gave him more medicine, but it didn't
help. Finally, the doctors told him that they couldn't do anything more; he had
only six months to live. Matt would do anything to save his life. He went to see
a doctor who turned out to be a real quack. More and more people are turning
away from their doctors and instead, going to individuals who have no medical
training and who sell unproven treatments. They go to quacks to get everything
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from treatments for colds to cures for cancer. And they are putting themselves in
dangerous situations.
Many people don't realize how unsafe it is to use unproven treatments. First of
all, the treatments usually don't work. They may be harmless, but, if someone
uses these products instead of proven treatments, he or she maybe harmed.
Why? Because during the time the person is using the product, his or her illness
may be getting worse. This can even cause the person to die.
So why do people trust quacks? People want the "miracle cure." They want the
product that will solve their problem. Quickly, easily, and completely. A patient
may be so afraid of pain, or even of dying that he or she will try anything. The
quack knows this and offers an easy solution at a very high price.
Quacks usually sell products and treatments for illnesses that generally have no
proven cure. This is why we often hear about clinics that treat cancer or AIDS.
Treatments for arthritis are also popular with quacks. Other common quackeries
are treatments to lose weight quickly, to make hair grow again, and to keep a
person young.
How can you recognize a quack? Sometimes it's easy because he or she offers
something we know is impossible. A drink to keep you young is an example of
this. But many times these people lie, saying that their product was made
because of a recent scientific discovery. This makes it more difficult to know if
the person is real or a fraud.
Another way to recognize quackery is that many quacks will say their product is
good for many different illnesses, not just for one thing. They usually like to
offer money-back guarantees if their treatment doesn't work. Unfortunately, the
guarantee is often also a lie. Finally, the fraudulent clinic will often be in another
country. Laws in the United States will not allow a quack to have a clinic in the
United States because the quack doesn't have the proper medical training.
Quacks try to sell their products in similar ways. They will invite you to read
testimonials, letters written by satisfied customers. These frauds will also
promise quick, exciting cures. Often they say the product is made in a secret
way or with something secret in it which can only be bought from a particular
company. Quacks will also say that doctors and the rest of the medical
community are against them.
There are some things you can do to protect yourself from health fraud. Before
you buy a product or treatment, check to see if it's the real thing. Talk to a
doctor, pharmacist, or another health professional. If you've been the victim of
health fraud, you can complain to certain organizations In the United States, the
Better Business Bureau, the Food and DrugAdministration (FDA), the Federal
Trade Commission, or the National Council against Health Fraud will help you.
Don't let yourself or anyone you know become a victim of health fraud. It could
cost you a lot of money or, worse yet, your life.
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Decide whether the following statements are necessary or unnecessary in order
to write a summary of the article .
1. One is that quacks promise quick cures for diseases or problems that can't be
cured.
A. Necessary B. Unnecessary
2. One year ago, Matt Bloomfield was told that he had cancer.
3. Many of the fraudulent clinics are located outside of the country.

4. It can be difficult to know if someone is a quack, but there are ways.

5. Unfortunately, these people often do not realize how dangerous it is to use a

quack.
6. Another is that quacks often use similar techniques to sell their products. For
example, they ask you to read testimonials from satisfied customers.
7. Doctors told Matt that he only had 6 months to live.

8. Sometimes the money-back guarantees are just lies.

9. It is dangerous because the product usually doesn't work. As a result, the

patient can get worse during the treatment.
10. People often go to quacks because they want an easy solution for their
problem and because they are afraid.
11. Quacks sell products for illnesses that have no cure, and people who are
afraid of dying will pay any price for them.
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12. If you believe you are seeing a quack, there are people and organizations that
can help you.
13. Many people are using quacks instead of doctors.

The following sentences constitute a summary of the article you've read. Put the
sentences in the correct order. Use the transition words and pronoun references
to help.
A Miracle Cure
1. Many people are using quacks instead of doctors.

…………….
A. People often go to quacks when they want an easy solution for problems
or they are afraid. B. For example, they ask you to read testimonials from
satisfied customers. C. Another is that quacks often use similar techniques to
sell their products. D. It is dangerous because the product usually doesn’t
work. E. So they sell products for ilnesses that have no cure, and desperate
people will pay any price for them. F. If you think you are seeing a quack,
there are people and organizations that can help you. G. One is that quacks
promise quick cures for diseases or problems that can’t be cured. H. It can be
difficult to know if someone is a quack, but there are ways. I. As a result, the
patient can get worse. J. Unfortunately, these people often do not realize the
danger of using a quack. K. Quacks understand this.
Write summaries of the texts:
A. How is a snowflake formed? First, a cloud must become supercooled! This

means that it has to have a temperature of less than 32 degrees Fahrenheit. There
have to be tiny bits of dust, salt, or even frozen water in the cloud. These tiny
bits become the center of the snowflake. Other tiny water drops hook on to the
center. They form in the pattern of an ice crystal. More and more drops hook on
to the baby snowflake. Then, it becomes heavy enough to fall from the cloud.
The snowflake is now fully grown. It can fall to earth.
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B. Fresh Water
People need water to drink and take a bath. It does not rain much in some places,
so people run out of water, and that is not good. There is a lot of water in big
chunks of ice called icebergs. People are trying to get icebergs from cold to hot
places in the world. This is difficult because icebergs are huge. One idea is to
scrape the icebergs and just move the ice chips. Then the ice will melt, and
people will have fresh water.
C. Exercise can be a lot of fun. It's good for you, too. Playing catch or kickball
with a friend makes the heart beat faster. The heart will become stronger and
stay healthy. The more people exercise, the more energy they'll have. Eating an
ice cream cone and playing video games are fun things to do, but don't forget to
get some kind of exercise every day.

D. Time for Dinner!
When you eat dinner, you use a fork or spoon, but people long ago did not have
forks, knives, or spoons; they had to use their fingers. They also used things they
could find to pick up their food. Pointy stones were useful for cutting food.
People tied shells to sticks and made spoons for stirring soups. People even used
bits of wood to scoop food. The best spoon might have been bread because stiff
bread soaked up meals without too many messy spills
E. A tsunami (soo-na-mee) is a group of dangerous waves. The waves can do a

lot of damage. Earthquakes, volcanoes, and landslides happen underwater.
These motions cause the waves. Tsunamis can travel fast. They can go 450
miles per hour. They cause big waves in shallow water. The waves are very
large. They can be as high as 100 feet.
Paraphrasing, summarising and synthesising: Exercises
taken from: EPAX: Study Skills (© E Powell 2013:www.epax.co.uk)
Activity A: Change the form of the word, using the prompt in brackets.
E.g. development (change to verb) ‐ to develop

1. To analyse (change to noun)
2. Evaluation (change to verb)
3. Theoretical (change to verb)
4. Problem (change to adjective)
21
5. To expect (change to noun)
6. To agree (change to opposite verb)
7. To prove (change to noun)
8. To prove (change to opposite verb)
Activity B: Finish these paraphrased sentences by changing the word/word

type and grammar.
E.g. We studied the statistics then applied for funding.

After _________ the statistics, we made an_________ for funding.
After studying the statistics, we made an application for funding.
1. The council cut funding so we could not provide free parking.

• Because of council funding _________, there was no_________ for free
parking.
2. His proposal was a failure as it was too theoretical.
• His proposal_________ because it relied too much on _________ .
3. As the emphasis was only on the UK, there were weaknesses in the evidence.
• By _________ the UK only, the evidence was _________ .
Activity C: Decide which paraphrase is better.
1. Adverts are a major part of everyday life.

Paraphrase 1
Advertising is an important feature of daily life.
Paraphrase 2
The influence of adverts can be felt in all aspects of our lives.
2. Adverts for the soft drink, Tango, have recently been banned for possibly
encouraging playground bullying.
Paraphrase 1
Advertising for the fizzy drink, Tango, have been disallowed recently for
potentially leading to school bullying.
Paraphrase 2
A ban on Tango adverts has been implemented recently, as some felt the content
could encourage school bullies.
Activity D: Paraphrase the following:
1. For many people across Europe, the introduction of the Euro has led to price
rises in many everyday goods.
22
2. Women have traditionally been seen as mothers and home makers and it is
only in recent years that they have been making significant inroads into the job
market. There is still a long way to go before they achieve complete equality
with men but the situation has definitely improved.
Activity E: Summarise the following paragraph in the number of words in

brackets.
One restriction would arguably be on food advertising. 95% of these during

children’s television programmes were for products high in fat, salt or sugar
(Grissom, 2010) and many, including the World Health Organisation, believe
that there is a link between such foods and increasing levels of obesity and high
blood pressure. Yet for every $1 spent by the WHO to combat these effects of a
poor diet, the global food industry spends $500, part of an annual industry worth
$25 billion (WHO, 2009). It is obviously not a fairfight and as children’s health
is at stake, there is a strong case for a limitation on food advertising to the
young. (30 words)
Read through the following passage and correct any article mistakes which you
find.
The articles are the very important part of English language. This is
demonstrated most clearly by the fact that the is a most frequently used word in
English. A and an are also in very common use, as can be demonstrated by
listening to the any conversation in the Britain.
50 steps to improving your Academic Writing, Chris Sowton
Presenting specific and general information
Which of the following statements are debatable and which are non-debatable?
1. Computers and automation increase unemployment.
A. debatable B. non-debatable
2. Smoking is harmful to people's health.
23
3. Plants produce oxygen that the world needs to sustain life.
4. Australia has some of the most venomous snakes in the world.
5. A good education is necessary for a successful and happy life.
Now write a debatable and a non-debatable statement.
Read the following text carefully:
Childcare
The government should provide more financial assistance to parents who use
childcare. Childcare centres may assist children in their early development. They
give children an opportunity to mix with other children and to develop social
skills at an early age. Parents and children need to spend some time apart.
Children become less dependent on their parents and parents themselves are less
stressed and more effective care-givers when there are periods of separation.
Parents who cannot go to work because they don't have access to childcare
facilities cannot contribute to the national economy. They are not able to utilise
their productive skills and do not pay income tax. Government support for
childcare services assists individual families and is important for the economic
well-being of the whole nation.
The following three sentences each add further information to the three
supporting arguments. Your task is to add the sentences to the text.
You will first need to work out which of the three supporting arguments they
relate to.
a. Recent studies indicate that the parent-child relationship can be improved by

the use of high-quality childcare facilities.
b. A whole range of learning occurs in childcare centres.
24
c. Non-working parents can become a drain on the tax system through
dependent spouse and other rebates.
Find the correct specific/detailed statement in the second column (a-h) to

match the general statements in the first column (1-8). Join the matching pairs
with "In fact" or "Indeed":
General Statement
1. Many people think Melbourne is a very good city to live in.
2. Unemployment in Australia remains a very big social problem.
3. Australia has a very poor record in providing for the health needs of
Aboriginal people.
4. Smoking is a very serious health problem in Australia.
5. The Liberal Party today is a very successful political party.
6. Having a balanced diet is considered to be very important for a person's

health.
7. Unemployment in Footscray is a very big problem.
8. In the middle of the nineteenth century the port of Melbourne was very busy.
Specific / Detailed Statement
a. They suffer much higher rates of disease and infant mortality and much lower
rates of life expectancy than other Australians.
b. It holds power federally and in five of the six states.
c. It accounts for a very high number of hospital admissions and creates a

burden on our health care system.
d. It was the busiest port in the world at the time.
e. In the early 1990's an international panel judged it to be the world's most

livable city.
25
f. It has one of the highest rates of unemployment in the country.
g. It is arguably the single most important factor in determining good health.
h. It is probably the biggest single problem facing Australian society today.
REPORTING: SUMMARY-EXERCISE
Read the texts and summarise them in your own words:
1. SIGHT
It is not necessary to emphasize the enormous restrictions that blindness imposes
upon the ordinary procedures of earning a living: we're only too well aware that
we're in general more dependent on sight than on smell, touch or hearing. But
it's worth pointing out that sight affects the knowledge of the world we receive
through our other senses. (4 words)
2. FOOD
Man has added extraneous substances to his food since prehistoric times. Salt
and spices are the oldest food additives we know of, used by prehistoric man to
preserve his meat and fish, and to make the taste more interesting. Today, the
substances, natural and synthetic, added to food run into thousands. Most of the
foods we buy contain one or more additives. (5 words)
3. WORK
Mankind is always searching for a better life. One way of improving it is to plan
work so that it corresponds to the capacities and needs of the worker.
Ergonomics is concerned with fitting work to man. It doesn't limit its goal to the
elimination of physical hazards to health, but aims at making the work more
satisfying to the worker. (10 words)
4. WATER
In most developing countries, two-thirds or more of the people live in rural
areas, with few, if any, of the services the city-dweller takes for granted. Water
taps in houses, for example, are almost unknown. At best, there may be a village
well. Often the only source of water is a lake or a stream, perhaps several
26
kilometres away. The drudgery of water-carrying can take up the better part of
every day. (11 words)
5. AMPHIBIA
The amphibia, which is the animal class to which our frogs and toads belong,
were the first animals to crawl from the sea and inhabit the earth. (15 words)
6. SAFETY IN THE HOME

