BY547743 KIREN SYED

Course: Women and Health (878) Semester: Spring, 2021

Level: M.SC
Assignment No. 1

Q.1 Do you agree that the physical and social environment affects differently on
women due to the difference in gender roles? Argue with examples.
➢ Physical and social environment affects differently women gender roles:
Pakistan is a patriarchal society where men are the primary authority figures and
women are subordinate. This has serious implications on women's and men's life
prospects.
Two major themes: ‘reiteration of gender roles’ and ‘agents of change’. The first
theme included perceptions of traditional gender roles and how these preserve
women's subordination. The power gradient, with men holding a superior position in
relation to women, distinctive features in the culture and the role of the extended
family were considered to interact to suppress women. The second theme included
agents of change, where the role of education was prominent as well as the role of
mass media. It was further emphasized that the younger generation was more positive
to modernisation of gender roles than the elder generation.
▪ Traditional social roles of women and men have remained unchanged for
many years.
Traditional social role of women is that of the lady of the house, taking care of the
family, being focused on children and their happiness. Traditional occupational roles
attributed to women are related to caring for others (e.g., home keeper, nurse) and
require communal characteristics (e.g., kind, sensitive)
Traditional man is the “head” of the family, the one who is responsible for the
maintenance of the house and who, through strength and determination, defends it
against dangers. Traditionally men occupy the roles related to leadership (e.g.,
manager), which are associated with agentic characteristics (e.g., independent,
competitive) (ibidem). The traditional gender social roles are consistent with
stereotypical traits attributed to men and women. In most countries, attributes such as
affection or sensitivity are considered more typical of women, whereas attributes such
as aggressiveness or courage are considered more typical of. However, in the last two
decades, along with the deepening social and economic changes, the social roles of
women and men began to undergo vivid modifications.
Mid-20th century an increasing number of women can be observed in the labor
market. Moreover, women have entered into male-dominated roles, e.g., leadership
roles, including in politics. Since 1965, the proportion of women who have majored in
business, medicine and law has risen significantly.
Modern world has created a new role for women, which is gradually
Approaching that of the traditional social role of men (e.g., working, earning money).
At the same time, men’s work roles have remained relatively stable and men continue
to participate full-time in the paid labor force however, today, the role of the man is
becoming slightly closer to the traditional role of women (e.g., taking care of the
family), although men are generally perceived as maintaining higher levels of male-

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BY547743 KIREN SYED
Course: Women and Health (878) Semester: Spring, 2021
Level: M.SC
Assignment No. 1
rather than female-stereotypic characteristics taking into account the social role theory
which assumes that the behavior of group members shapes their stereotype, it is worth
examining what are the consequences of such gendered social change.
Distinguish two main images of women created by the modern world:
The traditional woman, the lady of the house (the traditional role), and a non-
traditional woman who is focused on herself, confident, working, professional, often a
businesswoman. As can be seen, in the modern world.
Traditional social roles of women, a new role has been created: a woman
approaching the traditional social role of a man. Changes in the social roles of women
and men are connected largely with the change of priorities and focus (me vs. Others).
For women the change is taking them in the direction of a stronger concentration on
themselves and their work (individualism), while for men it is leading to a more social
direction – concentration on home, family and children although, as mentioned earlier,
the change in gender social roles has been less extensive for men than women
(ibidem). New roles of women and men have emerged and have been adopted by the
media; however, there is only a little research investigating how and to what extent
activation of those new social roles may affect people’s judgments and behaviors in
various areas.
Non-traditional roles, participants more often sought out information about
leadership (non-traditional choice) than information about physical appearance
(traditional choice), which means that learning about social change in the roles of
women had some behavioral consequences. The above-mentioned study provided the
evidence that exposure to social change can influence people’s self-relevant cognitions
and behaviors in a way that facilitates further social change. If so, it is possible that
exposure to different images of gender roles (traditional vs. Non-traditional) could
change people’s judgments and behaviors.
➢ Examples:
All development in babies, children, and adolescents was similar and consisted of
orderly processes. Children must reach quite specific maturational stages in their
development before their learning will influence their behavior. Both physical and
psychological development of children occurs in a predictable and patterned manner,
which was termed maturation. Maturation follows specific sequences (not necessarily
linear). All children will go through these stages at their own pace, but the sequences
remain the same. Behavior was regarded as a function of structure, whereas the role
of the environment was viewed as a secondary influence
Gesell was also very interested in retarded development, as he believed an
understanding of normal child development was absolutely essential to
understanding developmental abnormality. The results of the research were published
as infancy and human growth (1928) and contained developmental schedules, using
195 items of behavior in the areas of motor skills, adaptive behavior, language
development, and self-help and social skills. Ten years later, the schedules were

