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    1-Electrical Circuit Elements

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    RamaKrishna A

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    Electrical Circuit Elements a Ref Ele Ectrotechnology concerns the eeetrophysicl and allied prin- ples applied to practical electrical engineering. A completely Gihcral approach is not feasible, and. many separate a hoc ‘Sthnologies have been developed using simplified and delimited {reuw adequate for pariclar applications. Thstablshing a technology itis necessary to conser whether the relevant applications can be dealt with (a) in macroscopic terms of phystal qualities of materials in buk as with metallic CSnduetion or state magnetic feds); or (bin microscopic terms ffvolving the microstructure of materials as an essential featore {asin domain theory) of (6) in molecular, atomic or subatomic {Erm fain nuclear reaction and semicondction) There is no Thad line of demarcation, and certain technologies must cope {tith two or more such subdivisions at once. Eletrotechnology {hus tends to become an assembly of more o less discrete (and Sometimes apparently wneelated) areas in which methods of treatment difer widely. “To's considerable extent (but not completely), the items of plant with which technical clectrieal enginesring. deals Penerators, motors, feeders, capacitors, te.—can be represented By equivalent circuits or networks energised by an electrical ror the great majority of cases within the purview of "hea caectrical engineering’ (hat 15, generation, transmission and sation for, power purposes, 35 distinct from tele- Coimmunications)'a source of electrical energy is considered to Sroduee a earrent in a conducting circuit by reason of an Pretromotie forceacting against a property of the circuit called npedance. The behaviour ofthe circuit fs described in terms of {heenerg fd into the crit bythe source and the nature ofthe ‘Snverson, dissipation or storage ofthis energy im the several ‘ireuit components Tleeaseal phenomena, however, ae only in part associated vwithcondacting crete The generalised basis sone ofmagnete TAD cletecal fields in fice space or in material media, The fundamental starting. point % the conception contained in Mawel electromagnetic equations (Setion 1.53), and in this Mipoct the voltage and cuprens ia a circuit are only repre ‘Sotative of the fandamentl fel phenomena within 2 restrict Mane Fortunately. this range embraces very neatly the whole of thom’ electrical engineering practice. The necesity for a more sBavcheosive Viewpoint makes tei apparent in connection shth problems of long-linetransmission;and when the tchniaue pruibachigh-fequency work reached. ts necessary 10 gu {heft eeu ieas in favour ofa whok-heasted application of fel principles 2.1 Nomenclature 2.141 Cireuit phenomena Figure 21 shows ina simplified foem hypothetical iit with cy oftetrca energy sources and representative selection Gt'aevices in which the energy reovived from the source & Chavet into other forms oF stored, or both. The forms of Stnation ofthe current or voltage are shown in Figure 22.In an [etualencuit thecacrent may changein a quite arbitrary fashion {TS indicated at (a) H may Fse oF fall oF reverse is direction deabading on chance or control Soch random waration SSvenently eiffel to deal with, and engineers prefer to “lithe conditions as mich as possible. For example (Figure se theeurent may be assumed 1 beri constant. 0 which ‘Ge iis termed a rect current IF the corzent be deemed ‘ikise eyeicatly aeording to a sine fanetion, it bscomes @ ‘Gnd ulternating cwrent } Lesssimple waveforms, such Aimy be deat with by application of Fourie’ theorem, thus titting it povaite wo cakufate great range of practical eases eh, cal Eugs Ma Say.’S Nomeneianre 2/3 yure 2.1 Typical circuit deviees. G~ Sour generator: ens: Acre Buttery: P= plling bath Mrmr, inductor especiter insulator Figure 22. Modes of erent (or olage) variation such as those involving stiles in which the sinusoidal wave {orm susumption s inapplicable. The cases shown in ().c) and {apace known as steady states, the current (or voltage) being dened established for a considerable time before the ccuit s TaNtupated, But sine the electric circuit is capable of storing Suv a change in the circuit may alter th conditions s0 a8 Glue a redistribution of eitcut energy. This occurs with ivutation of transient eurtent, An example of simple ose fatory transient is shown in Figure 2.210), Pi caeultion of circuits im which dest currents flow is ‘compataively straightforward, For sine wave altemating cu fent circuits an algebra has been developed by means of which Problems can he reduced toa tecrique very sila otha of ouits Where non-sinusoidal wave forms are concerned, the freatment is based on the analysis ofthe current and voltage (Naver into fundamental and harmonie sine waves, the standard ine wave method being applied to the fundamental and to each Stine harmonies. In the case of transients, a more searching venigation may be necessary, bat there are a number of ‘Bn modes in which transients usually occur. and (50 Fong.as the ious eelatvsy simple) t may be possible to select the Snpropriate mode by inspection. Cieeit parameters-resstance, inductance and eapacitanes may or tay nol be constant If they are not, approximation, Tncussing or step-by step computation is necissy. DULL EME, snes [Any deve that develops an emf. capable of sustaining w current MUpetcec circuit mast be associated wih somemode ofenersy onversion into the ckctreal fom some diferent form. The fnodes are. (1) mochaniealelecteomagnetic, (2) mechanical) ‘estrostaie, (3) chemical, 18 thermal 3} photoclectn: 24.2 Electrotechnical terms Te following ist inches the ebief terms in cooumon uss. Symbols a units employed are piven im Tae 2 MMmnviane. The rato petwcen current nd YOHAgE i £0 term for sousoily varying quantities ine vects Ref book form of a