The way I see it, people need to be made far more aware of safety in ordinary
everyday situations - a classic example, of course, is the child reaching for the
bottle of tablets Mum forgot to lock away - and it seems to me that the cinema
would be the ideal place in which to get the message across. A film about safety
tucked at the end of the forthcoming attractions and advertisements would then
be seen by a large section of the population. (22 words)
http://www.uefap.com/reading/exercise/menu_nt.htm
Explain in one short sentence what happens to people who take part in
encounter groups, according to the passage.
Encounter Groups
Because of the unstructured nature of the group, the major problem faced by the
participants is how they are going to use their time together - whether it be
eighteen hours of a week-end or forty or more hours in a one-week group. Often
there is consternation, anxiety, and irritation at first - particularly because of the
lack of structure. Only gradually does it become evident that the major aim of
nearly every member is to find ways of relating to other members of the group
and to himself. Then as they gradually, tentatively, and fearfully explore their
feelings and attitudes towards one another and towards themselves, it becomes
increasingly evident that what they have first presented are façades, masks. Only
cautiously do the real feelings and real persons emerge. The contrast between
the outer shell and the inner person becomes more and more apparent as the
hours go by. Little by little, a sense of genuine communication builds up, and
the person who has been thoroughly walled off from others comes out with
some small segment of his actual feelings. Usually his attitude has been that his
real feelings will be quite unacceptable to other members of the group. To his
astonishment, he finds that he is more accepted the more real that he becomes.
Negative feelings are often especially feared, since it seems certain to each
individual that his angry or jealous feelings cannot possibly be accepted by
another. Thus one of the most common developments is that a sense of trust
slowly begins to build, and also a sense of warmth and liking for other members
of the group. A woman says on Sunday afternoon, 'If anybody had told me
27
Friday evening that by today I would be loving every member of this group I
would have told him that he belonged in the nut house.' Participants feel a
closeness and intimacy which they have not felt even with their spouses or
members of their own family, because they have revealed themselves here more
deeply and more fully than to those in their own family circle.
Thus, in such a group the individual comes to know himself and each of the
others more completely than is possible in the usual social or working
relationships. He becomes deeply acquainted with the other members and with
his own inner self, the self that otherwise tends to be hidden behind his façade.
Hence he relates better to others, both in the group and later in the everyday life
situation.
(From Encounter Groups by Carl Rogers, 1970, p. 15)
http://www.uefap.com/writing/exercise/report/encount.htm
Instructions: Summarize the paragraph below into two or three sentences.
Electronic Cash
Bank customers can now download money from their account to an electronic
wallet, a smart card, using a specially designed phone equipped with a smart
card reader. To download cash you have to enter your PIN. You can then use
your electronic wallet to pay for goods and services, to purchase goods across
the Internet, and to transfer money to other cardholders. Moreover, using the
Internet, customers can now check their account balance and see their latest
statement as well. One bank has developed a multi-currency payment engine
which allows online retailers to sell their goods in sixteen countries, with
customers paying in their local currency.
The Popularity Gap
Sarah Kliff, Newsweek Web Exclusive, May 15, 2008,

http://www.newsweek.com/id/137033
Perhaps no period of life is fuller with obsessive worries about popularity, social
hierarchies and reputations than that three-year period known as middle school.
In films about it, teens and pre-teens spend entire hours and episodes agonizing
over what their peers think. Figuring out whether you'll end up being a cool
prom king or the kid who eats alone in the cafeteria--is an integral part of
becoming a teenager.
28
Turns out, it doesn't necessarily matter. Whether or not your high class voted
you "most popular," teenagers who perceive themselves as well liked are just as
socially successful over time as the kids who actually are part of the in-crowd,
according to Kathleen Boykin McElhaney, a research associate in psychology at
University of Virginia who conducted a new study. Her findings add to a
growing body of research suggesting that our perception of how we fit into the
social world is just as important--if not more important--than our real-life
position in the social world.
The researchers asked 164 students at a public middle school to tackle two
nerve-wracking questions: how well liked were they among their class and who
they would most like to spend time on a Saturday night. Half of the finding
wasn't particularly surprising: the popular kids fare great socially, with their
peers becoming more interested in hanging out with them over the year. But the
teenagers who felt good about their place on the social ladder did just as well;
they became less hostile and their peers became more interested in spending
Saturday night with them even if they weren't ranked as particularly well liked.
One of McElhaney's most interesting findings is that self-perceived and peer-

perceived popularity don't line up too well; most of the well-liked kids do not
perceive themselves as well liked and visa versa. Why such a perception gap?
For one thing, humans are notoriously bad at estimating what others think of us,
whether it's a musical performance or on a first date. We're usually way off base
thinking we did far worse or far better than others think we did.
The research also does go into what effect these perceptions have in the long
run--whether those who see themselves as popular or those who actually are
well liked will have more social success in their adult lives. McElhaney is
hesitant to guess but does emphasize that how social standing evolves in
adulthood is likely to be much more complex than who is hot and who is not in
high school. "It may be that other measures of social standing than popularity
are more telling in the long run," says McElhaney.
Other social psychologists place their bets on the kids who perceive themselves
as well liked, not those deemed to be popular. A psychologist at University of
Chicago, has done research following children and loneliness, finding that the
perception of social isolation predicts a higher risk for depression and other
health problems; the perception of social acceptance, it seems, protects against
such ailments. In other words, it's not the objective isolation, but the perceived
isolation, that is at the core of what loneliness is.
Our perception of the social world--whether we view it as welcoming or

hostile--can have a big impact on our mental and physical well-being.
Individuals with many friends can often report being lonely and to be suffering
29
from some of the negative physical effects of loneliness, while, on the reverse
side, those with a few friends might say they're getting along just fine. This
gives some hope to teens going through middle school who find themselves not
to be the popular kid. There are other ways to achieve the same psychological
benefits of feeling connectedness, without being the football player or the
cheerleader. Finding a group, even if it's small, in which you feel comfortable
and well -liked can be just as rewarding as being the one with the most MySpace
friends.
1. Which sentence summarizes best the article and could be used as a

subtitle?
A) A new study reveals that for teens, it's not whether you're really popular. It's
whether you think you are.
B) New research fails to prove the benefits of popularity among teens and its
benefits in adulthood.
C) The one of the most MySpace friends is also the one who feels most lonely
according to a research study at the University of Virginia.
2. Finish the sentences based on the information in the article.

Teenagers are obsessed with…
Researchers asked how…
Most well-liked kids fail to see…
Popular kids fare just as well as…
Social standing in adulthood does not depend on…
Even in a small group you can
Loneliness and popularity depend on…
3. Find the meaning of the word or expression.
A) nerve-wracking 1. the feeling people have that they are members

of a group in society and that they share particular
qualities with other members of that group
B) agonize 2. to spend a lot of time in a particular place or
with particular people
C) fare great 3. a situation that makes you feel very nervous or
worried
D) hang out (with) 4. an illness that is not very serious
E) evolve 5. to be successful
F) connectedness 6. to develop and change gradually over a long
period of time
30
G) ailment 7. to think about a difficult decision very carefully
and with a lot of effort
4. What does the author mean by saying…

Being part of the in-crowd:
We’re usually way off base:
On the reverse side:
Peer-perceived popularity:
Be more telling in the long run:
5. The prepositions were left out in the sentences below. Fill in the gaps.
Not everyone ends ____ being cool in school.

As it turned ____, even popular people can suffer ____ loneliness.
Less popular students can be just ____ successful ____ their more popular peers
and they do just ____ well.
The research adds ____ a growing number studies with similar results.
Most people don’t feel good _____ their social standing.
You have to find a group ____ which you are comfortable.
Popularity depends ____ how you feel not how others feel.
6. Read the article again. Now, turn the paper and try and summarize the
article in 2 (or so) sentences as simply as you can.
7. Discuss. “Are we addicted to the Internet?”
Write a summary of the paragraph:
For most people, writing is an extremely difficult task if they are trying to
grapple in their language with new ideas and new ways of looking at them.
Sitting down to write can be an agonising experience, which doesn't necessarily
get easier with the passage of time and the accumulation of experience. For this
reason you need to reflect upon and analyse your own reactions to the task of
writing. That is to say, the task will become more manageable if you learn how
to cope with your own particular ways avoiding putting off the moment when
you must put pen to paper (Gordon & Taylor, 1989, p. 3). (103 words)
Make the sentences concise:
31
1. Failure to assimilate an adequate quantity of solid food over an
extended period of time is absolutely certain to lead, in due course,
to a fatal conclusion.
2. The climatic conditions prevailing in the British Isles show a
pattern of alternating and unpredictable periods of dry and hot
weather, accompanied by a similarly irregular cycle of temperature
changes.
3. It is undeniable that the vast majority of non-native learners of
English experience a number of problems in attempting to master
the phonemic patterns of the language.
4. Tea, whether of the China or Indian variety, is well known to be
high on the list of those beverages which are most frequently drunk
by the inhabitants of the British Isles.
5. It is not uncommon to encounter sentences which, though they
contain a great number of words and are constructed in a highly
complex way, none the less turn out on inspection to convey very
little meaning of any kind.
6. One of the most noticeable phenomena in any big city, such as
London or Paris, is the steadily increasing number of petrol-driven
vehicles, some in private ownership, others belonging to the public
transport system, which congest the roads and render rapid
movement more difficult year by year.
http://www.uefap.com/writing/report/repfram.htm
II. Describe an abstract notion without naming it :( 60-70 words):
Summary exercises
I. Every culture has its own distinctive conventions regarding what should be
learned and how learning should take place. In one culture, students may be
encouraged to work with their classmates, while in another culture this activity
may be prohibited. In some societies, students are discouraged from asking
questions, while in others they may be required to do so.
Diversity exists not only between cultures, but also within a single culture. In
most British primary and secondary schools, for example, the teacher is the
primary provider of required information and rote learning plays an important
role in the acquisition of this information. However, when these students
proceed to university, they face a new set of academic norms and expectations.
Although memorisation is still required, much more emphasis is placed on the
critical evaluation of learning and independent research.
The analysis of writing by students from different cultures suggests that the
thinking and writing processes is a culture-specific phenomenon. The ability to
32
write well in one language does not necessarily guarantee an equivalent
competence in another language, no matter what an individual’s grammatical
proficiency is in that language. Because most researchers seem to agree that
writing and thinking are culture-specific, there have been several attempts to
create profiles of different thinking and writing styles for different cultures.
II. Complete the summary using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the
passage for each answer.
1 ................... determines what and how people learn. In some countries,

students are asked to work 2 .................... and to ask questions while in other
countries, these practices would not be encouraged. Students of the same culture
might even experience different teaching and learning practices. While younger
students are required to do a good deal of memorisation in primary and
secondary schools, they are asked to do more 3 .................... when they enter
university. In terms of writing proficiency, research has shown that being a good
writer in one language doesn’t mean a person will be a good writer in another
language, despite their good level of 4 ............................ .
III. Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings
below.
Cultural differences in writing styles, Primary and secondary school education,

Implications for overseas students, Academic writing styles, International
languages, Variation within cultures, Variations in subjects taught, Tertiary
education, Cultural variation in learning between cultures, Changes in the
British education system
A. Every culture has its own distinctive conventions regarding what should be
learned and how learning should take place. In one culture, students may be
encouraged to work with their classmates, while in another culture this activity
may be prohibited. In some societies, students are discouraged from asking
questions, while in others they may be required to do so.
B. Diversity exists not only between cultures, but also within a single culture. In
most British primary and secondary schools, for example, the teacher is the
primary provider of required information and rote learning plays an important
role in the acquisition of this information. However, when these students
proceed to university, they face a new set of academic norms and expectations.
Although memorisation is still required, much more emphasis is placed on the
critical evaluation of learning and independent research.
33
http://www.ieltsonline.com.au/masterDemo/reading/Step_2/0400.asp
Summarization
Water, Water, Everywhere!
Read the selection; then answer the questions that follow
Is a flood ever good news? How can it be? When river water overflows
and floods the land, people can lose their homes . . . even their lives! So
to people who live in flood-prone areas, a flood is always bad news.
But in ancient Egypt, things were different. The people looked forward
to a yearly flood and saw it as good news!
Many Egyptians lived and farmed by the Nile River, which flooded
every summer. They eagerly anticipated the event because they knew
that when the water receded,the land would be better for crops. That's
because floodwaters carry along washed-away soil and sediment, then
drop it somewhere else. There, the nutrients in the sediment sink into
and nourish the land. Then the farmland is richer and ready for crops.
The Egyptians weren't sure why the flood came each year. Many
believed it was a gift from the spirits, who sent great clouds of rain to
fall near the source of the Nile. But actually, that wasn't the case. The
annual flood was caused by natural events that began high in the
mountains of Ethiopia.
In June, strong winds from the South Atlantic Ocean blow over the
rainforests of Africa. When the winds reach Ethiopia's mountains, some
of which are 13,000 feet (4,000 m) high, giant rain clouds drop their
contents in huge thunderstorms. The rain continues and mountain
streams fill to the brim. Then the streams join together to form a
sizeable river. It speeds along to meet the Nile, carrying lots of soil and
sediment with it. By July, the rushing water reaches Egypt, where it
produces a flood in the Nile.
The yearly flooding of the Nile wasn't all good news. Sometimes
buildings and fences were swept away and property lines disappeared.
But landowners just marked off their territories and put up new fences
34
for another year.
Today, floodwaters from Ethiopia are stopped soon after they reach
Egypt. A large dam on the river holds back the rushing, rising water
and forms a large lake. This is good news. Now buildings and fences
aren't swept away. And today farmers can plant two crops a year
instead of just one.
But the dam is bad news, too. The waters of the yearly flood always
kept the fields fertile. Today, farmers use fertilizers that get into the
mud and water of the Nile. Fish that once thrived in the Nile are gone.
And a serious disease is spread by snails that live in the slow-moving
waters of the great river.
So back to our original question: Is a flood ever good news? As you
can see, it can be, if the good benefits outweigh the bad.
1. Which is the best one-sentence summary for paragraph 2?
a. A yearly flood in Egypt did a lot of damage.
b. A yearly flood in Egypt brought sediment that helped the land.
c. A yearly flood brought more people to Ethiopia.
d. A yearly flood in Egypt was caused by rain over the Pacific Ocean.
2. Which is the best summary for paragraph 4?
Winds from the Atlantic drop rain on Egypt at the source of the
a.
Nile. The rain floods large cities near the river.
Rain over the Atlantic comes on shore in Egypt and floods the
b.
Nile.
Rain in France forms a river that travels to Egypt and dumps into
c.
the Nile. Then the Nile floods Egyptian farmland beside the river.
Winds from the Atlantic drop rain on Ethiopia and rain-filled
d. streams form a river. It dumps into the Nile, which floods Egyptian
farmland beside the river.
3. Which would be an important detail to include in a summary of the
article?
a. The Nile River is in Egypt.
b. People sail boats on the Nile.
c. The capital of Ethiopia is Addis-Ababa.
d. The Mississippi River also floods sometimes.
4. Write a summary of the whole article. Try to summarize in just two
or three sentences.
35
Read the selection, and then answer the questions that follow.
Why do people in different places eat different foods? One reason is