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BY547743 KIREN SYED
Course: Women and Health (878) Semester: Spring, 2021
Level: M.SC
Assignment No. 1
revised and were used widely to evaluate children as early as four weeks of age. The
schedules and tests were widely used to determine school readiness.
The different chronic diseases and conditions reviewed is the importance of social
support, especially by spouses and other family members, in helping people cope
positively with their condition. There was a widespread gender bias towards men in
terms of the support received from their families, and this helped them respond better
to their illness. Women were less likely to receive support, leading to less positive
coping. Women were also more prone to accept their condition as part of themselves,
rather than to see it as a challenge to be overcome, as their male counterparts tended to
do.
The involvement of both men and women in health education and interventions was
shown to be an important determinant of their successful uptake. This demonstrates
that gender stereotypes need to be examined critically as they stand in the way of the
improvements in health that are known to be effective. For example, it was seen that
selecting women for nutritional education because they are responsible for the
preparation of meals means that men are generally excluded, yet it is men who are
heavily involved in the production, sale, and purchase of food. Similarly, not
understanding the dynamics of age, ethnicity and gender can be detrimental to
desirable health interventions. This was seen in several examples discussed in the
paper.
However, it must be recognized that these determinants and consequences also interact
with one another as seen, for example, in the case of domestic violence. Women who
are victims of violence miss more work than other women because of their injuries and
hide their injuries from others, including health services, because of social stigma and
fear. Thus, the social, economic and physical aspects of the experience are closely
inter-related.
➢ Conclusion:
Gender inequalities and human rights violations against women in the Pakistani
society. The unequal gender roles were perceived as static and enforced by structures
imbedded in society. Women routinely faced serious restrictions and limitations of
autonomy. However, attainment of higher levels of education especially not only for
women but also for men was viewed as an agent towards change. Furthermore, mass
media was perceived as having a positive role to play in supporting women's
empowerment. Mainstreaming gender studies into biomedical programmes can greatly
enhance awareness of a wider range health issues, thereby contributing to the
prevention of illness and the mitigation of negative health outcomes. It can also
stimulate much needed research on gender differences between developing countries
and developed countries and on the impact of gender on the epidemiological transition
from infectious to non-communicable diseases.

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BY547743 KIREN SYED
Course: Women and Health (878) Semester: Spring, 2021
Level: M.SC
Assignment No. 1

-----------------------------------
Q.2 Women as collectors of fodder, fuel and water have direct connection with
the natural environment. How will you explain this in Pakistani context?

➢ Women as collectors with the natural environment in Pakistani context:

Livestock is the second important sub-sector of Pakistan’s agriculture. It contributes
about 50 percent of agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) and eleven percent of
overall national GDP. Livestock raising is primarily a subsistence activity to meet
household food needs and supplement farm incomes. Almost every rural household in
the Punjab, Pakistan owns some livestock. The public sector involvement for
increasing livestock productivity is insufficient. The private sector is generally
encouraged to invest in production, processing and marketing of livestock and
livestock products (gap, 2008).
Majority of women in Pakistan’s rural areas are involved in the livestock
Production process. Taking care of livestock is usually performed by rural women.
They collect fodder, clean sheds and process animal products. Unfortunately, their
involvement in livestock management is undervalued and regarded as housework.
Role of women in the household is traditional. The rural woman has a very busy work
schedule. The rural woman’s work included livestock and poultry care etc. Without
anybody’s help (nazli and hamid, 2007; reddi, 2003). Similarly, Riaz (1994) reported
that women play a vital role in livestock and poultry management as part of their
housework. Despite their considerable contribution in variety of work within and
outside home, women of Pakistan are neglected in major household decisions. Most of
their work related to farm, poultry and livestock management is being considered as
part of their housework and the amount of labour that they devote for household
maintenance is ignored in macroeconomic planning. It has been reported (parc, 2004)
that majority of the rural females are engaged in fodder cutting, milking the animals
and its allied functions has also been attributed to the women folks.
A woman in any society contributes significantly to building a strong and
healthy nation. These women are actively involved in both domestic and productive
activities, and they bear double responsibility for the family’s nutrition, health, and
education inside and outside the household, which is mostly on family farms. They are
the first to wake up and begin the domestic chores, and they are the last to go to sleep.
Their working hours range from 9–13 h a day. They are always craving to be
successful in their multiple responsibilities as mothers, even though these
responsibilities are frequently disrupted from the perspective of the household’s
poverty.
Other rural women, whether educated or uneducated, married, unmarried, or
widowed are involved in various domestic activities from dawn to dusk, and 43.47%
of the women reported that they spent 6–10 h a day on domestic tasks, such as

