Safety Science 126 (2020) 104658

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Safety Science
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/safety

A critical review of vision-based occupational health and safety monitoring T

of construction site workers
Mingyuan Zhang⁎, Rui Shi, Zhen Yang
Department of Construction Management, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116000, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Globally, the occupational health and safety (OHS) of construction workers has long been a serious concern. To
Computer vision address this issue, there is an urgent need for an efficient means to continuously monitor the construction site to
Occupational health and safety eliminate potential hazards in a timely manner. As robust and automated video and image information ex-
Monitoring traction and processing tools for construction sites, computer vision techniques have been considered to be
Construction site
effective solutions and been applied for the occupational health and safety monitoring of construction site
workers. This paper aims to use bibliometric and content-based analysis methods to review the previous at-
tempts in related fields and present the current research status in this field. The results clarify the major lim-
itations and challenges of the current research from both technical and practical perspectives, in turn suggesting
the direction of future research.

1. Introduction
Due to hazardous working environments at construction sites,
workers frequently face potential safety and health risks throughout the
construction process. According to statistics released by the Ministry of
Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the People's Republic of
China (MOHURD), from 2011 to 2017, there were 4766 deaths in the
construction industry in mainland China, with an average of 1.87
deaths per day. In 2018, as of November 30, the statistics show that
there were 712 accidents and 798 deaths (Accident List, 2018). The
mortality rate remained high. OHS problems in the construction in-
dustry are a global issue and are not unique to any single country. Fatal
construction injuries in the United States accounted for approximately
18% of all occupational deaths in 2014 (CFOI, 2017a). Private con-
struction had the highest count of fatal injuries in 2016, with 991
deaths, which was the third highest fatal work injury rate, i.e., 10.1%
(CFOI, 2017a). The International Labor Organization estimates that in
some countries, 30% of construction workers suffer from back pain or
other musculoskeletal diseases (Lingard, 2013). In addition, the in-
cident rate for nonfatal occupational injuries and illness in construction
is 30% higher than the average industry (2012).
In view of these worrying data, many studies are dedicated to im-
proving this situation and ensuring the occupational health and safety
of workers on the construction site. Some studies have emphasized the
importance of organization and management systems in OHS (Teo
et al., 2005; Thomas Ng et al., 2005; Lingard, 2013). It is crucial for the
construction industry to develop and implement effective OSH man-
agement programs to reduce fatalities and injuries at sites (Teo et al.,
2005; Lingard, 2013), and the project manager is particularly important
throughout organizational management process (Lingard, 2013; HS,
2018). Other studies have suggested that the key to controlling occu-
pational health and safety programs and safety processes for workers is
to change the assessment methods (Pawłowska, 2015; Sinelnikov et al.,
2015; Sheehan et al., 2016). Occupational health and safety (OHS)
measurement relies heavily on “failure-focused” (Sinelnikov et al.,
2015) lagging indicators. Recent research emphasizes a more proactive
evaluation of OHS activity that emphasizes leading indicators, or in-
puts, that allow organizations to predict safety concerns, possibly re-
ducing the likelihood of an OHS incident occurring (Grabowski et al.,
2007; Lingard et al., 2011; Reiman and Pietikainen, 2012, Pawłowska,
2015; Sinelnikov et al., 2015; Sheehan et al., 2016). The content of OHS
issues is quite complex, and there are also many influencing factors and
solutions. However, technological interventions perhaps provide the
most significant potential for eliminating OHS hazards or reducing risks
at the source (Lingard, 2013). In the past 20 years, the construction site
occupational health and safety management research and tool devel-
opment based on innovative technology have grown greatly. Virtual
reality (VR) has been used for on-site worker training and hazard
identification (Hadikusumo and Rowlinson, 2002; Sacks et al., 2009;
Park and Kim, 2013; Albert et al., 2014; Perlman et al., 2014; Le et al.,

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: myzhang@dlut.edu.cn (M. Zhang), srlg@mail.dlut.edu.cn (R. Shi), yangz@mail.dlut.edu.cn (Z. Yang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2020.104658
Received 2 July 2019; Received in revised form 31 December 2019; Accepted 1 February 2020
0925-7535/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Zhang, et al.
Fig. 1. The research logic framework.
2015). Building Information Modeling (BIM) technology has been used
to pre-identify hidden dangers (Zhang et al., 2015). The development of
sensor technology has greatly improved information collection, data
transmission and processing, and has played a powerful role in con-
struction safety management (Mingyuan et al., 2017). Among them,
computer vision technology quickly became a focus of researchers, with
its characteristics of nonintrusion, appropriate cost and high recogni-
tion efficiency.
Computer vision technology has been investigated and tentatively
implemented in the OHS monitoring of construction site workers. OHS
deals with all aspects of health and safety in the workplace and has a
strong focus on the primary prevention of hazards (wpro, 2015; WHO
Defination of Health, 2016), and, in the literature, computer vision
techniques have been widely used in the monitoring of workers' occu-
pational health and safety, because it can help to efficiently and auto-
matically understand and continuously monitor the construction site,
labor, materials, machinery, and interactions. However, it is worth
noting that the research on computer vision in this field is mainly fo-
cused on the safety of workers on construction sites (in addition to, of
course, other aspects); this safety is also the focus of this review.
Due to the popularity of computer vision technology in the con-
struction field, there have been research articles to conduct manual
reviews of computer vision research in construction, such as defect
detection and condition assessment (Koch et al., 2015), tracking of
temporary resources (Teizer, 2015), tracking of workers (Konstantinou
et al., 2019), safety (Seo et al., 2015). However, Markoulli et al.
(Markoulli et al., 2017) axiomatized that traditional manual reviews
focus on some trees but fail to provide an overview of the whole for-
est—pointing to a lack of holism. Thus, the entire exercise makes such
reviews more subjective and run a risk of introducing bias (Zhong et al.,
2019). To improve upon such limitations, Botao Zhong (Zhong et al.,
2019) reviewed computer vision research in construction through sci-
ence mapping tools. However, science mapping has certain inherent
2
Safety Science 126 (2020) 104658
limitations such as lack of critical synthesis, less supportive databases,
possibility of technical inaccuracy and expert opinions. Therefore, this
study incorporates a comprehensive overview using science mapping as
well as a critical synthesis of previous literature in an attempt to
achieve the best of both worlds. This is justified since previous studies
loosely explain the relationship of application domains of computer
vision in construction OHS but a thorough review using science map-
ping tools on it is missing in the literature. In addition, there is currently
no comprehensive review of the latest researches on construction OHS
instead of just targeting some specific issues in this field since 2015 (Seo
et al., 2015). Such a synthesis will not only help provide the much
needed automation to construction OHS monitoring but also pave a
way for positive adoption of vision-based techniques due to its un-
discovered strength in safety and health implementation.
This paper aims to clarify the application ability of computer vision
in the field of construction site workers OHS monitoring through the
form of a review. It is believed that the applications of computer vision
techniques in this field can be divided into the following two aspects
according to the object of monitoring: 1) the workers themselves and 2)
the interaction between the worker and the surroundings. This paper
also aims to address the gaps and limitations of the current state-of-art
research, to drive the prospective research in the direction that is most
valuable and to identify the critical areas that the industrial and aca-
demic communities are adhering to.
To accomplish these goals, the following text is organized as fol-
lows: first, the research background will be introduced. Second, the
review methods and materials used are described. The third section of
the article overviews the development of the field using scientometric
tools. The next section presents a detailed overview of the research
works on applying computer vision techniques to the OHS monitoring
of construction site workers. The current research challenges are dis-
cussed in the following section, and future research directions are
given. The results and significance of the study are described at the end
M. Zhang, et al. Safety Science 126 (2020) 104658

Table 1
Generic accident causation models.
Model Proposer/proposers Year this model was OHS accident causes Reference
proposed