that humans store energy as starch or fat. People eat local plants that
provide starch and fat, but not all plants grow everywhere!
Europe and the Middle East For thousands of years, people have
used wheat, a wild grass, as their main starch. In the Mediterranean,
people use olive oil to provide fat. In the north, few plants produce oils,
so people use animal fat.
Asia Rice, a wild grass, is the main starch of Southeast Asia. In

northern Asia, it's too cold to grow rice, so people use wheat. The
Chinese cook with soybean or peanut oils. In India, people use butter or
sesame seed oil.
The Americas Potatoes are the main starch in Peru and other places.
Corn, or maize, was once the main starch in North America. It still is in
Mexico.
The Tropics Wheat, rice, corn, and potatoes are hard to grow in the
tropics. So many people use a starchy tuber called a yucca, manioc, or
cassava. Palm and coconut oil are also popular forms of fat in tropical
regions.
1. Which is the best one-sentence summary of the section about
Europe?
a. Most people eat yucca and get fats from corn oil.
b. Most people use rice to make bread and get fats from olives.
c. Most people use wheat to make bread and get fats from olive oil.
d. Most people use corn to make bread and get fats from yucca oil.
2. Which is the best summary of the whole article?
Local plants supply starch and fat for humans. So people in
a. different regions eat different foods, depending on what grows in
their area.
Corn grows only in some places. People who can't get corn eat
b.
olives to get starch.
Local plants supply sugars for humans. So, people in all regions
c.
eat sweet food that can be grown all over the world.
Rice grows almost anywhere. People who can't get rice can get fats
d.
from wheat.
36
II. Read the following text and complete the summary below.
Solar Constant
Even the most sceptical of scientists now accepts the fact that the earth is
heating up. The polar icecaps are melting, and floods and droughts are becoming
increasingly common. But what causes global warming?
While there are many theories, over the past 20 years astronomers have made a
rather astonishing discovery about the sun. “The brightness of the sun does
actually change. We called the brightness of the sun the solar constant. We were
so sure the sun did not change.”
Professor Mike Lockwood continues by explaining that the sun can have a
significant effect on our planet, depending on how many sun spots – or darker
areas- there are on its surface. “At sunspot maximum, when there are more
spots on the sun, it is actually brighter than at sunspot minimum – by a very
small amount – about a tenth of one percent, however the earth`s climate
systems are so sensitive to the power output of the sun that this is a significant
change.”
Fill in the proper word to suit the context the text.
Summary
The changes in the brightness of the sun, which was thought to be 1)
__________________, can affect the earth`s 2) _____________and lead to 3)
_______________________________. This effect depends on the number of
4)_______________________ on the surface of the sun. Even though they look
like darker areas, the sun is brighter when their number is 5)________________.
The researchers have come to this conclusion after 6)
_________________________ years of investigation.
III. Read the following article about mountain biking. Then write a paragraph
giving advice on ways to make sure that mountain biking is safe and
environmentally responsible. Write no more than 120 words.
Out in the Wheel World

Mountain biking is the fastest-growing sport in Britain. The saddle of a bike is a
far better vantage point from which to explore the countryside than a car, and
you see much more than you would walking. On top of this, it’s great exercise :
a day off-road cycling will have everyone sound asleep at night as soon as their
37
heads hit the pillow. But perhaps the best bit of all is that after every lung-
bursting climb comes the thrill of bouncing downhill.
Access is one of the most contentious issues surrounding the sport, with
everyone from ramblers and horse riders to farmers and environmentalists
wailing about the impact of mountain bikes on country-side. However, if you are
riding on a legally accessible trail, you have just as much right to be there as
they do. The main thing, as with all outdoor sports, is to show consideration for
others: don’t tear up behind walkers or riders – warn them of your approach and
ride past slowly. As for erosion, try not to skid unnecessarily on wet grass and
soil, although independent research has shown that mountain bikes cause no
more erosion than walkers’ boots and good deal less than horses’ hooves.
If you pass through gates, always close or fasten them behind you. Don’t disturb
livestock, and make sure you always know where you’re going, so don’t end up
riding through a field of crops after making a wrong turn. Mark your route on a
map before you set out (and know how to read it!) so it’s easy to follow the trail.
Everyone falls off at some point – a rock, a pot-hole or tree root will catch you
out eventually – so the golden rule is to wear a helmet. Always. It’s also useful
to carry a basic first-aid kit, and, as an expert advises, ‘don’t stray too far out
into the wilds, just in case you do have an accident.’ Many of the more
experienced riders who go up into the mountains of Scotland and the Lake
District take mobile phones in case they come to grief in a remote area. You
might agree that this would be a good occasion to have one.
http://esligcse.webs.com/ex5summary.htm
IV. Read the following text and compare the summaries. Decide which is
best, and give reasons for your choice.
Researchers in France and the United States have recently reported that baboons
are able to think abstractly. It has been known for some time that chimpanzees
are capable of abstract thought, but baboons are a more distant relation to
mankind. In the experiment, scientists trained two baboons to use a personal
computer and a joystick. The animals had to match computer designs which
were basically the same but had superficial differences. The baboons performed
better than would be expected by chance. The researchers describe their study
in an article of the Journal of Experimental Psychology.
a) French and American scientists have shown that baboons have the ability
to think in an abstract way. The animals were taught to use a computer,
38
and then had to select similar patterns, which they did at a rate better than
chance.
b) Baboons are a kind of monkey more distant from man than chimpanzees.
Although it is known that chimpanzees are able to think abstractly, until
recently it was not clear if baboons could do the same. But new research
has shown that this is so.
c) According to a recent article in the Journal of Experimental Psychology,

baboons are able to think in an abstract way. The article describes how
researchers trained two baboons to use a personal computer and a
joystick. The animals did better than would be expected.
V) Read the following text and underline the key points.
Indian researchers are trying to find out if there is any truth in old sayings which
claim to predict the weather. In Gujarat farmers have the choice of planting
either peanuts, which are more profitable in wet years, or castor, which does
better in drier conditions. The difference depends on the timing of the monsoon
rains, which can arrive at any time between the beginning and the middle of
June. Farmers, however, have to decide what seeds to sow in April or May.
There is a local saying, at least a thousand years old, which claims that the
monsoon starts 45 days after the flowering of a common tree, Cassia fistula. Dr.
Kanani, an agronomist from Gujarat Agricultural University, has been studying
the relationship since 1996, and has found out that the tree does successfully
predict the approximate date of the monsoon’s arrival.
VI) Complete the following notes of the key points.
a) Indian scientists checking ancient ………………………………………

b) Old saying links monsoon to ……………………………………………
c) Used by farmers to select peanuts (for wet) or …………………………
d) Dr Kanani of Gujarat Agricultural University has found that ………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
(Bailey, 2000, p24).
39
VII. Compare the summary with the original text. Underline the parts of the text
that appear in the summary (the first part is underlined as an example for you).
Write out the synonyms and synonymous expressions that are used in the
summary instead of the following: “to excel”, “researchers”, “economic
factors”, “a higher need”, “seek approval by conforming.”
Are firstborns better?
Freud, Kant, Beethoven, Dante, Einstein and Julius Caesar- what do they have in
common? All of these eminent men were firstborn children. Although many
firstborn children also become famous, certain studies hint that a firstborn child
is more likely to excel. For example, more firstborns become National Merit
Scholars, earn doctor’s degrees and rate mention in Who’s Who.
Researchers suggest several explanations for the higher achievement of
firstborns. Some believe that the reason is simply that firstborns are more likely
than other children to attend college. They argue that economic factors alone
could account for this difference, although firstborns typically get high grades
before college as well.
Others suggest that firstborn children have a higher need to achieve
(Rosen, 1964). This need to achieve may be an outcome of the special
relationship between firstborn children and their parents. Firstborns have their
parents’ exclusive attention and seem to interact more with parents than other
children (Gewirtz & Gewirtz, 1965). Parents of firstborns also seem to expect
more of them (Hilton, 1967). As a result, firstborns may seek approval by
conforming to adult standards, including standards of achievement.
Whatever the reasons, firstborn children do tend to be more conforming,
shyer, more anxious than their siblings, - and more likely to outdo them.
(Charles G. Morris, Psychology)
Summary
According to Charles G. Morris in his discussion of firstborns in Psychology, the

first child in a family is more likely to have achieved excellence than are those
children born later. Scientists explain this in a number of ways. The firstborn has
a greater chance to receive higher education, if only financial elements are
considered. Another suggestion is that these children have e deeper motivation
for achievement possibly resulting from the fact that they relate to adults,
particularly their parents, who have very high expectations of them. Thus,
firstborn children might gain acceptance through conformity and meeting
standards set for them.
40
A friend in need is a friend indeed
Read the texts and answer the questions:
TEXT 1
Paul Strong used to be a rough sleeper. "When you've had the life you know
taken from you," he says, "it can be hard to start afresh – even with professional
help."
Strong lost his local authority flat after falling into rent arrears, slept rough for
several months and lived in hostels before finding a new, permanent home in
Brixton, south London, earlier this year. Now he is to take part in a pilot project,
run by homelessness charity Crisis, which will pair people like him – former
street homeless people who have recently found permanent accommodation –
with volunteer "befrienders" to help them keep hold of their new homes and
integrate with their new communities. Being a rough sleeper means being part of
a community - and breaking away from that camaraderie can be a daunting
prospect. Soon a new flat may be abandoned for the hostel or the street.
Under the pilot befriending scheme, 23 volunteers are being matched with
clients of tenancy sustainment teams from homelessness agencies across
London. Funded by the government's rough sleepers' unit, the project will be
officially launched in June and by this time next year should have set up more
than 300 befriending partnerships. Although the befrienders will not provide
professional advice, nor is the role simply a friendship - it is a service. Unpaid,
independent and impartial, volunteers can empathise with homeless people in a
way that professional workers cannot. A Crisis spokeswoman says: "We're
looking for people who are non-judgmental and compassionate, reliable and
conscientious and able to communicate with people from diverse backgrounds.”
TEXT 2
After university, I joined a local authority children’s department in which the

well-being of deprived children was promoted by the personal relationships they
made with childcare officers.
Years later, I spent a decade with a community project on a council estate. I did
a follow-up of the youngsters with whom we worked and found that most had
kept out of trouble and were living stable lives as adults. Numbers attributed the
outcome to their long-term relationships with the project stuff. These
relationships were more than friendships. They were based on principles such as
confidentiality, on purposes such as always working with the permission of
parents.
41
Today’s personal relationships between field staff and users no longer have a
priority position within statutory welfare services. Bill Jordan, the leading social
work academic, argues that local authority social work has become ‘dreary,
mechanistic, systematic, technocratic’.
A similar pattern has occurred within probation services. A study by Monica

Barry finds that increased managerialism has led to ‘more formalized and
tenuous relationships between worker and service user’ which to the latter,
comes over as ‘top-down, alienating and irrelevant.’
Local authorities should free social workers and probation officers to relate,
befriend and inspire people to fulfill their potential. These people should be
spending most of their time beside the users of services rather than ticking little
boxes, or filling in evaluation sheets.
Find words in the texts which mean the same as the following explanations.
Text 1
1. comradeship
2. not favouring one person or another
3. open-minded
4. sympathetic
5. showing that you care about doing things well and thoroughly
Text 2
6. without the benefits of