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BY547743 KIREN SYED
Course: Women and Health (878) Semester: Spring, 2021
Level: M.SC
Assignment No. 1
cooking, fetching water, cleaning, and washing as unpaid productive activities. This
means that every woman spends more than half of the day on average working and
taking care of children and old age dependents. A majority (45.42%) of them were
managing their household activities themselves, and 41.04% of the women were
managing their household activities with the assistance of other family members if
they lived in joint and extended family systems.
In the Punjab province of Pakistan, the important factors that influence the gender
division of labour in livestock production and the place where the animals are kept, the
size of the area being farmed and the caste of the family. The material value of the
animals and their use impinge on the decision-making powers in cattle farming.
Women are involved in all cattle farming tasks if the animals are kept in the farmyard;
larger farms do not involve women in these tasks. The more valuable the animals, the
smaller the possibility that women could make decisions on their purchases and sales.
If the animals serve a purpose which is in the women’s realm of responsibilities, e.g.,
Feeding the family, her influence on decision making is greater than with animals that
fulfill purely farming purposes, such as draft oxen (martins, 1990). Gender division of
labour and issues of access to resources and benefits can be understood better if
studies are done using appropriate analytical frameworks or household models
consistent with the socio-economic context in which the producers operate.
Furthermore, information on gender and livestock production is more meaningful if
gender division of labour, responsibilities and access to resources and benefits in the
whole farming system are fully understood. The present study was planned to identify
the role of rural women and their husbands in the livestock production.
Example: in Nepal, both men and women perform fodder collection, grazing and milking
but some activities, especially detecting illnesses of animals are women’s responsibilities. In
India, women’s responsibilities related to livestock vary across regions.
In south Asia. Women are usually afforded greater recognition in this sector than their
role in crop production. Livestock not only generates income but it also provides
fertilizers for plants, draft power for farms, food for humans and biomass fuel for
energy. Across south Asia, women perform varying aspects of this sector. In Pakistan
for instance, it is woman who makes the feed, collects fodder, cleans animals and their
sheds, makes dung cakes, collects manure for organic fertilizers, pumps milk,
processes animal products and markets them. Women also play important role in rural
poultry farming where they apply their own methods of rearing birds.
The following recommendations have been suggested on the basis of the study:
i. Government of Pakistan should design an integrative system as to support
women in all agriculture related sectors e.g., financial services, land reforms,
tax reforms etc.
ii. In order to provide a sound basis for policy makers, initiatives should be taken
to accurately record and reflect timely data particularly gender- segregated data
about female contribution in agriculture.