Goals Freedom Alertness Theory Kerr 1957 (1) psychological work environment (Kerr, 1957)
Domino theory Heinrich 1969 (1) environment (Heinrich, 1969)
(2) fault of person: unsafe act
Multiple causation Peterson 1971 (1) behavioral factors (human factors) (Petersen, 1971)
(2) environmental factors (physical
working conditions)
Updated domino sequence Bird and Loftus 1974 (1) management (Bird, 1974)
(2) personal factors
(3) job factors
(4) substandard acts and conditions
Ferrel Theory Heinrich 1980 (1) workload (Heinrich, 1980)
(2) human capability
the “Swiss Cheese” model of human error Reason 1990 (1) management (Reason, 1990)
(2) conditions
(3) acts
(4) hard defenses
(5) soft defenses
Human Factor Analysis and Classification Shappell, S. A., and 1997 (1) organization (Shappell and Wiegmann,
System (HFACS) Wiegmann, D. A. (2) supervision 1997)
(3) acts
(4) conditions

*Hard defenses include automated safety facilities, early warning systems, and more. Soft defenses refer to training and education, etc.

of the article. The research logic framework of the article is shown in
Fig. 1.
2. Background
2.1. The main causes of occupational accidents and illness in the
construction industry
Many researchers in the field have tried to understand occupational
accidents and illness in the construction industry by introducing and
building accidents causation models and analyzing the elements con-
tributing to occupational accidents and illnesses. Some theoretical
models are dedicated to studying the mechanisms behind occupational
accidents and diseases. The researchers tried to establish some generic
theoretical models to identify the root causes of accidents (Kerr, 1957;
Heinrich, 1969; Petersen, 1971; Bird, 1974; Heinrich, 1980; Reason,
1990; Shappell and Wiegmann, 1997), as shown in Table 1, which
provides valuable learning opportunities for the development of pre-
ventative measures. Models focusing on construction accidents have
also been developed or adapted from the generic causation models
(e.g., Abdelhamid and Everett 2000). The models (as shown in Table 2,
Abdelhamid and Everett, 2000; Garrett and Teizer, 2009; Suraji et al.,
2001; Chua and Goh, 2004; Mitropoulos et al., 2005) may assist safety
researchers and practitioners to conceptually understand the mechan-
isms behind construction accidents. At present, the research has begun
to deeply explore the causes of specific construction accidents (Chi
et al., 2005; Chan et al., 2008; Wong et al., 2016). Wong et al. (Wong
et al., 2016) found that fall accidents were mainly caused by the fol-
lowing four factors: planning, supervision, management and human
factors. The above theoretical research reveals that the causes of acci-
dents and illness in construction workers are complex and diverse.
There are connections and interactions between factors, as shown in
Fig. 2. Complex factors, which include environmental, and human
elements, are mentioned in almost every accident causation model and
relative research as the main cause of occupational accidents and ill-
ness. Environmental factors mainly refer to the condition of the site and
the climate and economic environment. The human factors mainly in-
clude the physical and psychological state of the person, behavior,

Table 2
Causation models specifically developed for construction accidents.
model Proposer/proposers Year this model was OHS accident causes Reference
proposed

Accident Root Causes Tracing Model Abdelhamid, T., and Everett, 2000 (1) unsafe conditions (Abdelhamid and Everett,
(ARCTM) J (2) workers’ improper response to unsafe 2000)
conditions
(3) worker’s unsafe acts
Constraint-response Model Suraji et al. 2001 (1) proximal factors (Suraji et al., 2001)
(2) distance factors
Modified Loss Causation Model Chua and Goh 2004 (1) situation (Chua and Goh, 2004)
(2) management system
(3) underlying factors
Descriptive Accident Causation Model Mitropoulos et al. 2005 (1) characteristics of the activity and (Mitropoulos et al., 2005)
context
(2) safety efforts to control conditions
(3) task unpredictability.
Human Error Awareness Training Garrett, J. W., and Teizer, J. 2009 (1) organizational culture (Garrett and Teizer, 2009)
(HEAT) (2) supervisory influences
(3) preconditions
(4) unsafe acts.

*(1) Characteristics of the activity and context: (a) the work technology, (b) the physical conditions, and (c) the surrounding activities.

3
M. Zhang, et al. Safety Science 126 (2020) 104658

Fig. 2. Modern accident cause theory model diagram (Bird, 1974).

personality characteristics and work ability. Monitoring these two types synthesizing the literature and rationalizing outcomes and has been
of factors and their interactions by using computer vision techniques is widely applied in the research field of engineering/construction man-
the main way to prevent worker occupational health diseases and safety agement (Yi and Chan, 2014; Mok et al., 2015; Liang et al., 2016; Li
accidents. et al., 2018). Web of Science was used to select a number of articles that
are related to the targeted areas. Through the theme, research field, and
journal screening, the fit and quality of the research literature materials
2.2. Overview of computer vision
obtained are guaranteed. Specifically, there are three stages, as fol-
lowing:
Research in the field of computer vision has developed rapidly in
recent years, especially in the areas of object detection, object tracking,
1) An exhaustive search was carried out using the Web of Science
activity recognition, and scene understanding. The current mainstream
search engine. The search period was fixed between the years
object detection algorithm is mainly based on deep learning (Yann
2000–2019. To ensure all relevant literature are captured through
et al., 2015), which can be divided into the following two categories:
the literature retrieval process, different unique search keywords are
two-stage algorithms that predominate in accuracy and one-stage al-
required. Boolean operators AND and OR were used to formalize
gorithms that predominate in speed. A typical representative of the
keyword search. The search strings used were “((construction site)
former is the R-CNN series algorithm based on a region proposal (e.g.,
AND ((safety) OR (health)) AND ((computer vision) OR (vision-
R-CNN, Girshick et al., 2013; Fast R-CNN, Ren et al., 2015; Faster R-
based)))”, “((construction site) AND ((worker) OR (safety) OR
CNN, Shaoqing et al., 2017), and typical algorithms of the latter are
(health)) AND ((computer vision) OR (vision-based)))” and “((con-
YOLO (Redmon et al., 2016) and SSD (Liu et al., 2016c). Similar to
struction site) AND ((worker) OR (accidents) OR (illness)) AND
object detection, object tracking is one of the hottest areas of computer
((computer vision) OR (vision-based)))”. The search explored the
vision. In the past few decades, considerable progress has been made in
title, abstract and keywords which were sufficient to identify and
the field of object tracking. After a long development of the object
extract the relevant articles. To limit scope of the search results, a
tracking algorithm, including the following stages: 1) the classic
filtering process was employed by evaluating the search results
tracking methods stage (e.g., Meanshift, Vojir et al., 2014; Particle
against two selection criteria: (1) The document should be written in
Filter, Zheng and Bhandarkar, 2006) 2) the track by detection (Kalal
English. (2) Studies indexed in database Web of Science Core
et al., 2012) and the correlation filter(Bolme et al., 2010) stage and 3)
Collection (WOSCC) are in the scope. A total of 198 documents in-
deep learning based tracking stage (Nam and Han, 2016; Held et al.,
cluding journal and conference papers were extracted as a result of
2016), the number of objects tracked, the speed of tracking and the
this exercise until March 2019.
accuracy of tracking have been greatly improved. The purpose of ac-
2) The publications that do not include the abovementioned keywords
tivity recognition in the field of computer vision is mainly to identify
in their titles or abstracts were artificially screened out in stage 2.
human activities through cameras. For example, Microsoft Kinect uses
This stage of screening of documents was conducted mainly by a
RGBD cameras to construct human bone features and recognize human
thorough review of abstract to identify the articles relevant only to
poses (Piyathilaka and Kodagoda, 2013). The task of visual relationship
construction workers’ safety and health, resulting into 141 articles
recognition/detection is not only to identify the objects in the images
for further analysis.
and their position but also to identify the relationships between the
3) Screening out the less relevant and irrelevant papers after a brief
objects. The Language Prior model (Lu et al., 2016) and Visual Trans-
visual examination of the content of the article in the stage 3,
lation Embedded network (Zhang et al., 2017) model were established
leaving a total of 117 publications for further analysis. The two
to understand the richer scene information in the images.
criteria of the content examination in the second literature filtering
The development of computer vision techniques provides strong
process were: (1) focuses on health and safety monitoring of con-
technical support for quickly extracting construction site information,
struction site workers. (2) focuses on computer vision techniques or
identifying construction site conditions and worker behavior, and
techniques integrated with computer vision.
achieving safety and health monitoring of construction site workers.