7. steady, not likely to fail or change
8. fixed, done or required legally
9. dull and boring
10.so weak or slight that it hardly exists
Answer these comprehension questions about the texts with a word or short
phrase.
Text 1
1. In paragraph 2, what impression does the writer give of the relationships

between rough sleepers?
2. Why does the writer choose to use the word ‘daunting’?
42
Text 2
3. In paragraph 3, what impression does Bill Jordan give of local authority

social work?
4. What does the phrase ‘the latter’ refer to?
Proof-reading a summary
Look at this paragraph summarizing the qualities needed to become a

‘befriender’ as outlined in Text 1. Unfortunately, the writer has made some
mistakes in the choice of words, grammar, spelling and punctuation. Can you
improve the summary?
Volunteers should be biased in outlook and capable to relate to homelessness

people and their problems without pre-judge them. On addition, they should be
simpathetic towards their predicament, dependible, dedicated and have the good
inter-personal skills.
Here is another paragraph summarizing how relationships between social

workers, probation officers and users of their services have changed as outlined
in Text 2. Can you correct the mistakes?
The writers’ personal experience indicates that in the past, excellent

relationships between staff and youngsters together a mutual trust, led to a long-
term improvment in the youngsters’ lifestyles. Nowdays, but, increasing
workloads imposed at staff have resulted in a deterioration for these
relationships, which is having detrimental effect on those who feels increasingly
alieinated by these atitudes.
In a paragraph of between 50 and 70 words, summarize, in your own words as

far as possible, the benefits outlined in the texts that different types of
friendships can bring.
Answer the following question in about 100 words: Does real friendship exist?
Rewrite the following passage using less repetition of the same language.
Reusing identical language in academic writing is considered bad style by most

academics. Reusing identical language gives the impression that your
knowledge of the subject is also poor, whereas you might actually know quite a
lot. A range of language will make your academic writing sound more
professional and interesting.
43
The perks of the job
Text 1
The idea, the slim and smartly suited PR lady told me, was to gather together
a group of key journos and take them fishing. Key journos, eh? The expression
was undeniably revolting. But to be thought of as one was – how shall I put it? –
soothing to the ego.
In the past, I’ve tended to take a dusty view of outings arranged by public
relations people for journalists – the so- called freebie. I now realize, though,
that I had confused high moral principle with envy. What was wrong with
freebies was not that they were immoral, but that I was not on them. This
philosophical sea-change began to dawn on me as the aeroplane skimmed
through the skies towards Scotland.
The sea sparkled on my right, while on the other side, the snow of the
Cairngorms glittered in the sunshine. I counted a score and more of rivers and
streams, threading their way down Scotland’s heather-brown valleys.
By the time I was sitting in a spacious chalet by the river, spooning date
pudding and fudge sauce down my throat and sipping my wine, I was
thoroughly converted to the new thinking. How else, I reflected – as I held up
my plate for more of the heavenly suet - would I ever get to fish on Scotland’s
most famous salmon river?
I know next to nothing about fly fishing for salmon and the conditions –
brilliant sunshine and a stiff easterly wind – were not helpful. I did, however,
learn something, as a renowned angling expert gave me a casting lesson.
Text 2
I can’t pretend to be interested in sailing –in fact, I’m not even remotely
interested in sport of any kind. However, when, as an established corporate
client, I was invited by a long-established firm of shipping insurance brokers to
crew a yacht for a day in the Channel, I accepted with surprising alacrity. I have
to admit feeling a twinge of resentment later: was I farming out my business
efficiently if my brokers could afford to entertain in – dare I say it? – such a
lavish manner? I hastily reassured myself with the thought that as shipping
brokers, they probably owned the yacht anyway-and, if I didn’t accept the
invitation, there would be plenty of others waiting to follow in my wake.
The day turned out to be glorious, and sailing conditions were perfect. My initial
fumbling attempts at handling the sails were quickly converted into deft
movements by the friendly instructor, and we were soon off, gliding across the
44
Solent. At midday we pulled into a small harbour, where we feasted on local
crab and lobster.
Washing down the decks as we sailed back into the port in the early evening was
a somewhat dubious pleasure, but the sight of the setting sun mirrored in the
now calm waters was unforgettable. I couldn’t help but reflect on how 21 st
century travel seems all too successfully to have eliminated the excitement
travelers must have felt not so long ago as their ship, with sails billowing,
headed for adventure and shores unknown.
Eliminating irrelevance
Read this paragraph summarizing the writers’ reactions to corporate

entertainment. Some of the information is irrelevant. Cross out what is
unnecessary and rewrite the summary using between 50 and 70 words.
Both writers seem to be professional people. Despite some initial reluctance,

based on jealousy and suspicion of unnecessary extravagance, both writers
seemed either flattered or eager to accept the corporate hospitality they were
offered. Both activities were designed to appeal to people at the top of their
field. Although neither writer professed to be an expert in the activities they
were invited to take part in, they were both aware that they would never have
experienced these activities, and the thoroughly enjoyable creature comforts that
went with them, otherwise. Both writers seem to have decided to take up the
activities they took part in on more permanent basis.
In about 100 words answer the following question: “Should companies organize
social events and activities for employees and clients to encourage good
working relationships?”
Text 1
BORN FREE
Anti-zoo critics use a common script: “Animals in zoos are imprisoned without
trial.” However, ‘Man is born free’ is sheer anthropological romanticism and we
all know it, but we now apply this dictum to animals, where ‘Born free!” is even
more unreal.
Urban humans have become insulated from the reality of struggle and death that
characterizes all life in the wild. Most of us see the biological world only in the
censored electronic imagery of television. As a consequence, we imagine that
45
the word freedom has biological significance, and fantasise about a peaceful
kingdom. We think wild animals are free, happy, unstressed, stimulated and
fulfilled. A moment’s reflection shows that this attitude is a ludicrous
perversion. Life in the wild is a constant struggle for survival.
Modern zoos are not grim prisons. The extinction crisis we now face,
particularly in the tropics, is a desperate one. We cannot solve it democratically
without broadscale bioliteracy. Zoos have not yet fully realized their educational
potential, but each year they do more for informal education, for less per capita
expenditure, than most other public institutions.
Ultimately, we must preserve habitats wherever we can, and restore the

damaged ones. Zoo education can motivate the first process and zoo science can
help the second. The careful husbandry of small populations that zoos have
developed is a recipe for dealing with shrinking wild populations. Zoos may
have been Victorian in their flowering but they are as essential to our culture as
Victoria free education.
TEXT 2
The animal and plant species that populate our planet are woven into a vast
ecological web. But as we pull at the fabric of the natural world, we always run
the risk that it will unravel unexpectedly. If we want the human race to survive
too, conserving the species that live alongside us is essential. Zoos, at their best,
provide an example of how to do this right on our doorsteps.
Nevertheless, zoos are an endangered species themselves. They face an

onslaught of criticism from some quarters and have to struggle to keep costly
conservation programmes alive. The situation is not helped by the trend towards
lower visitor numbers. The conservationsit argument is a solid reason to keep
zoos, but they would do well to emphasize their other benefits in order to
survive these oppressing issues.
Some provide an excellent way for people to relax, escaping the pressures of
work and the general rough and tumble of urban life. A dose of nature can be the
perfect antidote to a day at the office.
While zoos are entertaining us and helping us to unwind, they also have the
opportunity to educate us. Programmes for the very young have great potential
for improving public attitudes towards the animal kingdom, enabling children to
develop an early understanding of the importance of animals within the ecology
of our world, and thus shaping their opinions and values throughout their lives.
46
Decide which of the statements 1-8 apply to a) the first text, b) the second text.
1. Zoos need financial backing to maintain their programmes.

2. City dwellers believe in their narrow media vision of the world.
3. Zoos offer an opportunity for people to forget their problems.
4. Zoos help educate people about animals.
5. Our assumptions about animals in captivity are mistaken.
6. Zoos can help preserve animals faced with extinction.
7. Zoos are a cost-effective means of education.
8. Zoos have helped experts learn about animal environments.
In a paragraph of 50-70 words, summarize, in your own words as far as

possible, the reasons given in the texts for why zoos should be maintained.
Editing
Read the paragraph below. The following errors occur in the paragraph. Can
you find them and correct them?
1. two incorrect verb forms

2. two extra words that are not needed
3. three incorrect words
4. two spelling mistakes
5. two punctuation errors
Zoos play an important aspect in the struggle to protect the natural world, not
only by provide protection for jeopardized species, but also by educating people
about animals and the difficulties they face. In addition to, they provide
oportunities for the better scientific understanding of animal habitats. Lastly,
zoo’s acted like a place were people can escape the stresses of their everyday
lives
Comprehension and Summary

TEXT 1
Research by Andrew Oswald, Professor of Economics at Warwick University,

shows that our reported levels of happiness are remarkably unaffected by our
affluence. So, how much do we need to earn to feel comfortably off? And why
47
are we knocking ourselves out with the longest working week in Europe if the
money it makes us doesn’t even cheer us up?
Part of the problem is that most of this new affluence is increasingly weighted
towards a very small proportion of the population - the already rich. While fat
cats and dot.com squillionaires are apparently multiplying, they form only tiny
elite. My own professional income puts me in the top 20% of wage earners in
the country but the simple fact is that many people don’t feel richer because they
aren’t.
The top 20%, however, don’t fit into that category. We know that we’re living
lives of unprecedented affluence. I have more money than my dad ever did, but
nowhere near as much as my sister, and that’s the problem. The generational
benchmark no longer applies. Instead, according to Oswald, we look over our
shoulders at our neighbors, friends and colleagues. How are we doing compared
to them?
New ways of working, living and thinking have created new economic models
and attitudes. The way we spend our money reveals not just our lifestyles, but
our natures, our values, our fears, and our national identity. No wonder we feel
as if we’ve never got enough of it!
TEXT 2
Just over half the respondents to a nation-wide survey agreed with the statement:
‘If I had enough money to live as comfortably as I would like, I would start
work.’ The desire to keep on working increases to 70% among those with
salaries over £ 70 000.
Elaine Thompson from Lyme Regis won £ 2.7 million on the National Lottery in
December 1995.Yet, she and her husband returned to work after six months,
opening a holiday complex. ‘We do all the cleaning and gardening and painting
ourselves,’ she says ‘and we’re busy 52 weeks a year. I haven’t had a weekend
off since March. I couldn’t sit back and do nothing. If I didn’t work, I’d be
bored silly.’ A Lottery operator spokesperson said: ‘The research matches our
own survey - 51% of all Lottery winners who won £50 000 or more have
returned to work in spite of their win.’
Five years ago, 46 -year-old decorator Tim Logan also inherited a ‘reasonably
large’ sum when his aunt died. ‘It was enough for me not to have to work again,
particularly as I never had very high outgoings.
However, when I had taken a fortnight’s holiday and thought things through, I
realized quite simply that I missed the social interaction. But more than that, I
48
needed to work. I couldn’t go and play golf all week, I’d be bored out of my
mind. It’s the stimulus that you really need.’
Reporting comments
Here are some comments people make about work and money in the texts. For
each comment, choose what you consider to be the better paraphrase ( a or b)
of what they say.
1.‘We look over our shoulders at our neighbours, friends and colleagues. How
are we doing compared to them?’(Oswald)
a. Oswald feels we are suspicious of what our neighbours have achieved.
b. Oswald feels we discreetly compare ourselves to those around us.
2. ‘Why are we knocking ourselves out with the longest working week in
Europe if the money it makes us doesn’t even cheer us up?’(the writer)
a. The writer wonders why we work so hard if the financial rewards are so
unsatisfying.
b. The writer wonders why we make ourselves ill working for money which
depresses us.
3. ‘I couldn’t sit back and do nothing. If I didn’t work, I’d be bored silly.
‘(Elaine Thompson)
a. Elaine Thompson feels that inactivity creates intense boredom.
b. Elaine Thompson feels that inactivity and boredom have a negative effect on
the brain.
4. ‘It was enough for me not to have to work again, particularly as I never had
very high outgoings.’(Tim Logan)
a. Tim realized that he was satisfied no further work was necessary.
b. Tim realized that as his lifestyle was simple, he need never work again.
5. ‘However, when I had taken a fortnight’s holiday and though things through, I
realized quite simply that I missed the social interaction.’(Tim Logan)
a. After some reflection, Tim came to the conclusion that contact with others
meant more to him than giving up work.
b. Tim eventually concluded that inactivity was far less important than having
an exciting social life.
In a paragraph of between 50 and 70 words, summarize, in your won words as