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BY547743 KIREN SYED
Course: Women and Health (878) Semester: Spring, 2021
Level: M.SC
Assignment No. 1
iii. Make the extension system improved to cover female farmer’s needs where
arrangements should be made to teach them about the use of technological
equipment’s in her farming practices to bring efficiency with technology.
iv. Policy reforms should be introduced to encourage rural agro-based small-scale
industries, which would help in diversifying agricultural resources and will
generate employment for the rural women.
v. Women should be made familiar with the methods of food processing and food
preservation of various fruits, vegetables and livestock products, which would
serve as a value addition to economic productivity
➢ Conclusion:
Involvement in livestock management is undervalued and regarded as housework. Progeny tested
bulls should be provided to improve the production of their animals. Special ration should be
formulated to enhance the production. Veterinary officers of the area should arrange the
workshops for vaccination to prevent their flock and herd from the diseases. The participation rate
of rural women in livestock production activities was higher as compared to the participation rate
of male members (husband). Indicates that fodder cutting and transportation of fodder were the
role mostly performed by husbands, whereas, other all activities identified in the table 2 were
performed by women. It can be concluded from the data that a greater number of activities related
to livestock production were being performed by (wives) as compared to men (husbands).
However, the natures of activities performed by women were of soft nature and the activities
performed by men were very hard and related to out of home tasks.
-----------------------------------
Q.3 what are the repercussions of environmental pollution for women’s health
and quality of life? Explain with examples. A
➢ Repercussions of environmental pollution:
Environmental pollution has a cumulative effect on human health.
Air pollution can cause respiratory problems such as allergies, asthma, eye and nose
irritation and bronchial infections.
Water pollution can cause gastrointestinal diseases, nausea, diarrhea, etc.
Noise pollution has physical and psychological health consequences and can
impair hearing ability.
Polluted lands may contain hazardous chemicals, metals and pesticides that adversely
affect human health. Some of the possible consequences of land pollution include birth
defects, skin diseases, breathing disorders, and cancer.
❖ The Effects of Environmental Pollution on Human Health
▪ Environmental Pollution
Every day, most societies in the world are exposed to an increasing health risk as a
result of the growing sources of pollution in the world, which are causing great
damage to the human body, animals, agricultural wealth and all areas of life.

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BY547743 KIREN SYED
Course: Women and Health (878) Semester: Spring, 2021
Level: M.SC
Assignment No. 1
This is a clear disruption of the global ecosystem, which is caused by synthetic
substances introduced into the environment or the use of natural materials, but at very
high levels.
Types of Environmental Pollution
Environmental pollution is no longer confined to one category, but to many forms and
varieties, each of which has different effects on humans, animals, agriculture.
The following are the most important types of contemporary pollution:
Chemical Pollution: Chemical contamination is the most influential type of pollution
on humans.
Chemical pollution results from the use of industrial materials in our life, such as
cleaning materials, cosmetics, car oils, preservatives, industrial colors, food flavorings,
chemical and insecticidal fertilizers, and other manufactured materials that are
frequently used by humans.
Noise pollution: Noise contamination is often related to the sound and high noise that
exhausts the body, especially in high-population countries, including traffic crisis,
aircraft noise, factory noise, and others that have significant health effects.
Radioactive Pollution: Radioactive pollution is one of the most serious forms of
contamination on human health.
❖ Effects of Environmental Pollution
Prolonged exposure to pollutants can have harmful effects on all living and non-living
things.
Effects of Pollution on Humans
The effects of environmental pollution on human beings are often mainly negative,
including respiratory problems such as allergies, asthma, eye and nose irritation, acute
bronchitis and bronchiolitis.
The effects of environmental pollution may develop and cause long-term problems and
diseases such as cancers, which have been shown to be a key factor in their
development and spread.
There are some other symptoms that can be caused by exposure to some contaminated
processed foods and agricultural crops also contaminated with pesticides such as liver
infections, diarrhea, and some hormonal disorders.
➢ Examples women’s health and quality of life:
Globally, women suffer from higher rates of anemia and malnutrition and are sensitive
to climate-driven food insecurity due to increased nutritional needs during
menstruation and childbirth. Anemia is associated with cognitive impairments
including poor attention span, diminished working memory, and poor educational
outcomes
A majority of the world’s smallholder farmers are women, and therefore women’s
livelihoods are at risk from climate-related crop failure, which threatens to increase
poverty as well as poor health outcomes.

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BY547743 KIREN SYED
Course: Women and Health (878) Semester: Spring, 2021
Level: M.SC
Assignment No. 1
Respiratory and cardiovascular disease secondary to exposure to poor air quality
preferentially impacts women due to a greater proclivity for higher deposition of
particulate matter in lung tissue and higher rates of anemia.
Poor air quality is also associated with negative birth outcomes and affects
maternal/child health in that it is associated with stillbirth, intrauterine growth
restriction, and congenital defects Women spend greater amounts of time in the home
and thus are disproportionately exposed to particulate matter from the use of
traditional indoor stoves for cooking and heating
During climate-related disasters, women suffer disproportionate mortality and
survivors experience decreased life expectancy
Women and girls are at a higher risk of physical, sexual, and domestic violence in the
aftermath of disasters [and are at a higher risk for mood disorders and poor economic
recovery These impacts are amplified when women have a lower socioeconomic status
Forced migration and repeated short-distance moves are especially significant for
poorer people, as well as for groups such as women, who are often excluded from
migration analysis.
Improve multisector coordination
Developing mechanisms for reporting and regular analysis of gender dimensions using
common indicators within all sectors will increase transparency and cooperation in
achieving this cross-sectoral goal.