To provide a broad range review of the target areas, and considering

3. Material and methods that conference paper may propose latest interesting methods, we did
not exclude published conference papers which account for a certain
This research leverages the content analysis-based review method. proportion (21.37%), from the below-listed conferences with the year
This method is a well-recognized method for reviewing and

4
M. Zhang, et al.
Fig. 3. Numbers of papers published in the selected journals.
and the sponsor provided:
• Construction Research Congress, 2012(American Society of Civil
Engineers, ASCE)
• Construction Research Congress, 2014(ASCE)
• Construction Research Congress, 2016(ASCE)
• Construction Research Congress, 2018(ASCE)
• International Workshop on Computing in Civil Engineering,
2012(ASCE)
• International Workshop on Computing in Civil Engineering,
2015(ASCE)
• International Workshop on Computing in Civil Engineering,
2017(ASCE)
• International Conference on Computing in Civil and Building
Engineering, 2014(ASCE)
The basic data analysis of our literature materials was conducted as
shown in Fig. 3. The sample articles are from excellent journals in the
field, such as Automation in Construction, Journal of Computing in
Fig. 4. Numbers of papers published in different years.
5
Safety Science 126 (2020) 104658
Civil Engineering (JCCE), Journal of Construction Engineering and
Management (JCEM), validating the quality and importance of the lit-
erature we collected.
The search method may not guarantee a comprehensive coverage of
the papers that are worth reviewing. However, such an approach suf-
fices for providing with a considerable number of significant state-of-
the-art works, from which the study could generalize findings and re-
commend future works.
4. Overview of the literature based on statistical and bibliometric
tools
As shown in Fig. 4, the emergence of the first publication in 2003,
marks the point when researchers begin to apply computer vision
technology to on-site worker occupational health and safety mon-
itoring. After 2010, research in this field caught the attention of re-
searchers and a large number of results began to emerge, and gradually,
it became a popular research issue. 28 papers were published in both
2017 and 2018. Such research trends are inextricably linked to the
M. Zhang, et al. Safety Science 126 (2020) 104658

Fig. 5. Research hotspot heat map.

development of the computer vision technology itself. At the beginning
of this century, computer vision research based on learning became
popular, and the success of computer vision technology based on deep
learning in 2015 promoted research in this field.
VOSviewer is a software tool for constructing and visualizing bib-
liometric networks. To find the research hotspots in the field, we used
VOSviewer to analyze the keywords of the literature, and a heat map
was obtained, as shown in Fig. 5. The core domain of the research lies in
“computer vision“ and “security”. The hotspots include detection,
tracking, recognition, understanding, deep learning, etc.
Similarly, to reflect the research performance of research institu-
tions in this field, we conducted statistics on the authors of the litera-
ture, and the results of the visual analysis are shown in Fig. 6. The size
of the ball in the picture shows that Georgia Tech, the University of
Michigan, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, etc., cur-
rently appear to be performing well. It can be observed from the con-
nections that the research institutions represented by the balls of the
same color tend to be related to the same research field.
The differences in the publication quantities of various countries
may imply the extent to which research commitment and value are
observed in these countries. From the statistical results, 13 countries
have carried out research in this field, and the United States, China,
Australia, Canada and South Korea are leading the research in this field,
as shown in Fig. 7. There were three reasons for this result. First, the
sheer size of the construction worker community and the seriousness of
occupational health and safety issues have prompted researchers in the

Fig. 6. Analysis of research institutions.