far as possible, the attitudes of people to money as outlines in the text.
A mixed blessing?
49
Read the following texts about tourism, then answer the questions opposite with
a word or short phrase.
TEXT 1
Tourism can be beneficial. It is estimated that in North Wales 30 per cent of jobs
can be directly attributed to tourism, but the fact that visitors spend their money
in a variety of different ways has a beneficial effect on other things too. Many
village shops would have to close if they were not supported by income from
tourists, and the money spent on local souvenirs can prevent local industries
from going out of business.
Unfortunately, tourism can also have its disadvantages. For example, many of
the roads in the Snowdonia area are extremely narrow and tourist cars cause
congestion. Some farmers and local traders complain that they make it difficult
for them to do their work as car parks fill up during busy periods, and many
visitors cause obstructions by parking across gateways, etc.
In addition, in the summer, thousands of people use the network of footpaths

across Snowdon and its foothills. Often, the grassy surface is worn away,
leaving rough stone or mud. This makes the path look unsightly, and it can be
dangerous to walk on. Repairing the paths can be very expensive, particularly
higher up where access is difficult.
Nevertheless, the appeal of areas of natural beauty to visitors has led to the
growth of many organizations dedicated to reducing or offsetting these
drawbacks. Many parts of the country now operate conservation schemes or
trusts, supported by voluntary contributions. In some locations, tourist operators
have set up their own trusts and put money back into the community by making
donations to local conservation projects.
ECO TRAVEL CENTRE GOLDEN RULES
As a traveler you will have an impact on the environment and culture of the
place you are visiting. It is our objective to provide you with the necessary
information, tools, and guidelines to make this impact positive! Keep these
Golden Rules in mind when you travel:
Understand your destination before you get there
50
Read guidebooks, travel articles, histories, and/or novels by local authors. Pay
particular attention to customs, such as greetings, appropriate dress, eating
behavior. Being aware and sensitive to these customs will enrich your trip and
increase local acceptance of you as a tourist. Local people will welcome you
not only as a means of increasing their income but also as an added interest in
their daily lives.
Follow establish guidelines
Tourism can bring financial rewards and employment but it can also have a
detrimental effect on the environment. Rubbish left by some tourists can often
make the area unsightly, and wandering from designated trails can disturb
wildlife. Ask your ecotour operator, guide, and/or the local authorities what their
guidelines are for limiting tourist impact on the environment and local culture.
Staying on trails, bagging up your trash, and maintaining set distances away
from wildlife are a few ways to minimize your impact in sensitive areas.
Seek out and support locally-owned businesses

Support local businesses during your ecotravels to maximize the benefits of
tourism on local community and, with your tourist dollars, help in the
conservation of the area.
TEXT 1
1. Why has the writer chosen the word ‘network’?
2. What exactly does the phrase ‘the drawbacks’ describe?
TEXT 2
3. In paragraph 2, which two words echo the need to understand your
destination?
4. What is the writer trying to emphasize by using the phrase ‘sensitive areas’ in
paragraph 3?
In a paragraph of 50-70 words, summarise, in your own words, the positive

effects that tourism can have on an area.
Complete the summaries using the phrases given.

furthermore, besides, while, also, moreover, both, as well as
Tourists help the economies of the places they visit, (1)………………by

directly providing jobs in the tourism industry and by spending money on other
local goods and services. (2)…………….. in some cases, income from tourism
is spent on conserving the local environment.
51
(3)…………….. spending money, the presence of tourists can (4)
…………………… help make people’s daily lives more varied and interesting.
The local community can benefit from the interest created by having different
people pass through, (5) ……………….. the environment can improve if money
from tourism is invested in conservation. (6)…………….., (7)…………………
providing employment for lots of local people in hotels and other tourist
facilities, the economy can benefit from increased spending on shopping and
souvenirs.
Proficiency Masterclass, Student’s book, Kathy Gude, Michael Duckworth
Look through the following passage and identify the mistakes which have been
made.
In addition to an influence of your mother tongue, one populer theory about

second language acquisition is the ‘natural order hypothesis’. This theory states
that when learning any language (whether your first or second language) there is
a order specific in which grammar is learnt. It is argued that there is a high
relationship between ~ing, plural ~s and the verb to be. A vivid understanding of
this grammar comes before, for example, irregular past forms. This theory has
been developed initially by Stephen Krashen.
DEVELOPING EACH PARAGRAPH WITHIN A TEXT
Choose one of the following sentence portions to complete the opening

paragraph of the text below.
(a)….but such diseases have since become much more serious.
(b)…but bacteria that once succumbed to antibiotics have evolved into strains
that resist these drugs.
(c)…..but doctors are no longer sure how to treat these diseases.
A NEW FORM OF DRUG ABUSE
52
With the introduction of antibiotics four decades ago, a host of dreaded
infectious diseases lost their power to disfigure, cripple and kill…… …
The reason for this is the indiscriminate use of the ‘miracle’ drugs over the
years.
Here are some notes for the second paragraph. Write the main point of the
paragraph and develop it by writing a suitable sequence of supporting points.
(a) Last week, 150 scientists from 26 countries met. Subject: ways to
control global drug abuse.
(b) Global drug abuse takes the form of:
(i) Antibiotics dispensed without prescription, especially in Third

World countries.
(ii) Drugs prescribed by doctors even when ineffective.
(iii) Drugs seeping into food chain (reason: farmers use them in
animal feed-help prevent disease and promote growth).
(c) Result: almost all of the once susceptible bacteria destroyed –new
drug-resistant strains.
(d) Consequence: public health problem.
Use notes (a) and (b), which follow the next paragraph of the text, to
complete it.
Several common bacterial infections have already outgrown the antibiotics

designed to cure them….. . ‘If we continue to use antibiotics totally freely,’ says
Nobel Prize winner Walter Gilbert of Harvard University, ‘we can look forward
to a period in which 80 to 90 % of the infectious strains that arise are resistant.’
(a) Penicillin- originally effective against all strains of staphylococcus

aureus-now only 10%.
(b) Britain-last decade-drug resistant infections caused by E.coli bacteria
risen 500%.
Interactive Writing: An Advanced Course in Writing Skills, Student’s book,

Anna Kwan- Terry
We are all teenagers
Read the newspaper article. Which is the best summary of the article?
53
1 Culture is dominated by the concerns of young people. This is a bad thing
because this culture is shallow and lacks a sense of history.
2 The vibrant, energetic culture of young people is transforming our society and
culture, making it more profound and meaningful.
Martin Jacques on why age and wisdom have been cast out of our
infantilised society
There is a strange phenomenon. Britain is getting older. In fact, the population is

older now than it has been for over a century. Yet at the same time our culture
has never been more adolescent. Young people may be a dwindling minority,
but they exercise an extraordinarily powerful influence on the cultural stage,
from television and newspapers to film and art.
The turning point, of course, was the 1960s. Until then, young people were
largely ignored in a culture that was stiflingly middle-aged. A generation, who
were brought up in very different conditions from those of their parents, rebelled
in a way that remains unprecedented in western society. It is not difficult to
explain or understand the 60s. The young were a product of the long postwar
boom, not war and unemployment, and the baby boom lent them exceptional
demographic weight. What is far more difficult to comprehend is why our
culture, in the decades since, has become progressively more infantile. It is as if
the 60s gave birth to a new dynamic, which made young people the dominant
and permanent subjects of our culture.
It started with the birth of pop music as a youth genre, but the concerns and
attitudes of the young generation have since permeated areas that were never
adolescent. One only has to think of Britart, for example, whose motif has been
the desire to shock, or film, whose preoccupation with violence as spectacle is
driven by the appetite of the young, to see how powerful these adolescent values
have become. It is not that they are simply negative or offer nothing: on the
contrary, there is much to be admired in their energy, scepticism and
commitment to innovation. But they are also characterised by transience and
shallowness, a desire to shock for shock's sake, and a belief that only the present
is of value. A culture that succumbs to adolescence is a culture that is drained of
meaning and experience, not to mention history and profundity.
But why is it happening? It can be argued that the 60s unleashed a new cultural
dynamic, which is still working its way through society. A new mindset was
formed, which gave priority to the young. It is plausible to suggest that parents
and grandparents who themselves were the rebels of the 60s are more inclined to
respect, and defer to, the sensibilities and demands of youth. And this tendency
has been reinforced by a new technological dynamic, manifest in the internet,
54
mobiles and the like, which has left older generations feeling a little left out, and
lent credence to a misplaced technological determinism among the young.
There is more than a grain of truth in all this. But as the proportion of young
people steadily declines, one would still expect the sheer weight of growing age
to assert itself. So far there is absolutely no sign of this. In fact, extraordinarily,
the opposite is happening. The underlying reason for all this could not be more
fundamental. It concerns the western condition. For over half a century we have
only known prosperity, never experienced mass unemployment, never fought
wars except on the edges at other people's expense, never known the extremes of
human existence, comfortable in a continent that has enjoyed, for the most part,
a similar existence and, having turned its back on grand visions, opted for the
quiet life. Yet it is extremes, personal or political or both, that teach us the
meaning of life. Without them, the excesses of the young provide a little of the
excitement otherwise lacking. The outcome is a growing shallowness. Britart
may shock, but it hardly provides us with a deeper insight into the human
condition. Hollywood movies may entertain, but they barely ever enlighten. An
adolescent culture is one that lives on the surface, unencumbered by memory,
light on knowledge and devoid of wisdom.
The Guardian Weekly
Read the passage again and complete the sentences with the correct ending.
1 The tastes and concerns of young people are dominant

a. because there are more young people nowadays.
b. despite the fact that there are more old people nowadays.
2 Key factors in the social and cultural change that began in the 1960s were
a. economic prosperity and peace
b. unemployment and hard work
3 The concerns of young people

a. are only reflected in pop music
b. are reflected in many areas of the arts
4 According to the writer, youth culture

a. is negative and dull
b. is only interested in the present
5 According to the writer, our culture is shallow because

a. life is too easy
b. life is demanding and hard
55
Choose the correct definition for the words from the article.
1 dwindling
a. getting bigger b. getting smaller
2 stiflingly
a. unencouragingly b. encouragingly
3 baby boom
a. increase in the birth rate b. decrease in the birth rate
4 motif
a. repeated idea b. shape
5 transience
a. lasting a long time b. lasting a short time
6 succumbs
a. loses the fight against something b. wins the fight against something
7 plausible
a. incredible b. believable
8 manifest
a. clearly shown b. unclear
9 opted
a. lost b. chose
10 devoid
a. lacking b. possessing
THE DEVELOPMENT OF UNIVERSITIES
The word 'university' comes from the Latin word 'universitas' meaning 'the
whole'. Later, in Latin legal language 'universitas' meant 'a society, guild or
corporation'. Thus, in mediaeval academic use the word meant an association of
teachers and scholars. The modern definition of a university is 'an institution that
teaches and examines students in many branches of advanced learning, awarding
degrees and providing facilities for academic research'.
The origins of universities can he traced back to the Middle Ages, especially
56
the twelfth to fourteenth centuries. In the early twelfth century, long before
universities were organised in the modern sense, students gathered together for
higher studies at certain centres of learning. The earliest centres in "Europe were
at Bologna in Italy, for law, founded in 1088; Salerno in Italy, for medicine; and
Paris, France, for philosophy and theology, founded in 1150. Other early ones
"in Europe were at Prague, Czechoslovakia, founded in 1348; Vienna, Austria,
founded in 1365; and Heidelberg Germany founded in 1386.
The first universities in England were established at Oxford in 1185 and at
Cambridge in 1209. The first Scottish university was founded at St Andrews in
1412. By comparison, the oldest universities in the USA are at Harvard, founded
in 1636, and Yale, established in 1701.
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, three more universities were
founded in Scotland: at Glasgow in 1415 Aberdeen in 1494, and Edinburgh in
1582. The next English university to be founded was not until the nineteenth
century - London, in 1836. This was followed, later in the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, by the foundation of several civic universities. These had
developed from provincial colleges which were mainly situated in industrial
areas. Manchester, for example, received its charter in 1880, and Birmingham in
1900. In addition, the federal University of Wales was established in 1893
comprising three colleges.
Several other civic universities were founded in the 1940s and 1950s, such
as Nottingham in 1948, Southampton in 1954 and Exeter in 1957. However, it
was in the 1960s that the largest single expansion of higher education took place
in Britain. This expansion took three basic forms: existing universities were
enlarged; new universities were developed from existing colleges; and seven
completely new universities were founded, mostly away from town centres and
in the countryside, e.g. Warwick, 1965. The Open University was founded in
1969: it is non-residential and uses correspondence courses combined with TV
and radio broadcasts.
A big development in recent years was an Education Act in 1992 that
allowed former polytechnics to become universities, so before the Act there
were 47 universities in the UK; after the Act there were 86 universities.
All British universities receive some government funding, except
Buckingham, which is Britain's only independent university, founded in 1983.
This runs two-year courses instead of the usual three years.
Below is a summary of the passage in sentences which are given in the wrong
order. Put the sentences in the correct order by writing the letters (a – j) next to
numbers (1 – 10).
57
a. The quarter of a century from 1940 to 1965 was the period when there was
a big increase in the number of universities in Britain.
b. The Open University was founded in 1969.
c. The oldest American university was founded in the 17th century.
d. One of the original meanings of ‘university’ was an association of teachers
and students.
e. There is one private university in Britain: it was established in 1983.
f. After three more Scottish universities were established in the 15th and 16th
centuries, the next major developments were not until the foundation of a
number of civic universities in the nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries.
g. Oxford and Cambridge are the oldest English universities.
h. Government grants are the most important source of university income.
i. The first Scottish university was established in the early 15th century.
j. There were gatherings of students at the centres of learning in Europe
between the 12th and 14th centuries.
CLASSIFICATION
Read the text carefully. Then complete the sentences below.
State Schools in England and Wales
The vast majority of children in Britain (87%) attend state (local authority)
schools which provide compulsory education from the age of 5 to 16 years.
These schools can be classified according to the age range of the pupils and the
type of education provided. Basically, there are two types of school, primary and
secondary, although in some areas there are also middle schools. Primary
schools cater for children aged 5-11, and secondary schools for ages 11-16(and
in some areas up to 18 years). Primary schools can be sub-divided into infant
schools (for ages 5-7) and junior school (for ages 7-11).
Secondary schools are normally of one type for all abilities, viz.
comprehensive schools. More than 90% of children in state schools attend this
kind of school. In some areas middle schools exist as an extra level after primary
school for children aged 8 or 9 to 12 or 13. Pupils then transfer to
comprehensive schools. In a very small number of areas, pupils may be grouped
according to their ability and selected by means of an examination at the age of
11. In these areas, grammar schools cater for those who pass the exam. Those
who fail go to another secondary school.
When pupils reach the age of 16 there may be three choices open to them.
Firstly, they may leave school. Secondly, they may start on at school for two
58
more years if it has a Sixth Form. Thirdly, they may transfer to a Sixth Form
College, a tertiary College or a Further Education College.
a. Schools …………………………………………………the pupils’ ages and

type of education.
b. There are……………………………………………school: primary and
secondary.
c. Primary schools …………………………………………….into infant and
junior schools.
d. Secondary school pupils…………………………………………………..their
ability.
e. The criterion for classifying secondary schools is whether or not there
is………………………………..
Diagram 1: State Schools in England and Wales