➢ Conclusion:
While gender has been increasingly factored into climate change projects and policy,
progress has still been slow to reduce gender-based health disparities and to involve
women in climate change mitigation, adaptation, and disaster risk reduction and
management. The need for compliance with the monitoring processes advocated by
the sdgs and the Sendai Framework are critical to address the complex interactions
between poverty, gender-based social discrimination, and climate change that threaten
to amplify gender-based health disparities. To support monitoring, effective
mechanisms to gather and analyze data are needed. Women’s distinct social roles and
potential for agency afford opportunities for promoting effective solutions to
sustainability, disaster risk reduction, and solutions to health threats. High-level
political engagement with the implementation of the UN landmark agreements is
necessary to ensure that policies and programs move beyond traditional separations of
health, gender, and environment and embrace proactive and gender-based solutions
that protect women’s health.
-----------------------------------

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BY547743 KIREN SYED
Course: Women and Health (878) Semester: Spring, 2021
Level: M.SC
Assignment No. 1
Q.4 Urbanization offers both opportunities and challenges for human
development. Analyze the pros and cons of urbanization and support your
answer with relevant researches.

“Urbanization offers both opportunities and challenges for human development”

Urbanization can be defined as a population shift from rural to urban areas.
Whereas only one century ago, people often lived in rural areas to work in agriculture,
most people on our planet now work in the city since the kind of work that is needed
in our nowadays society has changed significantly and people rather work in office
jobs than in agricultural jobs.
Therefore, also the lifestyle of people changed significantly over time.
Although urbanization has its advantages, there are also some problems related to it.
Advantages of Urbanization
✓ Better public transport ✓ Increasing rents for tenants
✓ Better overall infrastructure ✓ Higher chances for
✓ More education opportunities homelessness
✓ Increasing property prices for ✓ Development of slums
homeowners ✓ Spread of diseases
✓ People can use their time ✓ Waste management problems
more efficiently ✓ Pets may not like city life
✓ More convenient if you have ✓ Lack of natural spaces
kids ✓ Alteration of local ecosystems
✓ Connection to electricity grid
and sewer system
✓ Better internet connection
✓ More efficient in terms of
land use
Disadvantages of Urbanization ✓ People in cities are usually
✓ Higher level of air pollution more tolerant
✓ More particle pollution ✓ Better connection to
✓ Noise pollution healthcare facilities
✓ Light pollution ✓ Better R&D opportunities to
✓ Littering foster technological progress
✓ Cities may become quite ✓ Urbanization attracts tourists
crowded ✓ Multicultural attitude
✓ Traffic jams ✓ Easier to socialize
✓ Higher level of stress ✓ Lower unemployment rates
✓ Increase in health issues ✓ Higher wages in cities on
average
✓ Better recycling systems

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BY547743 KIREN SYED
Course: Women and Health (878) Semester: Spring, 2021
Level: M.SC
Assignment No. 1
Intergovernmental relationships are also key to successful urbanisation. National,
regional and city governments need to be connected and share a similar vision. Local
governments will need technical and managerial skills, the ability to engage with the
public and strong capacities to design, implement, monitor and evaluate local public
policies and services.
As cities grow, governments will need to cater to rapidly growing demands for public
services and infrastructure. In many places, they are not keeping up. For example,
almost 700 million urban slum dwellers lack adequate sanitation, which, along with
the paucity of safe drinking water, raises the risk of communicable diseases,
particularly among children. And urbanization creates income and opportunity
disparities, not only between rural and urban areas but also among socioeconomic
groups in cities.
The world needs inclusive and sustainable urbanisation as a milestone in the path
towards socio-economic development, as recognized by Sustainable Development
Goal (SDG) - Goal #11: Sustainable Cities and Communities. Future human
development prospects largely hinge on how well these growing cities are managed.
For example, in a special contribution to the 2013 Human Development Report,
former New York Major, Michael Bloomberg talked about the ‘Opportunity NYC:
Family Rewards’ initiative, the first conditional cash transfer programme in the United
States, that aimed to reduce poverty and inequalities in the city by providing
households with incentives for preventive health care, education and job training.
Moreover, according to UN Habitat, 1600 cities worldwide are now reporting on air
pollution levels, which allow them to map the main sources of pollution and
implement effective measures to improve the quality of the air.