6
M. Zhang, et al.
Fig. 7. Analysis of research countries.
country to develop workable solutions. Second, the society's high at-
tention to the occupational safety and health issues of construction
workers has promoted the development of research. Third, government
agencies and related companies have provided sufficient research
support in this area. Additionally, another reasonable justification
would be that the five countries have been leading the research and
technology advancements in visualization and informatics for years.
5. Preparation
Computer vision techniques are popular areas of research in the
field of computer science, and their applications are extensive.
Applications of computer vision in civil engineering or construction
began late compared to other applications (e.g., electrical and elec-
tronic engineering). The question is how to make computer vision
techniques more suitable for the complex and dynamic environment of
the construction site, to realize the transfer of the techniques, so that
they can be perfectly applied to the occupational health and safety
monitoring of workers on the construction site and become the focus of
relevant researchers. Throughout the literature, the research has made
attempts regarding the following aspects, which this paper defines as
preparation: (1) improvement and innovation of computer vision al-
gorithms and (2) the establishment and updating of the construction
site visual (images and videos) database.
5.1. Improvement and innovation of computer vision algorithms
Computer vision techniques need to meet complex, chaotic and
changeable construction sites to complete unique construction site
monitoring tasks. Therefore, some studies improved on and provided
innovations of the achievements in the field of computer vision and
established a unique technical framework. The improvements and in-
novations in this area focused on the current excellent target detection/
recognition algorithms (Golparvar-Fard et al., 2013; Rubaiyat et al.,
2016; Ding et al., 2018; Fang et al., 2018b; Fang et al., 2018c). For
example, to more quickly and accurately detect the wearing of personal
protection equipment by construction site workers, Fang et al. (Fang
et al., 2018b) developed a Faster-R-CNN and deep CNN model to
identify workers and their harnesses. At the same time, IFaster-R-CNN
was developed to identify workers and heavy equipment at the con-
struction site (Fang et al., 2018c).
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Safety Science 126 (2020) 104658
5.2. Establishment and updating of the construction site visual database
The training and testing of the related models of computer vision
technology often requires the aid of a data set prepared in advance.
Currently, a number of open source databases (e.g., ImageNet, MINIST)
have been established in the field of computer vision, thus promoting
the development of domain-modifying algorithms. However, these
image databases do not contain specific images in the construction
field. Therefore, the studies in the construction field need to build
specific image databases to train the proposed model or method.
An image database containing a wealth of construction site images is of
great significance in improving the accuracy of applications, such as target
detection and behavior recognition. M. Golparvar-Fard et al (Golparvar-
Fard et al., 2013; Soltani et al., 2016) highlighted the need to establish a
comprehensive data set in the construction sector and introduced a new
operational identification data set for common earthmoving equipment
(dump trucks and excavators). Humaira Tajeen (Tajeen and Zhu, 2014)
established a standard dataset for site images containing five types of
construction equipment. Yang et al (Yang et al., 2016) established 1176
video dips covering 11 types of trades. Sowmya (Sowmya, 2017) estab-
lished a new construction worker database with 389 images, containing
five types of activities activities done at construction sites namely ladder
climbing, brick laying, carpentry work, painting and plastering work. Luo
established database containing photographs of workers installing re-
inforcement (Luo et al., 2018a). Computer vision methods relying on
machine learning all need to establish an image data set to complete the
training of the model and ensure the accuracy of its application.
6. Applications
This section will review the application of computer vision technology
in the occupational health and safety monitoring of construction workers;
this monitoring is supported by the research on occupational accidents and
disease occurrence mechanisms. It is believed that the role of computer
vision is to prevent and control the occurrence of diseases and safety ac-
cidents through monitoring the workers themselves and the interactions of
workers with the construction site. In the literature reviewed in this paper,
the workers themselves mainly refer to the behaviors of the workers, and
the site environment mainly includes the worksite condition, equipment
and materials. Based on the literature research, according to the different
objects of computer vision in the occupational health and safety
M. Zhang, et al.
Table 3
PPE-use detection research details.
Reference Object(s) Method
(Park and Brilakis, 2012) Vest (1) HOG + HSV
hardhat (2) background subtraction
(Shrestha et al., 2015) hardhat (1) Harr (face detection)
(expandable) (2) edge detection
(3) color detection
(Rubaiyat et al., 2016) hardhat (1) Semantic Segmentation
(expandable) (2) HOG
(3) color-based and Circle Hough
Tranform (CHT) feature extraction
(Fang et al., 2018a) hardhat (1) Faster-R-CNN
(Fang et al., 2018b) harness (1) Faster-R-CNN
(2) Deep CNN
monitoring of workers on the construction site, the practice is divided into
the following two categories: (1) the workers themselves and (2) inter-
actions between workers and the site environment.
6.1. Worker himself
Workers have always been dynamic and are the most difficult to
control on the construction site, and they are one of the most important
factors causing safety accidents and illness. At present, the typical use
of computer vision to monitor workers mainly consists of the following
applications: 1) the use of personal protective equipment detection
(PPE) and 2) worker behavior identification monitoring.
6.1.1. Personal protective equipment use detection
The leading causes of construction site fatalities were falls, slips,
being struck by objects, electrocution, and being caught in/between
objects. The proper use of personal protective equipment is believed to
reduce the risk of casualties (Jaafar et al., 2018). Relevant regulations
also mandate the proper use of personal protective equipment at the
construction site. In China, for example, people working above a height
of two meters are required by law to use fall arrest equipment. the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (Osha) stipulates that
the employer is responsible for requiring the wearing of appropriate
personal protective equipment in all operations where there is an ex-
posure to hazardous conditions or where this part indicates the need for
using such equipment to reduce the occurrence of injury to the em-
ployees (Reese and Edison, 2006). However, the workers might not
follow the requirements exactly due to, e.g., fatigue, distractions, and
carelessness, even if they have been previously educated and trained
(Green and Tominack, 2012). The approach taken before was that se-
curity officers conducted on-site supervision, which had great dis-
advantages in terms of cost and efficiency.
With the development of computer vision technology, to address this
problem and to reduce the unnecessary casualties caused by this, re-
searchers have gradually applied this computer vision wireless sensing
technology to the automatic and noninvasive monitoring of the use of
personal protective equipment for field workers (Park and Brilakis, 2012;
Shrestha et al., 2015; Fang et al., 2018a; Fang et al., 2018b). The main
practice is to use object detection technology to determine whether workers
are wearing the appropriate personal protective equipment. The current
research mainly involves hardhats (Park and Brilakis, 2012; Shrestha et al.,
2015; Park et al., 2015; Rubaiyat et al., 2016; Mneymneh et al., 2017; Fang
et al., 2018c, Wu and Zhao, 2018), safety vests (Park and Brilakis, 2012),
and safety harnesses (Fang et al., 2018b), as shown in Table 3.
Safety Science 126 (2020) 104658
Contributions Limitations
(1) Provided research ideas for subsequent (1) depends on color stability
research (2) affected by lighting conditions
(1) Real-time cutting video and feedback (1) depends on high resolution cameras
(2) could only capture it on the front
(1) In the worker detection part, a (1) depended on high resolution cameras
machine learning method was adopted. (2) did not distinguish between hard hats and
(2) Accuracy rate reaches 84% regular caps
(1) precision and recall rate were still (1) poor lighting conditions and severe
beyond 95% under nonsevere occlusions could seriously affect the system
occlusions performance
(2) could be used in far-field surveillance
videos
(3) precision and recall rate of 95.7% and
94.9%
(1) precision of 99% (1) affected by lighting conditions and occlusions
(2) overcome difficulties in detecting the
use of harnesses
These studies have proven that it is feasible to use computer vision
technology and use a camera installed on the construction site to au-
tomatically supervise the use of PPE on the construction site and to
provide early warning signals. It is of great significance to the occu-
pational health and safety surveillance of workers. First, safe behavior
can be monitored without disturbing work. Second, a wide range of
work areas can be monitored simultaneously, reducing the costs and
time associated with inspections. The studies on PPE-use detection have
made great progress in terms of the detection accuracy and speed,
especially with the support of deep learning methods. Researchers have
made great breakthroughs, but there are still technical restrictions. The
system faces the challenge of instability due to lighting conditions, and
severe occlusions. Research on the use of computer vision for protective
footwear and protective gloves has not been carried out because these
objects require higher recognition accuracy. In addition, the scalability
of the research results in this area has not been proven.
6.1.2. Behavior recognition
Effective identification of labor activity on construction sites is the
basis for safety and health monitoring. Studies have shown that 80% of
construction accidents are caused by the unsafe behavior of construction
workers (Li et al., 2015). On the other hand, incorrect working posture is
an important cause of occupational diseases (Yi and Chan, 2016; Wang
et al., 2016; Seo et al., 2016; Schaub, 2006; Karhu et al., 1977; Delleman
et al., 2000; Mcatamney And Nigel Corlett, 1993). Previous behavioral
observations and analyses were based primarily on manual observations
(Krause, 1997; Mcsween, 2003) and survey visits (Straker et al., 2010). In
this way, there are obvious disadvantages in terms of cost and efficiency.
Computer technology, implemented by means of a camera on the con-
struction site, has become the subject of much research because of the
relatively low cost of obtaining a wide range of worker behavior in-
formation and the nonintrusion of activities of interest.
Behavior recognition is a complex topic, and there are many ways to
classify it. Turaga et al. (Turaga et al., 2008) divided human behavior
recognition into three parts, namely, movement recognition, action
recognition and activity recognition, which are considered as low-level
vision, middle-level vision and high-level vision. Gavrila (Gavrila,
1999) used 2D and 3D methods to study human behavior separately.
Depending on the level of complexity, J. K. Aggarwal and M. S. Ryoo
(Aggarwal and Ryoo, 2011) classify behaviors as follows: gestures, ac-
tions, interactions and group. In the field of construction, limited by the
development of computer vision technology itself, the current appli-
cation research mainly remains at the first two levels, namely, the re-
cognition of gestures and actions.
8
M. Zhang, et al.
The early research focused on feature extraction (time (dynamic
recognition, video-based) and spatial features (static recognition,
image-based)) for worker action classification (Peddi et al., 2009; Gong
et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2016a). For example, the 3D-Harris detector as
the feature detector, local histograms as the feature representation, Bag
of-Words as the feature model, and Bayesian network models as the
learning mechanism for action learning and classification, using back-
ground subtraction to extract the worker's posture. Gong et al. (Gong
et al., 2011) divided the template work related actions into the fol-
lowing action: traveling, transporting, bending, nailing with hammer,
aligning formwork.
The behavior representation based on contour and color feature
extraction is easy to obtain and is stable, but it is relatively rough. In
view of this notion, the researchers then gradually began to use three-
dimensional motion information established by depth images and
stereo cameras to complete the fine-level behavior representation,
which provides a wealth of information about human movement (e.g.,
angle information for ergonomic and biomechanical analysis) for er-
gonomic health and safety assessment (Ray and Teizer, 2012; Brilakis
et al., 2013; Khosrowpour et al., 2014; Seo et al., 2015b; Seo et al.,
2015a; Zhang et al., 2018). This type of research is based on still images
and lacks a description of the motion between the images. Therefore,
the research began with dynamic video development, and the rapid
development occurred in the development of vision-based motion
capture systems (Han and Lee, 2013; Han et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2016b;
Konstantinou and Brilakis, 2016). This type of motion capture system,
in theory, usually includes the two processes of pose estimation and
tracking (Moeslund et al., 2006), adding temporal constraints on the
position of the body joint between successive frames to improve the
efficiency of the data extraction. For example, in Meiyin Liu's research
(Liu et al., 2016b), a stereo vision system was proposed for 3D pose
estimation, which tracks the position of human joints through 2D image
frames and extracts a 3D human skeletal model from multiview image
sequences. The acquisition of the 3D bone data includes the following
three processes: (1) 2D human joint tracking; (2) 2D skeleton matching;
and (3) 3D skeleton reconstruction. It can be observed from the above
that the use of depth image information and tracking technology im-
proves the motion representation to a more precise and reasonable
level, enriching the motion data and behavior background, and greatly
improving the efficiency of the automatic acquisition of motion data.
Today, deep learning has been used for behavior recognition, which
greatly improves the accuracy and robustness of the recognition. Previous
Table 4
Behavior recognition research details.
Reference Object Method(s) 2D/3D S/C Contribution(s)
level
(Peddi et al., 2009) gesture (1) background 2D
subtraction
(2) neural network
(Gong et al., 2011) action (1) 3D-Harris detector 2D
(2) Bag-of-Video–Feature-Words
(3) Bayesian network models
(Seo et al., 2015) gesture (1) depth images (KINECT) 3D
(Liu et al., 2016b) gesture (1) 2D body joints tracking 3D
(2) 2D skeleton matching
(3) 3D skeleton
reconstruction
(Luo et al., 2018a) activity (1) an improved convolutional neural network (CNN) 2D
that integrates RGB, optical flow, and gray stream
CNNs
(Luo et al., 2018b) group (1) Two-stream convolutional networks: spatial 2D
and temporal streams
*Object level is based on the behavior classification (Aggarwal and Ryoo, 2011) and S/C means using still or consecutive images.
9
Safety Science 126 (2020) 104658
studies (Liu et al., 2017; Ding et al., 2018; Luo et al., 2018a) favored
convolutional neural networks or CNN-based hybrid deep learning models.
The same limitation, that is, the knowledge randomly selects a worker in
the image or video for gesture or motion recognition, which is inconsistent
with the situation at a crowded construction site. Convolutional networks
are used to identify activities (Luo et al., 2018b) that are encoded in spatial
and temporal streams, which are capable of simultaneously identifying and
marking different behaviors of multiple workers, given the severe camera
motion and low resolution of site surveillance videos and the marginal
interclass difference and significant intraclass variation of the workers'
activities. The recognition average accuracy rate was 80.5%.
According to the literature, visual-based behavioral recognition has
developed rapidly over the past decade as shown in Table 4. The main
developments are as follows: 1) obtaining dynamic behavioral information
from a single static behavioral message by adding time constraints; 2)
obtaining 3D behavior information from 2D behavior information by
adding depth information; 3) simultaneous acquisition of multi-person
sports information developed from that of single-person behavior in-
formation; and 4) motion representation through the automatic acquisi-
tion of skeleton information and fine posture estimation rather than
through rough motion classification as at the beginning. No matter which
aspect of research is pursued, the accuracy rate is improved and the cost is
reduced. However, as was mentioned at the beginning, today's research
still has two levels of posture and action. There is still a large gap in the
interactions between people and the environment and the acquisition of
group behavior. Some studies have begun to try to improve the accuracy
and fineness of recognition by means of the tools and equipment used in
behavior recognition, but the recognition of smaller targets is still un-
satisfactory. It is important to note that the behavioral information is
obtained for subsequent safety assessment and health analysis, so rich and
detailed information is needed. This type of richness should not only in-
clude independent behavioral information but should also consider the
behavioral background and environment.
6.2. Worker interactions with the construction site
Construction sites are characterized by a variety of interactions
between workers and construction equipment, materials, and other site
conditions. This dynamic and complex environment poses hidden
dangers to the workers' occupational safety and health. Incorrect or
inappropriate interactions can cause accidents. For example, collisions
between different pieces of construction equipment, especially heavy
Limitation(s)
S (1) real time (1) a gesture can belong to
(2) classifying worker gesture into three multiple categories
classes
C (1) the accuracy is 73.6%-79% (1) constrained to a single person
(2) action analyze based on image (2) Not real time
sequences
S (1) 93% of accuracy (1) Limited location of devices
(2) helps to identify the risk of WMSDs (2) lacks a description of the motion
between the images
C (1) accuracy of positions is 3.8 cm (1) interference from occlusion,
(2) free from the large amount of training illumination and camera
data sets views
C (1) recall rates were all 100%, and the (1) interference from occlusion
average accuracy was 85% (2) lack of time series
(2) Significantly improved robustness of (3) a single worker
model
S (1) simultaneously identifying and (1) cold start
marking different activities of
multiple workers
M. Zhang, et al.
construction equipment, between construction equipment and con-
struction materials, and between construction equipment and workers
are important types of safety incidents at construction sites. In 2011,
the US Department of Labor Statistics’ Chief Secretary for
Administration reported that 122 people were killed by construction
workers colliding with equipment or objects, accounting for 17% of the
deaths in the construction industry, and the data did not improve in the
data published in 2017. Monitoring the various building resources at
the construction site and mastering the interactions among them and
workers are important ways to use computer vision technology to
prevent workers' occupational diseases and safety accidents. The main
aspects currently involved are as follows: resource tracking, resource
location, proximity analysis, proximity warning system design, etc., and
there is a connection between these applications, as shown in Fig. 8.
6.2.1. Resource tracking and positioning
Tracking and Positioning resources are important tasks in construction
safety and health management. With the development of automation
technology, manual monitoring has been gradually replaced. The available
tracking solutions are based primarily on RF technologies, including Global
Positioning Systems (GPS), Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) and
Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) technologies. These technologies all work on the
same principle, i.e., installing a sensor on each entity. However, in regard to
large-scale crowded construction sites, the installation time and economic
Fig. 8. Application diagram.
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Safety Science 126 (2020) 104658
cost of the sensor will increase greatly. Computer vision technology is
considered an effective alternative due to its cost and suitability advantages.
At present, using computer technology to track and locate building
resources mainly involves two core contents, i.e., workers and con-
struction equipment. There are two main tracking methods mentioned
in the existing research (Kim and Chi, 2017), i.e., detection-based and
sequential analysis-based tracking. The former independently detects
the object of each frame of the video, while the latter analyzes the si-
milarities and differences between successive sequences. The core of
detection-based tracking lies in the image features and machine
learning. The current research mainly uses the histogram-of-gradients
(HOG) and color information to perform personnel and device detection
through feature cascade classifiers to facilitate object tracking (Park
et al., 2011; Azar and McCabe, 2012; Azar, 2016). On the other hand,
sequential analysis-based tracking methods have also been evaluated in
the research. This type of tracking method relies mainly on Kalman
filters, particle filters, and mean-shifts. The previous research has fo-
cused on the tracking of individual workers (Teizer and Vela, 2009;
Park et al., 2011). Subsequently, it began to gradually explore the
possibility of tracking multiple workers at the same time (Yang et al.,
2010; Park and Brilakis, 2016; Konstantinou and Brilakis, 2018; Lee and
Park, 2019). Yang et al. (Yang et al., 2010) first proposed a tracking
scheme that uses cameras to track multiple workers at the construction
site. The program uses online color model learning and Kernel
M. Zhang, et al. Safety Science 126 (2020) 104658