___________(5-7 years)
primary
Junior (______________)
____________(8/9-12/13 years)
________________(11-16(+) years)
59
No exam
The sentences below summarize the information in the passage. However, they
are in the wrong order. Put them in the correct order by writing numbers 1-7.
a. Most children go to comprehensive schools.

b. There may be three types of school: primary, middle and secondary.
c. At the age of sixteen, pupils may stay on at school, or leave and go to a
college, or leave school altogether.
d. Exceptionally, children may take a selection exam at 11 years and go to a
grammar school if they pass.
e. Most children go to state schools.
f. If children attend middle schools, they go on to comprehensive schools
afterwards.
g. Primary schools comprise both infant and junior school.
Academic Writing Course: Study Skills in English, R.R.

Jordan
Write a short summary of the text:
Culture Shock
‘Culture shock’ is the state of being confused when in contact with a different
and unfamiliar civilization. ‘Shock’ suggests something that is negative: this
may be true, especially at first. Typically, a person going to study in another
country for the first time may miss family and friends and, consequently, feel
homesick. The person may have sleeping difficulties and, in extreme cases, may
become depressed or ill.
Write in about 100 words how people can overcome culture shock.
Choose the best summary of the paragraph. Remember to focus on the main
point of the paragraph. Try not to include non-essential information.
60
There are various ways of preparing for cultural shock. It is helpful to learn as
much of the language as possible before going to the country, to learn about the
new culture, in particular aspects such as time differences, communication,
conflict resolution, climate, standard of living, transportation, ethical practices,
holidays, superstitions, taboos and technology. However, something that is
extremely difficult to prepare for is what is known as ‘ecoshock’, the result of a
person’s ‘physiological and psychological reaction to a new, diverse, or changed
ecology’, a typical example of this being travel dysrhythmia, or jet lag, when
people’s biological clocks have problems synchronizing with the local time.
Physiological adjustment to the temperature, humidity, and altitude are also
features of ecoshock, though these are generally coped with in the initial stage of
cultural shock rather than being prolonged difficulties in the process of
adjustment to life in a new country. For those who take frequent short trips
abroad, however, ecoshock may be the most difficult part of dealing with
cultural shock, since they do not experience its various longer term phases.
Reference:
Martin, J.S. and Chaney, L.H. (2006). Global Business Etiquette Westport, CT,
USA: Praeger Publishers
1) There are many ways of getting ready for cultural shock. It is useful to learn
as much of the language as you can before going there, to learn about the new
traditions, in particular factors such as attitudes to time, talking, arguments,
weather, poverty, getting around, moral practices, vacations, beliefs, areas which
cause discussion and innovation. However, something that is very difficult to get
ready for is what is known as ‘ecoshock’, the sum of a person’s ‘physiological
and psychological reaction to a new, diverse, or changed ecology’, a typical
example of this being travel problems, or ‘jet lag’, when people’s inner clocks
have problems matching up with the local time. Bodily adjustment to the
climate, changes in the water in the air, and height are also features of
‘ecoshock', though these are generally dealt with in the first stage of cultural
shock rather than being extended difficulties in the process of changing to life in
a new nation. For those who take short trips abroad often, however, ‘ecoshock’
may be the most difficult part of accepting cultural shock, as they do not
experience its many longer term phases.
2) Preparing for cultural shock can be done in many different ways but you can’t
really prepare for ecoshock which is potentially the most difficult part of culture
shock.
3) Preparation for cultural shock can take different forms, e.g. learning about the
target culture and learning the language. However, preparing for particular
61
aspects of culture shock, such as ‘ecoshock’ is more difficult because it is hard
to adjust one’s body to ‘local time’, weather, ‘humidity’ and ‘altitude’. Features
such as these are usually experienced in the initial, rather than latter, stages of
culture shock.
Matching Paragraph Headings
Paragraph Structure
GLOBALIZATION
1.---------------------------------------------------
The process of globalization is essentially a geographical process in which

spatial relations – economic, cultural, political – shift to ever broader scales.
What happens in one place of the world has repercussions in places ever more
distant, thereby integrating the entire world into a global village. The process is
in part driven by rapid advances in communication and transportation
technologies.
2. -------------------------------------------------------
Today’s most pressing environmental issue, no doubt, is global warming,

a threat to the world at large. It is clear that we must confront this problem
together, but it is far from easy to agree on strategies: some countries are bigger
polluters than others, some have more resources than others, and some are more
developed than others.
Culturally the world is coming closer together, and this is most apparent
in global migration flows. Migration used to be uncommon and when it did
occur it used to be one-way: people moved from one place to another and stayed
there. In the global era, migration has picked up in terms of intensity, in part
62
because people now possess much more knowledge about opportunities
elsewhere. In addition, many more opportunities arise to travel back and forth,
allowing people to maintain close ties with their original home countries.
Millions of workers hope to leave the periphery, which contains the world’s
poorest regions, to seek better life somewhere in the core. Others risk their lives
at barriers and barricades that encircle the global core, from the “security fence”
Between Mexico and the United States to the walls that guard Israel’s safety to
the razor wire that encircles Spain’s outposts on North Africa’s shores.
3.--------------------------------------------------------
If a geographical concept can arouse strong passions, globalization it is.

To leading economists, politicians, and businesspeople, this is the best of all
possible worlds – the march of international capitalism, open markets, and free
trade. In theory, globalization breaks down barriers to international trade,
stimulates commerce, brings jobs to remote places, and promotes social,
cultural, political, and other kinds of exchange. High-tech workers in India are
employed by computer firms based in California. Japanese cars are assembled in
Thailand. American shoes are made in China. Fast-food restaurants chains
spread standards of service and hygiene as well as familiar menus from Tokyo
to Tel Aviv to Tijuana. If wages and standards of employment are lower in
peripheral countries than in the global core, production will shift there and the
gap will shrink. But that’s only theory.
To millions of poor farmers and powerless citizens in debt-mired African

and Asian countries, it represents a system that will keep them in poverty and
subservience forever. However, economic geographers can prove that global
economic integration allows the overall economies of poorer countries to grow
faster. You will find that the gross national income (GNI) of those that engage in
more international trade rises, while the GNI of those with less international
trade actually declines. The problem is that those poorest countries contain more
than 2 billion people, and their prospects in this globalizing world are
worsening, not rising. In countries such as the Philippines, Kenya, and
Nicaragua, income per person has shrunk, and there globalization is seen as a
culprit, not a cure.
63
4.-------------------------------------------------------------------
And there is another, more complicated issue. Although many countries,

even lesser-developed ones that have been able to latch onto globalization, have
witnessed accelerated economic growth and rising per capita incomes, inequality
within these countries has often increased just as fast. This is quite obvious in
China, the fastest-growing economy in the world over the past decades: much of
this growth has taken place in its Pacific coastal zone, not in the interior of the
country, and income differentials have become even wider. And the same is true
in India and most other emerging markets. This is why a regional approach is so
important to understanding what is going on in the world economy.
De Bill, H. et al. Geography: Realms, Regions, and Concepts
Glossary
accelerate – to happen or to make something happen faster or earlier than

expected;
to begin to move faster, especially for a vehicle
core – the part of something that is central to its existence or character
culprit – a person who has done something wrong or against the law
gross national income (GNI) - the total income earned from all goods and
services produced by the citizens of a country, within or outside of its
boarders, during a calendar year
mire – to involve someone or something in a difficult situation
per capita – for each person
realm – a kingdom
repercussion – an unintended consequence of an event or action,
especially an unwelcome one
subservient – ready to obey others unquestioningly; n. subservience
wage – a fixed regular payment earned for work or services, typically paid
on a daily or weekly basis
Tasks
1. The following sentences have all been extracted from the text. Find
their position in the respective paragraphs.
Paragraph 1
64
Since the world is getting ever more interconnected, geography and
our knowledge of the world’s realms and regions become ever more
important.
Paragraph 2
Globalization plays out in various spheres, from environmental to
cultural and economic.
Paragraph 3
However, many of them die every year in the waters of the
Mediterranean, the Caribbean, and the Atlantic.
Paragraph 4
Everybody wins.
Paragraph 5
Compare their international trade to their national income.
Paragraph 6
In other words, uneven development within countries has become
more pronounced.
2. Read the text and match headings A – E with gaps 1 - 4 in the text.
There is one extra heading.
A. Global challenges: core and periphery
B. Pros and cons of globalization
C. Defining globalization
D. Globalizing economy: winners and losers
E. A downside of globalization
3. Select the three sentences which best summarize the information in the
reading passage.
A. Globalization is a process as a result of which the world turns into a

global village.
B. Global warming and migration from the periphery (poor countries)
to the core (economically developed countries) are effects of
globalization.
C. Many migrants die every year in the waters of the Mediterranean or
at the security fence between Mexico and the USA.
D. Globalization arouses strong passions and heated debates around
the world.
65
E. India, Thailand and China benefit from globalization while the
Philippines, Kenya, and Nicaragua see globalization as a cause of
the economic decline.
F. Increase in inequality is another problem caused by globalization.
Cloze Test
The Origins of Language
Our species spread across the planet in small groups, dividing and re-dividing
and becoming spatially separated from each other as they kept (1)
………………… new virgin territory. Groups developed their own cultural
traditions, including their languages. The languages of the world became
extremely diverse through this thin spread and geographical isolation of small
populations. Historical linguists (2) …………….. to reconstruct family trees of
some groups of languages. The best-known example is the Indo-European
family of languages, with its subfamilies including Germanic languages,
Romance languages, Slavic languages, and Indic languages. There are enough
similarities in the core vocabularies of these languages (3)……………….us that
a single mother language once existed somewhere on the boundaries of Europe
and Asia, over 5 000 years ago.
However all attempts to draw deeper family trees of the languages of the
world are highly controversial. There are over twenty major language families,
on a par with Indo-European, and there are no credible proposals for how they
may be historically (4)……………. For example, the early classification of
African languages into four major families by the linguist Joseph Greenberg is
now widely disputed, and his analysis of native languages of the Americas into
just three families was highly controversial from the start. Current estimates put
the number of living distinct languages at over 7 000. It is likely that in
prehistory, even though the human population was much smaller, the number of
languages was greater.
The number of different languages that have ever existed is far greater
than the number we can count now. To grasp this, we have to abandon the
notion of global languages like English, Chinese, and Arabic, spoken by
millions. Many of the languages of the 7 000-odd still found (5)……………. by
very small isolated communities, numbering only a few thousand people. Most
of these ‘little’ languages (6)…………………..out in the coming century,
leaving us with a picture of languages that is quite atypical of the situation that
has (7)……………. for most of the 100 000 years since we began to have
languages. From the start of historical times, we (8)…………………linguistic
diversity fast. Besides, civilization and now globalization have actually begun to
66
make modern languages rather different in kind from the sort that was
predominant in prehistoric times, when small bands of hunter-gatherers (9)
……………..the corners of the earth.
What above all (10)………………….languages from other animal
communication systems is their enormous semantic productivity. Considering
the way in which evolution usually works, is that there was some degree of
gradualness in the evolutionary process. Let’s be clear about how the term
gradual is used. In the span of life on earth, some 4 billion years, the rise of
Homo sapiens, no more than 200 000 years ago, might (11) ……………………
like an instantaneous event. During the roughly 1 million years in which African
erectus was around, it is likely that there was an increase (perhaps steady,
perhaps punctuated) in short-term memory and powers for processing
sequences, already paving the way for easy management of the highly
productive systems we see in modern human languages.
The cultural rise of humans was also gradual. We posit successive stages,
such as the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age and we know that
these phased into each other over different periods and at different places.
Hunter-gatherer cultures preceded pastoral cultures, which preceded agriculture,
which came before industrialization. And shifts from one culture to another were
not abrupt. Intermediate stages existed in which a group practised some
pastoralism but also did some hunting and gathering. Even so drastic an ‘event’
as the Industrial Revolution, (12)…………………in the perspective of the
history of life on earth, seems like a single moment; but we can trace the
succession of inventions and technologies composing it in a timeline, and even
give dates to these crucial moments.
To conclude, the rise of human language (13)………..very fast, but like
the emergence of modern human culture and the Industrial Revolution, it (14)
……..literally instantaneous. It’s hard to imagine it taking less than a few
centuries. This (15)…………….so, it is possible to theorize about the successive
stages involved in the rise of language.
Hurford, James The Origins of Language
Glossary
capacity – the ability or power to do or understand something

convince – to make somebody believe that something is true; to persuade
credible – that can be believed or trusted; convincing
distinct – recognizably different in nature from something else of a similar type
hunter-gatherer – a member of nomadic people who live chiefly by hunting,
fishing, and harvesting wild food
short-term – lasting short time; opp. long-term
single out – to choose someone or something from a group for special treatment
67
span – the length of time that something lasts or is able to continue
lifespan – the length of time for which a person or animal lives or a thing
functions
species – a group into which animals, plants, etc. that are able to breed with each
other are divided smaller than a genus and identified by a Latin name, e.g.
Homo sapiens
successive – following immediately one after the other; n. succession
Tasks
1. Select the correct grammatical form from the list to fill the gaps in
the text.
1. A to penetrate B penetrating C penetrate