➢ Analyze the pros and cons of urbanization:

Urbanization Pros Urbanization Cons

Better job opportunities Higher levels of pollution
Higher salaries in cities Stress levels increase
Life in cities has become more convenient Less natural recovery space
Better access to medical facilities Cities are quite crowded
Urbanization led to better education Traffic jams
Technological progress Spread of diseases
Time can be used more efficiently Problems with waste management
Better connection to the internet Alteration of ecosystems
Easier to socialize in cities Health issues
Lower unemployment rates in cities Rural areas may suffer

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BY547743 KIREN SYED
Course: Women and Health (878) Semester: Spring, 2021
Level: M.SC
Assignment No. 1
By 2050 more than two-thirds of the world’s population is projected to be living in
urban areas. This rapid increase will take place mainly in developing countries. Africa
and Asia— both still less urbanized than other regions— will have the fastest urban
growth rates. Africa’s urban population is projected to jump from 40 percent today to
56 percent by 2050, and Asia’s from 48 percent to 64 percent.
In order to accommodate this rapid expansion in urban dwelling, experts estimate that
US$57 trillion in global infrastructure investment is required by 2030 alone. More than
1 billion people live in housing that is below minimum standards of comfort and
sanitation, and new houses will have to be built for 3 billion people by 2030.
Investing in essential infrastructure propels growth and human development. There has
been some progress in narrowing the infrastructure deficit in recent decades, but much
more needs to be done. Good planning and sound management are needed to manage
this. National and local governments need to become more strategic in responding to
the full range of challenges and opportunities posed by rapid urbanisation. This can be
done by formulating a national urbanisation strategy as a first step to help to identify
urban development priorities, shape plans and better coordinate actions by all the
actors involved, including the private sector
➢ Conclusion:
Urbanization completely changed the quality of life of billions of people on our planet.
Although there are many important advantages of urbanization, many people also
suffer from serious downsides.
In the end, we should make sure that nobody is left behind in rural areas in order to
improve the overall living conditions for all of us on a global scale.
-----------------------------------
Q.5 Define ecofeminism. How effective is the role of eco-feminists in preserving
the environment?
➢ Ecofeminism:
Ecofeminism is a branch of feminism that sees environmentalism, and the relationship
between women and the earth, as foundational to its analysis and practice. Ecofeminist
thinkers.
Ecofeminism is an activist and academic movement that sees critical connections
between the domination of nature and the exploitation of women.... Ecofeminist
activism grew during the 1980s and 1990s among women from the anti-nuclear,
environmental, and lesbian-feminist movements. The “Women and Life on Earth:
Ecofeminism in the Eighties” conference held at Amherst (1980) was the first in a
series of ecofeminist conferences, inspiring the growth of ecofeminist organizations
and actions..."
Feminist thought already has a long history. For more than three decades it has
accepted the challenge of reflecting on ecological crises through its own codes. The
result has been the appearance of ecofeminism: an attempt to outline a new utopian

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BY547743 KIREN SYED
Course: Women and Health (878) Semester: Spring, 2021
Level: M.SC
Assignment No. 1
horizon, addressing the environmental issue from the categories of patriarchy,
androcentrism, care, sexism and gender. From its women thinkers, I have found
original and highly suggestive reflections on the technological civilisation in which we
live. All of them shed light on different aspects of what we can call, to allude to a
classic of the hermeneutics of suspicion, a malaise in culture and nature. From my own
personal and intellectual coordinates in dialogue and conflict with theirs, I have
produced an ecofeminist approach that avoids calling on essentialist definitions of
gender difference characteristic of the so-called “classic” female authors. Neither is it
a spiritualist, Christian or neo-pagan ecofeminism for which the component of faith is
necessary, something that one possesses or not, regardless of will. My proposal
conserves the enlightened legacy of equality and autonomy while asserting the strong
meaning of “eco”; in other words, it is not reduced to a mere anthropocentric feminist
environmentalism in which relations with nature are limited to proposing good
management of “resources”. The aim is to think and think of ourselves with another
approach in the urgency of the times of climate change without backtracking on the
path laid by feminism or abandoning the foundations that have enabled us to advance
along it.