Table 5
Typical research in resource tracking and positioning.
Reference Object(s) Methods Contribution(s) Limitation(s)

(Teizer and Vela, 2009) single worker (1) density mean-shift, (1) assessed ability (1) focused on a single target for each
(2) Bayesian segmentation (2) of 4 algorithms to track under typical video sequence
(3) active contours construction
(4) graph-cuts (3) site conditions
(4) two error metrics were determined
(5) discussed potential benefits and
disadvantages of the tracking algorithms.
(Park et al., 2011) (mutiple (1) kernel-based tracking (1) tested and evaluated the performance of (1) focused on a single target
categories) approaches th two categories approaches
single object (2) point-based tracking (2) five metrics were set
approaches
(Yang et al., 2010) mutiple (1) Kernel covariance tracking (1) tracked multiple personnel (1) algorithm might fail when
workers (2) Online color model (2) in a given video sequence appearance changed too much
learning (3) could handle the scale change, trajectory and severe occlusion last too long
crossing and occlusion well
(Yang et al., 2011) crane (1) Gaussian background (1) estimated velocity from position (1) A crude crane model was
modeling algorithm measurements determined in advance
(2) estimated jib angle
(Brilakis et al., 2011) (project related (1) SURF feature detectors (1) 3D tracking of each entity (1) the error resulted from the
entities) single (2) STFs calibration and 2D vision-based
target (3) triangulation tracking processes cannot be
ignored
(2) tracked a single object per entity
type
(Lee and Park, 2019) multiple (1) entity matching (1) track multiple workers in 3D (1) processing time was over the
workers (2) triangulation (2) 96% of workers' movements are retrieved limitation
with the mean error of 0.293 m (2) Lacked of long-term testing under
(3) estimate trajectories is quantified in three complex environmental conditions
ways (completeness, continuity, and
localization accuracy)