2. A have managed B managed C manage
3. A convincing B convince C to convince
4. A related B relate C relates
5. A were spoken B are speaking C are spoken
6. A die B will die C dying
7. A existed B existing C has existed
8. A have been losing B have lost C lost
9. A were colonizing B are colonizing C will be
colonizing
10. A single out B singles out C singled out
11. A seems B to seem C seem
12. A is seen B seen C has seen
13. A may have been B may be C will have been
14. A can have been B can’t be C can’t have been
15. A be B being C to be
68
2. Select the three sentences which best summarize the information in
the reading passage.
A. The language of the world originally became diverse through the

spread of human species.
B. Grammatical similarities between language families point to the
existence of the Indo-European mother language.
C. Research on language families has always yielded credible results.
D. The number of languages was greater in the past due to the high rate of
language death affecting smaller languages.
E. Human language capacity developed gradually in the course of
evolution.
F. The Industrial revolution facilitates the rise of language.
Matching Paragraph Headings
Reading Comprehension
Homeschooling
In a relatively short period of time, homeschooling has gone from an idea on the
margins to an accepted part of our educational system. By homeschooling,
parents exercise their right to educate their children at home. Today, it is legal in
all fifty states of the USA. The US department of Education defines
homeschooling as follows:
Homeschooled children may be taught by one or both parents, by tutors who come into
the home, or through virtual school programs conducted over the Internet. Some
parents prepare their own materials and design their own programs of study, while
others use materials produced by companies specializing in homeschool resources.
Accountability for homeschooling is coordinated with the state in which the family
resides. 1
Parents take full responsibility for their children’s education. Fortunately, it is a

responsibility with rich rewards.
1
U.S. Department of Education. “School Choices for Parents”.
https://www2.ed.gov/parents/schools/choice/definitions.html#hs
69
Let’s now consider the main reasons why homeschooling works for so
many families.
1.---------------------------------------------------------
Homeschooling gives children the opportunity to soar in their areas of strength

and take their time with more challenging subjects. Schools and teachers have
little choice in how to manage large groups of children efficiently. To move a
class in an orderly fashion from one grade to the next, they must treat everyone
more or less the same. Even with tracking and ability grouping, there is little
chance of truly individualized learning in the sense of tailoring an education to a
child’s unique development. In home education, the course of study can be
designed around the child’s needs, rather than trying to fit the child into a one-
size fits-all course of study. Homeschooled children who naturally learn to read
a bit later than average need not feel inadequate or behind, and those who learn
quickly can cover more material without formally skipping grades. Home
education accommodates a child’s natural learning curve and eliminates
artificial expectations.
2.-------------------------------
A vast majority of homeschoolers say that concern about the school

environment – specifically drug use, safety, and peer pressure – is one of their
reasons for homeschooling. In the United Kingdom, bullying has been cited as
the main reason that parents give for choosing home education. 2 School violence
and harassment have become so much an accepted part of school culture that
this kind of surveillance is meant to be reassuring. While we can’t and shouldn’t
try to shelter children from the reality of life and the world, many homeschool
parents want to give their children a learning environment that is both physically
and emotionally safe without the need for harsh reminders of violence.
3-------------------------------------------------------------
2
U. S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. “Parent and Family Involvement in
Education: Survey of the 2003 National Household Education Surveys Program”.
https://nces.ed.gov/programs/quarterly/vol_7/1_2/4_9.asp
MacLeod,Donald. “Bullying Main Reason for Home Educating, Says Survey”, Guardian Unlimited, August 8 2005
70
In a fast-paced culture that often pulls family members in different directions,
homeschoolers have more time to live as a family rather than as roommates,
chauffeurs, and passengers. Strong family relationships require, above all else,
time – and time is the one thing over which families today feel they have little
control. Our daily rush looks as though we are on a merry-go-round, going faster
and faster as life blurs around us. Homeschooling, however, offers a way off the
merry-go-round. It is about families being happier and less stressed, about
getting to know each other and learning to live and learn together. Your children
can still be well educated and successful; they’ll just have more fun and be
healthier doing so.
4-------------------------------------------------------------
Because each child has different needs, each homeschooler can become
educated in an individualized, personal way. Some children’s needs are harder
to meet than others and require more work and knowledge. However, each
homeschooled child is in a position to have his or her unique needs considered
special. Parents of gifted children for instance find that homeschooling removes
barriers to deeper and broader learning, eliminates uncomfortable and unhealthy
classroom competition from the learning environment, and allows sensitive
children to get used to a busy, noisy world at their own pace. Treating each
child’s needs as special is true equity in education.
Rivero, Lisa The Homeschooling Option
Glossary
average – constituting the result obtained by adding together several amounts

and then dividing this total by the number of amounts; having qualities that are
seen as typical of a particular person, group, or thing
bully – n. a person who uses strength or influence to harm or intimidate those
who are weaker
v. to use superior strength or influence to intimidate someone, typically to force
them to do something
equity – the quality of being fair and impartial
harassment – aggressive pressure or intimidation
pace – a single step taken when walking or running;
the speed or rate at which something happens or develops
peer – a person of the same ag , status, or ability as another specified person
skip – to fail to attend or deal with as appropriate; to miss
surveillance – close observation, especially of a suspected spy or criminal
71
tracking (US) – the streaming of school pupils
streaming (British) – putting schoolchildren in groups of the same age and
ability to be taught together
tutor – a private teacher, typically one who teaches a single pupil or a very small
group
Tasks
1. Read the text and match headings A – E with gaps 1 - 4 in the text.
There is one extra heading
A. Homeschooling Works Because It Provides a Safe Learning Environment

B. Homeschooling Works Because All Children’s Needs Are Worthy of
Special Attention
C. Homeshooling Works Because It Allows Teachers to Improve Their
Expertise
D. Homeschoolinf Works Because It Allows Children to Learn at Their Own
Pace
E. Homeshooling Works Because It Strengthens and Nurtures Families
2. Read the text and mark the statements below as true, false or no
information in the text.
1. Homeshooling requires at least one parent to stay at home and teach

the child.
True False No information
2. Homeshooling is still pushing its way to become part of educational

system.
3. When children are homeschooled the state has full responsibility for
their education.
4. As an alternative approach to education, homeschooling is to be found

both in the USA and the United Kingdom.
5. Homeschooling is legal for gifted children only.
6. Truly individualized learning is one of the advantages of

homeshcooling.
72
7. The problem of bullying and school violence has been done away with
no traditional classroom education.
8. Homeshooling binds family members together.

9. While studying at home with their parents or tutors children feel as

though riding on a merry-go-round.
10.The success of education cannot be measured on the basis of

educational settings alone.
11.Classroom competition and peer pressure are considered obstacles to

both teaching and learning.
12. Homeschooling provides the opportunity for children to learn at their

own pace in a healthy learning environment.
3. Select the three sentences which best summarize the information in

the reading passage.
A. Homeschooling has to do with parents’ right to educate their children

at home.
B. Parents take full responsibility for their children’s education either by
teaching themselves or by hiring tutors to teach the kids.
C. Traditional classroom education provides little choice to teachers how
to manage large groups of children efficiently.
D. In the United Kingdom bullying has been cited as a main reason for
choosing home education.
E. Some of the advantages of homeschooling are pace of study, safe
learning environment, keeping strong family relationships, and
meeting children’s special needs.
F. Our fast-paced way of life pulls family members apart and they often
live like roommates rather than as a true family.
English Practice for PhD Students, Boryana Bratanova
73
In the following article on Nuclear Hazards the signalling words and phrases
are missing. Replace them and check your answers.
There are three separate sources of hazard related to the use of nuclear reactions
to supply us with energy. __________, the radioactive material must travel from
its place of manufacture to the power station. __________ the power stations
themselves are solidly built, the containers used for the transport of the material
are not. __________, there are normally only two methods of transport
available, __________ road or rail, and both of these involve close contact with
the general public, __________ the routes are bound to pass near, or even
through, heavily populated areas. __________, there is the problem of waste.
All nuclear power stations produce wastes which in most cases will remain
radioactive for thousands of years. It is impossible to de-activate these wastes,
and __________ they must be stored in one of the ingenious but cumbersome
ways that scientists have invented. __________ they may be buried under the
ground, dropped into disused mineshafts, or sunk in the sea. __________ these
methods do not solve the problem; they merely store it, __________ an
earthquake could crack open the containers like nuts. __________ there is the
problem of accidental exposure due to a leak or an explosion at the power
station. As with the other two hazards, this is extremely unlikely and
__________ does not provide a serious objection to the nuclear programme,
__________ it can happen, as the inhabitants of Harrisburg will tell you.
Separately, and during short periods, these three types of risk are no great cause
for concern. Taken together, __________, and especially over much longer
periods, the probability of a disaster is extremely high.
http://www.uefap.com/writing/exercise/parag/paragex12.htm
Why Is Sleep Important?

Sleep plays a vital role in good health and well-being throughout your life.
Getting enough quality sleep at the right times can help protect your mental
health, physical health, quality of life, and safety.
The way you feel while you're awake depends in part on what happens while
you're sleeping. During sleep, your body is working to support healthy brain
function and maintain your physical health. In children and teens, sleep also
helps support growth and development.
The damage from sleep deficiency can occur in an instant (such as a car crash),
or it can harm you over time. For example, ongoing sleep deficiency can raise
74
your risk for some chronic health problems. It also can affect how well you
think, react, work, learn, and get along with others.
Complete the summary below:

Choose no more than two words from the passage for each answer.
Physical and mental health is at risk without enough 1…………………sleep.

Furthermore, for adolescents, sleep promotes 2……………………….. and
3…………………………………..Lack of sleep can be the cause of
4………………………..health problems which can also have an impact on
important aspects of our lives.
http://ieltsliz.com/ielts-reading-summary/
Easily confused words 1
human (adj) Relating to or typical of human beings.

Representative of the sympathies and frailties
of human nature.
Example: It's ok to make mistakes. You're only

human!
humane (adj) Showing compassion, sympathy, or

consideration for humans or animals.
Example: It was very humane of you to give

the homeless man your sweater.
persecute (v) To make somebody the victim of harassment.

To annoy someone with persistent approaches.
Example: The red gang members enjoy

persecuting the blue gang members.
prosecute (v) To bring legal action against someone for

punishment of a crime or violation of law.
Example: The state will prosecute the

defendant for murder.
75
personal (adj) Relating to an individual. Private, individual.
Example: Celebrities do not want their personal

lives written about in tabloid newspapers.
personnel (n) The division of a company responsible for

hiring workers.
Example: Take your application to the

personnel office.
precede (v) To come before or in front of.

Example: The older students will precede the

younger students.
proceed (v) To continue after a pause or interruption. To go

on in an orderly regulated way. To begin and
carry on an action.
Example: Congratulations! You may proceed

to the next level now.
1. We should treat homeless people with kindness. They might be in a

terrible situation, but they are still…………
2. It is very……………to treat animals with kindness.
3. OJ Simpson was………for the murder of his wife.
4. When the other kids teased Ronny about wearing glasses, he felt like they
were………him.
5. The ……….. office needs your tax information.
6. Your……….. information should be kept private.
7. If you understand the instructions, you may………… with the test.
8. The ………………..message was brought to you by the office of the
governor.
9. An autobiography is a book about one's……………experiences.
10.The …………….society is responsible for protecting the welfare of
animals.
adapt (v) To change or change something to suit different

conditions.
Example: When I lived in Europe, I had to

adapt my lifestyle to fit in with my host family.
76
adopt (v) To accept something formally and put into
effect.
Example: Our school adopted a no smoking on

campus policy.
allusion (n) An implied or indirect reference especially in

literature.
Example: Your allusion to Shakespeare is

unclear in this essay.
illusion (n) A misleading image presented to the vision.