The emphasis on the identity of the woman as a mother linked to the Earth that we find
in some forms of ecofeminism can involve a regression with respect to the feminist
principle of motherhood as a free and personal choice. Calling for equality and self-
empowerment involves promoting sexual and reproductive rights. Faced with a vague
exaltation of life that hides the traditional refusal to give sexual self-empowerment to
women, the critical ecofeminism I propose advocates free determination over your
own body. It is important to remember that the text in which for the first time the term
ecofeminism was used was a paper by Françoise d’Eaubonne published in 1974 that
argued that the overpopulation of the planet, an issue of concern for ecologists, was
the result of the patriarchal refusal of women’s right to decide on their own bodies.
This idea has been weakened in later ecofeminist developments. Theoreticians such as
María Mies (1998) even reject any technological resource as they consider it an
element of domination of capitalist patriarchy. They thus return to the image of
women defined by their role as mothers. Moreover, some forms of environmentalism
are currently promoting an essentialist and antifeminist discourse that will probably
reactivate women’s justified fear of environmentalism. On behalf of a supposed
feminine nature, they call on women to give up their studies and paid work and return
exclusively to taking care of children. This is very negative both for women and for
environmentalism. I argue that, midway between the irresponsible nihilist hedonism
lacking socially-spirited goals and the return to the sacralisation of the biological
processes there is an alternative: the ecological awareness that preserves its full
autonomy. The future of ecofeminism involves a clear stance in favour of women’s
access to free decision-making on reproduction. Women must be recognised as

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BY547743 KIREN SYED
Course: Women and Health (878) Semester: Spring, 2021
Level: M.SC
Assignment No. 1
subjects with decision-making power in demographic matters; in other words, subjects
with their own life that choose if they will have children or not and, if so, when and
how many to give birth to in the framework of an ecological culture of equality. This
requires, on some occasions, the participation of scientific knowledge and technology.

. According to the precautionary principle, when there is scientific uncertainty with

regard to the risk of the irreversible harm that a new activity or product might entail
for the environment or health, the principle of prudence will prevail. Thanks to the
precautionary principle, it is not necessary to have conclusively shown its harmful
nature to take control and preventative measures. The burden of proof falls on those
who seek to introduce the new product or activity, not those potentially affected. Faced
with the aims of those who prioritise gains over risks, the precautionary principle
proposes transparency and democratic participation in the debate.
For an ecofeminism of materialist foundations, the problem of the technoscientific
modifications of nature does not lie in the alteration of a sacred order but in the
rudimentary and coarse character of current human intervention in complex systemic
adaptations with a past of millions of years. The “collateral damage” and the possible
irreversibility of the changes introduced make us examine innovations in the light of
Human Rights ‒ particularly the right to health in a healthy environment ‒,
biodiversity, the suffering of other human beings and the legacy we are leaving to
future generations.
➢ Role of eco-feminists in preserving:
Ecofeminism sees parallels between the exploitation of nature and the exploitation of
women, parallels that are understood in the context of patriarchy. One particularly
vigorous ecofeminist analysis stem from the work of Claudia von Werlhof and Maria
Mies.

Claudia von Werlhof has considered the standard Left analysis of capitalism, and she
finds it inadequate, especially in its failure to address issues of patriarchy. The Left’s
position on patriarchy, she says, assumes that it is a “quasi-irrational historical
remnant” that will eventually be discarded by capitalism and overcome by ‘progress’.
However, for von Werlhof, patriarchy is the foundation or ‘deep structure’ of
capitalism and cannot be discarded by it.

She gives the example of science and technology to illustrate this point. Modern
capitalist patriarchy knows no technological restrictions and, as the instrument of
capital, modern science and technology sets out to ‘substitute’ (i.e., extinguish) life
and death, the creation of life, humanity, women and mothers, the earth, plants and
animals, and matter itself. This is a profound expression of the patriarchal urge to
dominate and control. Since the Left does not advocate forsaking technological
progress, its analysis is deeply compromised.