covariance tracking to demonstrate reliable performance in the sce-
narios given by the experiment. However, in some difficult situations,
such as changes in the appearance of workers, changes in the en-
vironment, and severe occlusion, the algorithm may fail.
As researchers become aware of the potential of computer applica-
tions, the scope of the resource tracking and location research is gradually
extended to other temporary resources. Examples include construction
equipment, cranes (Yang et al., 2011, Chen et al., 2017; Kim et al., 2018),
excavators and dump trucks (Maximilian et al., 2014; Bao et al., 2016; Kim
et al., 2018), concrete mixer trucks (Kim, 2018), roller (Ren et al., 2016),
building materials, earthwork or concrete (Park et al., 2011; Teizer et al.,
2013), and temporary structures, including scaffolding, support plates,
shingle walls (Wang et al., 2015) and safety guardrail (Kolar et al., 2018).
Taking into account safety factors, in the study of tracking and positioning
of some heavy construction equipment, the researchers are committed to
completing the attitude estimation of the equipment for local positioning
(Golparvar-Fard et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2014; Yuan et al., 2017; Soltani
et al., 2017; Soltani et al., 2018). With the introduction of stereo vision,
traditional 2D tracking can no longer meet the needs of the safety per-
formance assessment at the construction site, and resource tracking and
positioning are gradually tilted toward high-precision three-dimensional
positioning (Brilakis et al., 2011; Zhu et al., 2016). On the basis of the
previous research, they gradually use the principle of triangulation to
improve the depth information of resources in terms of personnel and
equipment positioning. In the latest research, Yong-Ju Lee et al. (Lee and
Park, 2019) completed the tracking and positioning of the construction
site workers by means of functional integration and online learning
modules for detection and tracking. Under experimental verification, the
method was successful in the 0.821 m positioning error range, where 96%
of the actual motion was inverted with a 99.7% confidence level.
For the dynamic construction site environment, related research that is
similar to resource detection, due to the strong connection between them,
has overcome great challenges in the resource tracking and positioning
shown in Table 5, such as the following: (1) tracking and locating in-
dividual workers, worker groups (multiple) and more resource types
(workers, construction equipment, temporary materials); (2) traditional
2D tracking and positioning has been developed to 3D tracking and po-
sitioning; and (3) tracking and locating the target as a whole and its part
(for example, the local node of heavy construction equipment; the position
of the driver's head). Obviously, these results are closely related to the
development of the computer techniques themselves, and the construction
site resource tracking and positioning application relies on its own de-
velopment. As mentioned earlier, the application model is mainly based on
the existing tracker for adaptive improvement.
In summary, it is obvious that the various breakthrough develop-
ments mentioned above are intertwined. Achieving long-term stable
tracking and accurate three-dimensional positioning of multitype re-
sources and multiple targets, and more comprehensively grasping the
construction site resource information, is paving the way for later safety
performance evaluation and control.
6.2.2. Blindspots
The interaction between construction workers and construction
equipment can be dangerous (CFOI, 2017a; CPWR, 2017b). The limited
visibility due to construction equipment blindspots is responsible for more
than half of the visibility-related fatalities in the construction industry
(Teizer, 2015; Ray and Teizer, 2016). Device blindspots are spaces that are
not visible to the equipment operator. The existence of such a space poses
a life-threatening danger to those working around the equipment. There-
fore, monitoring equipment blindspots and conducting potential hazard
identification can effectively reduce fatal cases (Teizer, 2015).
The intervention of computer vision technology in this aspect is
mainly the determination of the dynamic range of blindspots at the
later stage. The intervention of computer vision technology in this as-
pect is mainly the determination of the dynamic range of blindspots in
the later stage. The dynamic model obtained by the stereo camera
system data is superimposed on the static blindspot map of the device
(Teizer et al., 2010), which is customized by scanning or other spatial
data to complete the dynamic blindspot map (Ray and Teizer, 2011;
Ray and Teizer, 2013; Ray et al., 2013; Tao and Teizer, 2014), as shown