Example: That picture is an optical illusion. It
tricks your eye into seeing something that's not
there.
cite (v) To quote by way of example, authority, or

proof.
Example: Please cite your references on the last

page of your essay.
site (n) A location.

The architect visited the construction site

yesterday.
sight (n) Something regarded as worth seeing.

Example: The fireworks show at midnight was

a beautiful sight to see.
1. Congress is thinking about…………. a new health care policy.

2. It's hard to work in a noisy environment, but I think I've finally ………to the
noise levels.
3. He made an…………. to an old poem, but I wasn't familiar with it.
4. When you use quotes, you must…… the quotation.
5. You should visit this web. It’s really cool.
6. A 3-D movie is an example of an optical……………
principal (n) A person who has controlling authority or is in

a leading position.
Example: The principal of my school is Mrs.

Mallory.
77
principle (n) A comprehensive and fundamental law,
doctrine, or assumption.
Example: Killing someone goes against my

principles. I won't do it.
stationary
Unmoving. Immobile.
(adj)
Example: A stationary bicycle is a popular

device for exercise.
stationery (n) Materials (as paper, pens, and ink) for writing
or typing; letter paper usually accompanied
with matching envelopes.
Example: Our company needs to buy more

stationery for the supply closet.
sense (v) To feel.

Example: I sensed someone behind me. I

turned around, but nobody was there.
since (adv) Adverb meaning from a definite past time until

now.
Example: I have worn glasses since I was a

young girl.
suit (n) A set of garments.

Example: My husband wore a three-piece suit

to our wedding.
suite (n) A group of rooms occupied as a unit.

Example: After our wedding, we went back to
the hotel suite to change clothes and open
wedding gifts.
Use: principal, principle, stationary, stationery, sense, sensed, sensing, since,

suit, suite
1.I'm going to stay in a…………….. on my next vacation.

2. Mr. Spencer is the……………at the elementary school.
3. I have been stuyding English………….last year.
78
4. I'm………………a little resistance to my idea.
5. Sometimes Sam doesn’t……………..how smart he is.
6. I'm going to the……………….store to get some supplies.
7. Archimedes'…………………is the law of buoyancy which states that "any
body partially or completely submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body."
8. The car is not moving. It's…… …… .
9. I bought a new………………to wear to your wedding.
10. Tricia………………….something strange in the room at the top of the
stairs.
http://english-zone.com/vocab/confusing01.html
Easily confused words 2
1. Number vs Amount
The word “amount” is used with quantities that cannot be counted, for example,
money, information, time, etc.
Example: We received an enormous amount of help from our university.
The word “number” is used with quantities that can be counted, for example,
job, sample, machine, etc.
Example: I had a small number of specimens left.
Therefore, “number” and “amount” should not be used interchangeably since

they are used depending on whether the accompanying noun is a countable or an
uncountable noun.
2. Hypothesis vs Theory
The word “hypothesis” is a guess based on knowledge and experience, which

has yet to be tested or proved.
Example: His hypothesis was that giving his students less work would increase
their test scores.
The word “theory” is a scientific idea that has been repeatedly tested and is
supported by evidence.
79
Example: Scientists hold the theory of evolution in high regard.
A good way of remembering the difference between the two words is to think of
“hypothesis” as the first step toward establishing a “theory.” This is because an
established scientific idea usually originates from an educated guess.
3. Discreet vs Discrete
The word “discreet” means careful not to attract attention.
Example: Discreet observation of the patient enabled the doctors to draw vital
conclusions.
The word “discrete” means separate and distinct.
Example: The organisms can be classified into discrete categories.
These two words are often confused since they look similar. However, their
meanings are vastly different; so they must be used carefully. Such word pairs
that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings are called
“homophones.”
4. Old vs Original
The word “old” means of an earlier period, belonging to the past, or no longer in
general use; for example, “an old song” or “old clothes.”
Example: Some old theories suggested that the earth was flat.
On the other hand, the word “original” means the first of its kind or from which
a copy or revision is made; for example, “the original statement” or “the original
work of art.”
Example: The team replicated the original research to confirm its validity.
To make this distinction clearer, here’s another example:
Avoid: As we had stated in the old manuscript, each patient was administered
the same dosage during the study period.
Better: As we had stated in the original manuscript, each patient was

administered the same dosage during the study period.
80
The above example refers to a document that has been revised. Therefore, the
word “original” is more appropriate to describe the manuscript than the word
“old.”
5. As a result vs Based on the results
The meaning of the phrase ‘as a result’ is because of. It is used when implying
that one event is the cause of another.
Example: ‘The results of the experiment were inconclusive. As a result, the

research had to be repeated.
This sentence implies that because the results were inconclusive, the research
had to be conducted again.
On the other hand, the phrases ‘based on the results’ and ‘the results revealed’
refer to inferences drawn from certain results.
Example: ‘Based on the results of the experiment, we concluded that bats are
nocturnal creatures.’
This implies that the results of the mentioned experiment indicated that bats are
nocturnal.
Since the phrases “as a result” and “based on the results” or “the results
revealed” have different implications, they cannot be used interchangeably.
Summarizing Post-Test
1. Which of the following statements about SUMMARIZING is false?
A. The Summary is usually found in more than just one sentence of the
passage.
B. The Summary is one isolated thought in a passage.
C. The Summary is what all or most of the sentences or paragraphs are

about.
D. The Summary is what the passage is mostly about.
81
2. Which of the following statements about SUMMARIZING is true?
A. The Summary is a thought that is true but is not in the passage.
B. The Summary is specific, detailed informed contained in the passage.
C. The Summary is what the passage is mostly about.
D. The Summary is always found in the first sentence of the passage.
Read the following passage and then answer the question.
There are five teams of students in the fifth grade. The blue team has math first
period, and the red team has science. The yellow team gets to go outside early in
the morning, while the green team goes to music. Only students on the orange
team get to play games first period. Each student wears a nametag with his or
her color, so that the teachers and students all know where a student should be.
3. The Summary of this passage is:
A. Students are organized by teams with color names .
B. The blue team has math first.
C. Students wear nametags.
D. The yellow team has the best schedule.
The Elk River flows from the far northern part of the state all the way to the
southern tip. All kinds of animals rely on it for drinking water, people eat the
fish they catch in it, and farmers in the state depend on it for irrigating their
crops. Since there is very little rain in this state, the Elk River gives animals and
humans the water they need to stay alive. Even though the river is not nearly the
biggest in the nation, it is very important to the people and animals that live near
it.
A. The Elk River is a small river.
82
B. The Elk River starts in the northern part of the state.
C. The Elk River is very important to people and animals.
D. People catch fish in the Elk River.
As soon as she arrived at grandmother's house, Jessica ran into her bedroom to
look at the blue quilt. It covered her grandmother's bed and was Jessica's
favorite. It had patches of dark blue, medium blue, and light blue, with pictures
of birds and flowers on every other patch. Jessica liked to take naps with the
quilt wrapped around her. She loved the way it felt so soft and warm against her
skin. Whenever she was visiting grandma, just looking at the quilt made Jessica
happy.
A. Jessica's grandmother has a pretty blue quilt.
B. Jessica loved her grandmother's quilt.
C. Jessica took naps at her grandmother's house.
D. The quilt was warm.
Books lay in the middle of his floor. Several broken toys were shoved halfway
under the bed, and dirty clothes were everywhere. Frank's parents kept telling
him to clean his room, but it never seemed to get clean. In fact, if Frank did
manage to clean part of it, the rest of the room just got messier. In one corner of
the room was an old peanut butter and jelly sandwich, and an open bag of potato
chips was thrown on the dresser.
A. Frank's room was a mess.
B. A peanut butter and jelly sandwich was in one corner of the room.
83
C. Frank liked potato chips.
D. Frank got in big trouble because his room was not clean.
Math didn't make much sense to Cathy. She always got area and perimeter
mixed up and she had no idea what a right angle was. Last quarter she failed
math, and this quarter wasn't any better. As long as she could remember, math
had been hard for Cathy. She did fine in reading and science, but not math. Now
she was working on her math homework, but she didn't know how to do most of
it. Who invented math, anyway!
A. Who invented math?
B. Cathy did well in reading and science.
C. Cathy always got area and perimeter mixed up.
D. Cathy was not very good at math.
Jose carefully poured out the bag of marbles on his bed. He picked his ten
favorite marbles and carefully set them to the side. Then he got out a small bag
from his top drawer, and put the ten marbles inside. Just to make sure he
wouldn't forget them, he placed the bag of marbles in his backpack. Jose loved
show and tell, and he was excited that he would get to show his class some of
his favorite marbles.
A. Jose had lots of marbles.
B. Jose was getting his favorite marbles ready to take to school for show and
tell.
84
C. Jose would rather play marbles than play baseball.
D. Jose placed the bag of marbles in his backpack.
"Are you already done, son?" his father asked. "It seems like you just got in the
water." Jacob was finished with his bath in less than two minutes. He got his
body and hair wet, rubbed some grape flavored shampoo on his hair, washed his
body with soap, and quickly rinsed it off. He liked to take fast baths so he would
have more time to play. In fact, Jacob never took a long bath. To him, the faster
the bath, the better.
A. Jacob is very clean.
B. Jacob uses grape flavored shampoo.
C. Jacob likes to take fast baths.
D. Jacob never took showers.
85

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SUMMARY

How to Write a Summary

In the introductory paragraph of your summary write an in-text citation of the

Other examples of frames:

According to ___________________, ________________________________________.

___________'s article on ______________ (year) discusses the ____________________.

____________, in his/her article, "______________" argues that ___________.

Verbs for Summaries:

Claiming: claims, argues, contends, submits, asserts, declares, proclaims,

Criticizing: criticizes, challenges, opposes, contests, denies, repudiates,

Suggesting: suggests, recommends, proposes, hypothesizes, guesses, speculates

Implying: implies, hints, intimates, insinuates

Questioning: questions, asks, wonders

Reporting/Explaining: reports, records, notes, observes, recognizes, points out,

Demonstrating: demonstrates, shows, illustrates

Conceding: concedes, admits, acknowledges, grants

ALSO: demands, insists, pleads, requests, emphasizes, stresses, underscores,

The summary is usually written in the present tense.

TENSE CHANGES WHEN USING REPORTED SPEECH

Phrase in Direct Speech Equivalent in Reported Speech

"I am reading a book", he He explained that he was

"Bill arrived on Saturday", he He said that Bill had arrived on

"I have been to Spain", he told He told me that he had been to

"I will be in Geneva on He said that he would be in

We explained, "It could be difficult to find our house." = We explained that it

now then / at that time

A descriptive summary of the essay “A Modest Proposal” (132 words)

“A Modest Proposal is preventing the Children of poor People in Ireland, from

Informative summaries accurately convey the information contained in a text or

Thus, informative summaries are recommended for scientific, non-fictional

In actuality, most summaries are not entirely descriptive or informative. Rather,

Most of the sentences in this summary are informative. These sentences

Once we recognize the overall pattern of the original information, we can

Perhaps echoing Burke's pentad, the well-known journalistic formula or "Five

Children among injured as explosion hits Docklands rail station

CHARLES ARTHUR; JASON BENNETTO; NICHOLAS

The Irish Republic's RTE television and radio network received a

A Scotland Yard spokesman said officers were given about an hour's

Police immediately started searching for another suspect device in a nearby

Ken Maginnis, security spokesman of the Ulster Unionists, said on Sky

We read that another device is suspected in a nearby office development.

As a conclusion the INDEPENDENT states that the cease-fire is over.

The original passage:

• “Artistic, diverse and ever-changing, Vancouver is a hub of cultural

• Vancouver is a major cultural centre on Canada’s west coast. The

• “cultural centre” instead of “hub of cultural activity”

• “Venues” instead of “institutions”

• Paraphrase: The accused murderer nervously waited for the final

3. Exchanging Verbs & Nouns

• Original source: The researchers started their investigation of the work

• Paraphrase: The researchers recently investigated youth work ethic. (verb)

• Paraphrase: Sami’s insistence on honesty, no matter the personal cost,

This method requires 2 stages: 1) combining the original sentences, 2)

• For, tells us the reason

• Because, also tells us the reason

• And, means addition

• But, shows contrast

• Or, gives another reason or choice

• Yet, also shows contrast

• So, tells us the result

• Original source: The initial stages of the experiment involved sorting

• Paraphrase Step 1: The initial stages of the experiment involved sorting

Using Relative Clauses:

• Original source: Ballroom dancing is an enjoyable pastime. It is loved by

According to _, ______________________.

_'s article on (year) discusses the ____________.

, in his/her article, "" argues that _.