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BY547743 KIREN SYED
Course: Women and Health (878) Semester: Spring, 2021
Level: M.SC
Assignment No. 1
Thus, the Left is unable to present a real alternative to the ecologically and socially
destructive system we are living in. So – what is the ecofeminist alternative to
capitalism that von Werlhof and her colleagues propose?

Maria Mies presents a vision for an alternative ecological society developed from the
ecofeminist critique outlined above. She describes this vision as the ‘subsistence
perspective.’
In the rural economy, small farms produced the majority of foodstuffs and supplied
the urban population. Overall, there was considerable reciprocity, communality and
mutual assistance, collective work and collective enjoyment. While city life and the
rural economy is much changed, many of the elements of a subsistence perspective are
not beyond living memory.

The subsistence perspective also addresses the deep sense of alienation caused by paid
work, which cannot be overcome even by large amounts of money. The purpose of the
economy is, supposedly, to make the ‘good life’ available to us – this idea goes all the
way back to Aristotle; yet we work, we work and the good life never arrives. The
subsistence perspective is all about making the good life a reality. This emphasises
that the goal of subsistence is not a return to the misery of a medieval existence, as we
might otherwise imagine by the use of the word ‘subsistence’. It is about creating a
lifeworld outside of paid employment.

In a conference address given in 2005, Maria Mies outlined some of the principles of a
society based on the subsistence perspective, as follows:

1. The economy must be re-embedded again in to society: Mies argues that we must
recognise that the economy is just one of the human activities helping to bring about a
good life for all – for humans and nature everywhere.

2. The concept of a good life must be redefined: A new concept of the good life cannot
be based on the existing production and consumption system. It cannot mean the
continual abundance of cheap commodities from all over the world in our
supermarkets. Instead, we must ask ‘What do people really need? And what is possible
for all on a limited planet?

3. All dominant social relations will have to change: New non-hierarchical relations
must be created between intellectual and manual labour and between producers and
consumers. All exploitative, dominating colonial relations must be transformed into
reciprocal, respectful, mutual ones.

4. A new society must eliminate all patriarchal, violent and militaristic relations: Mies
sees this goal being achieved only through a total revolution of capitalist society,

14
BY547743 KIREN SYED
Course: Women and Health (878) Semester: Spring, 2021
Level: M.SC
Assignment No. 1
necessary in order to liberate women and men from patriarchal structures and violent
ideologies. For example, she argues, we need to redefine the concept of ‘work’ so
that all work, including the work of housewives, subsistence peasants and artisans, is
considered valuable. The concepts of ‘productive work’ and ‘productivity’ will have to
be liberated so that they promote the good life for all.

5. A life-centered subsistence economy and society can only permit technology that
serves life: Technology is not value free. For example, the fast obsolescence of goods
to maximise sales of new goods, which triggers the continuous production of scarcity,
means that waste is built into economic growth.

Modern computer technology atomises the workforce on a global level, creating

worldwide competition among workers, to lower labour costs. In a subsistence society,
workers would be encouraged to combine their efforts through communal ownership
of the means of production. Subsistence production shifts away from organising and
ordering life based on competition; instead, it fosters cooperation to achieve rich,
fulfilled lives for all.
➢ Conclusion:
“Liberty, equality and sustainability”. From our post-metaphysical present, in these
times of economic and ecological crisis, of emergence of fundamentalisms of diverse
kinds, of reaction and regression with respect to the social conquests that have cost
those who have preceded us so dearly, these three concepts express the core of the
conviction that another world is possible and, to get closer to this horizon, we must
tirelessly build an ecological culture of equality.
-----------------------------------
References:
Chromeextension://oemmndcbldboiebfnladdacbdfmadadm/https://digitalcommons.libr
ary.umaine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?Article=1000&context=soc_facpub
Http://www.fao.org/3/am307e/am307e00.pdf
Chromeextension://oemmndcbldboiebfnladdacbdfmadadm/https://digitalcommons.libr
ary.umaine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?Article=1000&context=soc_facpub
Http://pakjas.com.pk/papers%5c9.pdf
Https://www.scientificworldinfo.com/2019/10/effects-of-environmental-pollution-
on-human-health.html
Https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK19924/
Https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?Id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1002603
Https://environmental-conscience.com/urbanization-pros-cons/
Https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanization
https://www.iemed.org/publication/what-is-ecofeminism/

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