11
M. Zhang, et al.
Fig. 9. Blindspot research framework (Ray and Teizer, 2016).
in Fig. 9. Obviously, the monitoring of dynamic equipment blindspots
requires other technologies to complete the information fusion. The
main contribution of computer vision technology is to use the obtained
depth image information of the stereo camera to complete the estima-
tion and tracking of the driver's head or face posture (Ray and Teizer,
2011; Ray and Teizer, 2016). Most of these studies are based on ma-
chine learning training depth information data to complete the classi-
fication and regression of data; the main methods include the following:
principal component analysis, support vector regression, and the
Random Forests algorithm, which has a connotation similar to the at-
titude estimation algorithm mentioned above.
However, even with the latest research results, in the outdoor en-
vironment, the model test experiments were also unsatisfactory due to
excessive interference data, thus lacking practical application ability.
Researchers are currently trying to improve their application cap-
abilities with more sophisticated techniques, such as face tracking. In
addition, they also realized that monocular vision should be trans-
formed to binocular vision to better fit the visual mode of the person
itself, and the driver's differences should be considered as well (Ray and
Teizer, 2016).
It should be noted that the dynamic blindspots monitoring results
need to provide real-time feedback to the equipment operators to im-
prove their safety awareness. Of course, the more effective application
of this monitoring result is to assess whether the interactions between
the workers and equipment are appropriate in real time with the
monitoring and tracking of the people around the equipment.
6.2.3. Distance measurement and proximity analysis
The incorrect interaction of construction workers with the built
environment is an important factor in occupational health and safety
issues, such as the collision of workers and construction equipment
mentioned above. J. Hinze (Hinze et al., 2013) believes that security-
related leading information can be used to proactively prevent acci-
dents, and this information is defined as information generated in real
time at specific work sites. In other words, leading information includes
the dangers surrounding current workers and the automatic monitoring
of proximity relationships; active intervention is an important way to
Table 6
Vision-based distance measurement research details.
Reference Method 2D/3D Precision
Seokho and Caldas, 2012 triangulation 3D (1) ±1 m at 35 m
Kim et al., 2016 Pixel distance conversion 2D \ stationary camera
Kim et al., 2017 Pixel distance conversion 2D (1) 0.93 m at 2.8 m
Kim et al., 2019 (1) image rectification 2D (1) 97.43% at 26.3 m (lab-scale)
(2) Pixel distance conversion (2) ±0.9 m at 20 m (field study)
*2D/3D means whether depth information is included.
12
Safety Science 126 (2020) 104658
avoid such safety incidents. Proximity refers to the minimum distance
between devices or between equipment and workers (Kim et al., 2016).
The main method of using computer vision is that the researcher uses
the tracking and recognition object as the data acquisition method, uses
the positioning result (distance, motion speed, positional relationship,
etc.) as the data input, analyzes the proximity relationship between the
targets, and gives the final results of the safety assessment, which are
fed back to the relevant workers. It can be observed that the target
location and distance measurement are the basis for proximity mon-
itoring.
At present, vision-based distance measurement mainly involves two
methods as shown in Table 6. One is to use depth information to de-
termine three-dimensional coordinates (Seo et al., 2015b; Seokho and
Caldas, 2012), and the other is to directly measure using two-dimen-
sional images (Kim et al., 2016; Kim et al., 2017; Kim et al., 2019). The
former mainly uses the depth sensor (stereo camera, RGB-D sensor) to
directly obtain the image depth information and construct the three-
dimensional coordinates of the target or uses the binocular camera
system to reconstruct the image depth information by means of the
triangulation principle and feature matching (Yang et al., 2013; Brilakis
et al., 2011). The latter mainly uses the pixel information of the two-
dimensional image and uses the deep learning (convolution neural
network, etc.) method to estimate the Euclidean distance between the
targets.
The proximity analysis and safety assessment are at the heart of
proximity monitoring. The obtained proximity information with the
preset rules (specification, management experience, industry rules) is
used to compare and analyze to form a safety assessment result. Due to
the lack of a high precision range or a mandatory range of distances, the
currently used assessment method is fuzzy evaluation (Seokho and
Caldas, 2012; Kim et al., 2017). However, the current research situation
in the literature, although there is speed information (speed direction
and size) related to moving objects, it does not give the speed mea-
surement link, so the evaluation system that comprehensively considers
the speed of moving objects is not yet mature (Wang and Razavi, 2016).
Timely feedback of the assessment results is an important part and the
key to the performance of the system. Once it is confirmed that there
Device Limitation
Bumblebee XB3 High computational cost
Loss of depth information, projection
distortion
stationary camera/CCTV Limit device location and need reference
object
camera-mounted UAVs Need reference object
M. Zhang, et al.
may be a security risk (such as the risk of being hit), it will be trans-
mitted to the relevant personnel in various forms of information. At
present, it is mainly based on audible alarms, wearable sensor vibration
information or visual information feedback.
This section reviews the use of computer vision technology to in-
tervene in the interaction between workers and their environment.
Such interventions include timely feedback on the static situation of the
worker's environment, that is, the content of the scene within a certain
range, and, more importantly, predicting the dynamic interactions be-
tween workers and the environment. This intervention is essentially an
automated, static and dynamic response to a timely response to a se-
curity risk assessment. As far as the current research is concerned, the
degree of automation, that is, the timeliness of analysis and feedback,
the accuracy, the accuracy and robustness of the harsh and variable
environment, are not fully supported by the practice on the site.
However, the potential of computer vision in this field is huge.
Compared with other automation technologies, it has a strong cost
appeal, a great application range and an efficient application return.
7. Open research challenges and future research directions
The following thoughts highlight a few challenges and future di-
rections that are important to researchers:
7.1. Technical restrictions
The success of the monitoring system is subject to the accuracy and
reliability of the visual information obtained. The dynamic and complex
construction environment presents challenges to computer vision tech-
nology for worker health and safety monitoring at the construction site
(Seo et al., 2015b), for example, sites involving multiple workers, different
types of equipment and materials, and changing working environments.
Computer vision technology has created a number of technical limitations
in the face of such environments, as follows: lighting conditions (Park and
Brilakis, 2012; Fang et al., 2018a), occlusion (Yang et al., 2011a), visual
range (Ding et Al., 2018; Luo et al., 2018a), and camera placement (Seo
et al., 2015b). This paper reviews the literature within the scope of this
paper, trying to overcome these technical limitations from algorithms,
models, and method improvements. One of the researchers' proposed so-
lutions is to use deep learning algorithms to extend the training data set to
address the limitations imposed by partial occlusion (Fang et al., 2018a;
Fang et al., 2018c). Other studies have proposed the use of drones to re-
place cameras that are fixed at the construction site to address the spatial
limitations of camera placement (Irizary et al., 2012; Gheisari et al., 2014;
Seo et al., 2015b; Kim et al., 2017). However, there is currently no research
on its feasibility. Inspired by some of the research, this paper proposes
several feasible solutions to the technical limitations for future researchers.
7.1.1. Establishment of a large-scale comprehensive construction site data
set
The current research has recognized the importance of establishing
publicly available data sets for complex construction sites; establishing
these data sets is important to overcome the technical constraints im-
posed by the environment. As mentioned earlier, many studies have
now established data sets for specific computer vision tasks, including
the classification of workers' gestures and construction equipment ac-
tivities. However, these public data sets still have a huge gap between
the amount of data and the type of data and the large datasets (image
net, etc.) in the existing computer vision field. Therefore, more research
work is needed in the future to create a comprehensive data set in the
building field. It should include not only image data for specific visual
tasks (pose recognition, target detection, activity classification, etc.) but
also visual data reflecting the construction site’s complex features, in-
cluding a variety of construction site elements and different changes in
viewing angles, lighting, and occlusion conditions. This comprehensive
and complex integrated data set is of great significance in avoiding the
13
Safety Science 126 (2020) 104658
“prejudice” of algorithms based on data training and improving the
accuracy and robustness of the application in complex and variable
construction environments, to the extent that the technical limitations
caused by the environment are solved. The establishment of such a data
set may require building up a data-sharing platform for global stake-
holders to upload data and receive rewards to encourage their active
sharing behavior. One potential challenge of it is how to manage and
maintain this sharing system, such as working out the rewards method.
Another is to develop processes to standardize data for efficient data-
sharing.
7.1.2. Integration of multiple technologies
Compared with other methods, computer vision technology has the
advantages of low interference, a simple layout and low cost. However, in
some respects, there are still problems that are difficult to solve at present,
including the visual range of applications, and it is difficult to avoid ex-
ternal interference. This paper argues that the complementation of mul-
tiple information technologies is probably the most promising solution.
Some studies have supported this view (Yang et al., 2011b; Ray and
Teizer, 2011; Ray and Teizer, 2013; Ray et al., 2013; Tao and Teizer, 2014;
Seo et al., 2015b; Soltani et al., 2018). However, the scope of current
research attempts is narrow and the actual application capabilities have
not been verified. Therefore, it is still a research challenge to combine
computer vision technology with other information technologies, espe-
cially other sensor technologies, and to make full use of its advantages to
achieve practical solutions for the health and safety supervision of workers
on the construction site. One of the difficulties in the integration of this
technology is data conversion and comprehensive reasoning. It may re-
quire the creation of complex algorithmic models. Another difficulty is to
ensure the consistency of the data (object, time, space, etc.). For example,
in the proximity analysis of heavy equipment at workers and construction
sites, the consistency between dynamic data obtained from other speed
sensors and visually monitored data is the basis for accurate completion of
comprehensive reasoning and safety assessment. Potential solutions are
developing processing hardware that supports multiple complex fusion
algorithms and introducing unique data identifiers such as timestamps. In
addition, future research needs to select the most economical and most
suitable technology integration solution to enhance the application po-
tential of computer vision technology.
7.2. Method validation and evaluation
It is important in the designing and testing of algorithms to validate
their performance (Teizer, 2015). Establishing reasonable evaluation
criteria not only provides project managers with reference to the al-
gorithm selection, but also guides the research in the field. It should be
emphasized that the value of the research in this field is based on its
practical application capabilities. This is the core criterion for judging
the significance of the research. In the complex and variable con-
struction environment, it is more important to verify the actual per-
formance of the proposed method, model and framework. From the
perspectives of evaluation purposes, the correctness of the algorithm
could be regarded as most concerned validation criterion and evalua-
tion effect, within the scope of the review. In addition, some studies
also mentioned the robustness and generalization ability of the algo-
rithm. There are some potential problems with these validation and
evaluation. First, the correctness of the algorithm needs to be evaluated
by comparing with the benchmarks—the “truth”, which raises another
problem, how to provide the benchmarks. The definition of benchmarks
in some previous studies is reasonable. Some studies in the two-di-
mensional image ranging field used high-precision distance measuring
instrument measurements to reflect the truth (Kim et al., 2017; Kim
et al., 2019). Another example is in some PPE-use detection (Park et al.,
2015; Rubaiyat et al., 2016; Mneymneh et al., 2017; Fang et al., 2018c,
Wu and Zhao, 2018) and behavior recognition researches (Peddi et al.,
2009; Gong et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2016a), the truth was manually
M. Zhang, et al.
determined in ahead. However, in the majority of previous studies,
definition or detailed descriptions of validation benchmarks were
missing, for instance, resource tracking (Teizer and Vela, 2009). It has
been argued that definition of validation benchmarks is necessary to
achieve improved credibility of proposed method (Oberkampf and
Trucano, 2008). Therefore, from this perspective, the first challenge is
to set validation and evaluation benchmarks. In this paper, it is believed
that a detailed validation benchmarks definition is defining appropriate
benchmarks for the evaluation of solution accuracy and stating con-
ceptual description and uncertainty quantification of the benchmark
precisely (Oberkampf and Trucano, 2008). The second evaluation cri-
terion is the robustness of the algorithm. A small number of studies
gave a detailed description of the robustness of the algorithm (Fang
et al., 2018a; Fang et al., 2018b). Overviewing the literature, the ver-
ification of robustness is based on simulating the actual environment
(lighting, occlusion, etc.). The limitation of this verification mode is the
absence of long-term algorithmic testing. In other words, it is necessary
to set the time standard for validation and evaluation experiments.
Because the algorithms are practiced at the construction site. They will
definitely face the harsh environment and withstand the long-term test.
The survivability of the system determines its application in practice. In
addition, attention should be paid to the method generalization vali-
dation. For example, in the study of worker pose estimation, the re-
search often gives a classification result of the model for a small number
of posture categories and emphasizes that the model has strong gen-
eralization ability. However, it has not been verified yet. The statement
is not convincing enough.
In addition to appealing existing method validation and evaluation
criteria, in the specific area of the construction industry, social en-
vironment should also be taken into consideration. It is essential for the
application and promotion of the methods. This factor has not been
considered in the existing evaluation of methods such as the legal en-
vironment (Seo et al., 2015). Because of the psychological pressure
computer vision techniques may bring to workers, the loss of trust in
managers, and the infringement of human privacy (Tabak and Smith,
2005), many regions and countries have clear regulations on the usage
of cameras at construction sites. For example, South Korea restricts the
use of high-precision cameras, and the target recognition algorithm
based on high-precision pixels (Shrestha et al., 2015) loses its appli-
cation capability. Besides, the economics of the method have not been
reflected in the existing algorithm evaluation. In the occupational
health and safety monitoring of workers area, only the most efficient
and economical method will be selected and applied.
In the evaluation and verification of the method, besides clarifying
the actual value of the method, the deficiency and limitation should be
explained to promote research in this field.
In summary, the following challenges are faced in the verification
and evaluation of methods:
1) How to set verification benchmarks and evaluation criteria, design
verification experiments, and evaluate the practical application
capabilities and application values of the methods.
2) The verification and evaluation of the method needs to be com-
prehensive, fully considering the practical ability, depending on the
actual situation of the application, including but not limited to the
following: effectiveness, robustness, generalization ability, practic-
ability and economy.
3) Identify the limitations and deficiencies of the proposed method,
identify the source of such restrictions, and provide potential im-
provements.
7.3. Complex scene understanding
Scene understanding means integrating information about the var-
ious components of the construction site scene to explain the following:
what is in the scene; what is their relationship; what happened; and
14
Safety Science 126 (2020) 104658
what will happen (Gregory, 2013). In the field of management, al-
though computer vision technology has made remarkable progress in
target detection and resource tracking, the few studies involving the
overall grasp of the scene are often limited to the study of a certain
computer visual specific underlying content, ignoring the spatial re-
lationships and the logical connections lack the mining, extraction,
interpretation and reasoning of the semantic information of the scene,
making it difficult to form advanced visual information. However, it is
especially important for the assessment of occupational health and
safety risks and the prevention of occupational safety accidents. Over-
coming the challenge can effectively improve the automation of the use
of computer vision technology for the occupational health and safety
supervision of workers. Dynamic scene understanding dominated by
visual sensing devices in the field of workers’ health and safety mon-
itoring at construction site, is not only to dig out information about
worker health and safety, for instance, explaining the spatial relation-
ship of elements in the monitoring scene, but also to grasp their motion
intention, infer the evolution trend of the scene, for analyzing the
health and safety risks, and achieving self-monitoring. This type of
construction site scene understanding, i.e., using the overall informa-
tion of the scene, can also improve the accuracy and reliability of the
completion of multiple underlying visual tasks. For example, combining
the spatial semantic relationship between workers' scenes (materials,
construction equipment, etc.) can significantly improve the accuracy of
the algorithm for worker pose estimation (Jun 2018). To achieving
scene understanding, one potential solution is to use the existing ad-
vanced visual algorithms such as visual relationship detection model
(VTransE, Language Prior) to extract visual semantics. The challenge of
the solution mentioned above is that it is difficult to calibrate and train
visual relationships. Another solution is to consider advanced in-
formation technologies such as ontology technology. Ontology tech-
nology can formalize concepts and their relationships in specific do-
mains (Dhingra and Bhatia, 2015). Using ontology can narrow the gap
between low-level and high-level information (Kazi Tani et al., 2017;
Hernandez-Leal et al., 2017).
7.4. Integral monitoring system design
The research goal of the researcher should be to propose a safety
monitoring system with application capabilities that can finally be
practiced. The integrity of this system includes data entry, data pro-
cessing, result output and feedback. The current research focuses on the
development of effective data collection and processing methods that
often overlook health and safety assessments and output requirements.
First, within the scope of the review, only a few articles have considered
the health and safety assessment of workers (Seokho and Caldas, 2012;
Kim et al., 2017; Han and Lee, 2013; Guo et al., 2018). The existing
assessment of the construction workers' health and safety is based on
preset rules (specifications, experience, laws, etc.) to assess the workers'
health and safety risks, which are often subjective (e.g., based on
management experience) and fuzzy. Seokho Chi et al. interpreted
Worker’s safety by considering proximity and crowdedness together,
but the two indicators are subjective regarding the definition of security
risks (Seokho and Caldas, 2012; Kim et al., 2017). Research on reliable
evaluation rules and quantitative indicators should be done before data
processing. the lack of reliable and objective quantitative indicators
corresponding to specific tasks limits the accuracy and reliability of the
automatic monitoring of workers' health and safety at the construction
site by computer vision techniques. It is not conducive to the practice of
technology and, therefore, the research on the establishment of quan-
titative and reliable evaluation rules and indicators should be
strengthened.
Second, it is essential to design a reasonable output port and feed-
back method to put the proposed system into practice. Some studies
have considered feedback methods, such as using mobile apps or alerts
to warn workers (Seokho and Caldas, 2012; Kim et al., 2017). But the
M. Zhang, et al.
effectiveness of this feedback has not been tested. The feedback method
has a single feedback object—workers. As far as the construction site is
concerned, a complete project-level multi-user friendly interface should
be designed to deal with the following issues:
1) users with differences, i.e., the personnel involved in the construc-
tion site are complex, with different skill levels, different cultural
levels, different age groups, etc.;
2) project-level application level; and
3) simple, fast and timely feedback requirements.
Achieving complete system functions requires not only the func-
tional design of each subsystem, but also the integration of all sub-
system, which has not been considered in the current studies. The
challenge here is the data transfer between the various subsystems. For
the health and safety monitoring system of construction site workers,
timely feedback is often required, which puts high demands on data
transmission between subsystems. Edge computing may be a potential
solution for real-time system performance. Edge computing has been
applied to self-driving cars and intelligent transportation. A geo-
graphically distributed architecture of public clouds and edges that
extend down to the cameras is a feasible approach to meet the strict
real-time requirements of large-scale live video analytics
(Ananthanarayanan et al., 2017). Therefore, Edge computing can be
considered as a suitable method to solve the latency, bandwidth, and
provisioning challenges in the monitoring system. And another possible
solution is to use advanced fifth-generation (5G) mobile wireless net-
works (Li et al., 2017). The 5G network has been considered as a new
communication network, which can provide high-capacity and high-
rate data transmissions (Liu et al., 2018). The 5G network can flexibly
support a variety of devices and services, which makes it possible to
combine all the subsystems.
8. Conclusions
In the past two decades, computer vision techniques have received
extensive attention in the field of worker safety and health monitoring
and the prevention of safety accidents and occupational illness, and
great achievements have been made in this field. Although great efforts
have been made, given the significant progress in research in this area,
we recognize that this review is not exhaustive. The article first used
statistical and bibliometric analysis tools to conduct a macroscopic in-
terpretation of the field development of the literature within the scope
of the review.
In the implementation of content-based review, based on the re-
search on the mechanism of occupational diseases and safety accidents,
the applications of computer vision technology in the health and safety
supervision of workers on the construction site were divided into the
following aspects: (1) workers themselves (2) workers interaction with
the site. Additionally, the research background, significance, technical
characteristics and research progress of each subarea in the two aspects
were elaborated. The research progress in the field fully demonstrated
the application ability and potential of computer vision technology.
Computer vision technology has strong cost and technical advantages in
collecting visual information about the occupational health and safety
of workers at the construction site. The monitoring includes the
worker's own unsafe behavior (personal wearing, worker's posture, etc.)
and interactions between people and the construction site the proximity
of workers and equipment) and can process and evaluate the rich in-
formation obtained to prevent occupational diseases and safety acci-
dents.
Although breakthroughs have been made in the research of vision-
based health and safety monitoring of construction site workers, many
problems have still not been fully solved, such as the following: (1)
technical limitations; (2) verification and evaluation of methods; (3)
complex scene understanding; and (4) integral monitoring system
15
Safety Science 126 (2020) 104658
design. Through literature research, the article proposes to solve the
current technical limitations by establishing open and comprehensive
data sets and putting forward computer vision technology-led multi-
technology fusion solutions. It is necessary to design reasonable the
experiments and standards to verify and evaluate the proposed method
and, further, to assess the practical application ability of the research
results. In addition, from the perspective of the development of com-
puter vision technology, the research should focus on improving the
ability of computer vision technology to automate the understanding of
complex scenes at the construction site and decision-making and in-
creasing the level of automation of worker health and safety mon-
itoring. It is also suggested that more research should be done on the
evaluation and output of the monitoring system based on computer
vision technology. In summary, computer vision technology needs to be
improved as a whole to cope with the dynamic and changeable con-
struction site application environment and complex worker health and
safety monitoring issues.
Considering the technical advantages and application potential of
computer vision technology in the automatic supervision of worker
health and safety at construction sites, I believe that these challenges
and limitations can be well solved in the future research, and the ap-
plication potential of computer vision technology can be brought into
full play to improve the automatic management level of worker health
and safety on construction sites.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the 2019 Natural Science Foundation of
Liaoning Province, China: Research on Identification and Early Warning
of Hazard Scenes on Construction Site Based on Machine Vision and
Crowd-Sensing (Project No. 2019-MS-052).
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