complex number Polarisation: The change ofthe electrical stat of an insulting material under the influence of an electric Hl, uch that each "mal ckiment becomes an electric dipole or double, Potentisl: The electrical state at a point with respect t0 potential zero (normaly taken as that ofthe cath). It is measured by the work done in transfering unit charge from potential zero to the point Potetal difference: dillrence between the cetreal states ‘existing at two points tending to cause a movement of postive ‘charges irom one point to the other. Its measured by the work ‘done in transfering unit charge from one point tothe other Potential gradient: The potential diference per unit length in the diretion in which it a maximum, Powor: The rate of transfer, storage, conversion or dissipation ‘of energy. In sinusoidal alternating current eieuits the atte power isthe mean rte of energy conversion; he reactive powers the peak rate of eireulation of stored energy: the apparent power's ‘the product of rms. values of voltage and current, ‘Power factor: The ratio between ative power and apparent power. In sinusoidal alternating current cicuits the power factor isos wheres the phase ange Between volar and current ‘Quonity: The prodvet of the current and the time during which it flows Reactance: In sinusoidal alternating current circuits, the quantity wl. oF 1/axC, where Lis the inductance, C 18 the Eapacitance and «isthe angular frequency. Reactor: A deviee having reactance asa chil property; it may be an inductor or a capacitor. A nuclear reactor a device 18 Which energy is generated by a process of nuclear fission. ‘Reluctane: The ratio between the maghetomotive force acting around a magnetic eiresit and the resulting magnetic fox. The ‘eeiprocal of permeance. ‘Remanence: The remanent ox density obtained when the inal mapotstion veches the stration Yahe for te ‘Remanent flux density: The magnetic ux density remaining in material when, after itil magntisation, the magnetising force Is teduced to ze, esdual magnetism: The magnetism remaining in a material after the magnetising force has been removed, Resistance: That property ofa material by virtue of which it resists the low of charge through it, causing a dissipation of nergy as heat tis equal to the constant potential diference Sided byte curtent poduced theredy who the material as ‘no emf acting within ‘Reristnty: The resistance between opposite faces of « unit cube of given material Resistor” A device having resistance as ciel property, Suseeptance: The reciprocal of reactance Time constam: The characteristic time describing the duration ofa transient phenomenon. Voltage: The same as potential diference. Voltage gradient: The Same as potential gradient ave form: The geaph of successive instantancous vals of time-varying physical quantity. 2.2 Thermal effects 221 Resistance “That property ofan electric circuit which determines fora given current the rateat which electricalenergy isconverted into heat termed reitance, A device whose chic property ireistance Fesitor of, i vasiable, a oheostat Acureent 1 Mowing in resistance R develops heat athe rate = PR joules or watts «relation expressing Joules law 221 Yoliage applied toa resistor In the absence of any energy storage eflects (a physiclly sunralisable condition}, the curtent in a resistor of value is when the voltage acrors tis Fm accordance withthe relation = VR Ifa steady/pd. V bo sudently applied 10 tesistor R,the fureent instantaneously assumes the valve given, and energy txpended at the rate P= FPR wats, continuously. No transient cours, Ia constant frequency, constant amplitude sine wave voltage» is applied, the current «iat every instant given by ‘S/n in consequence the current hs als a sine waveform, the fesistance i near, Te instantaneous rate of ipaion depends onthe instantaneous curtentits p= Should the appied lage be: nonsinsoay the ‘Sorrent as (under the restrition mentioned) an exactly similar ‘wave form. The three cases are illustrated in Figure 2. Inthe case of altemating waveform, the average rateof energy dissipation is given by P=FR, where [isthe root-mean-square ‘current value, Figure 2.3. Volige apted to» pure resistor 22.12 Voltage current characteristics Fora given resistor Rcarcying a constant current J the pds V=1R- The ratio R= V may o¢ may not be invariable. In some cages itis sulcient to assume a degree of constancy, and falcuation is generally made on this assumption. Where the ‘variations of resistance are 100 peat 10 make the assumption Teasonably valid itisnecesary to esortolesssimpleanalysis or to graphical methods constant resistance manifested by aconstant ato between th voltage across tad thecurren through it and bya traght- Tine graphical elation between and V (Figure a) where R Video 6. This case is typical of metallic resistance wires at constant temperature ‘Certain eiteulls exhibit nonlinear eurrent-voltage relations (Figure 246) The non-linearity may be symmerieal oF asym ‘metrical, in accordance with whether the conduction characters Figura 2.4. Canont- voltage charstentes wes! se val alter supe ther as. the ‘eri ‘is 1 5 0 ties are the sume or different forthe two curtent-low diectons. Rectifiers are an important class of non-linear asymmetsical ‘A hypothetical device having the current-voltage characteris tic shown in Figure 24e) has at an operating condition repre- Sented by the point P, acurtent Ig and a pd. Fa The ratio R. Valls its de. resstance for the given condition, I 4 small alternating voltage Ary be applied under the same condition (ie Superimposed on the pl Vg) thecareent wlllctuate by Ai, and Ihe ration, = Any/igis thea. or incremental resistance a P. The Ge. resistance is also obtainable from Rg=cot 0, and the a. tesitance from rz=cot Inthe region of which Q is a epresentative point thea. resistance negative, indicating that the device is capable of giving a small output of ac. power, terived from its greater de, input. Te remains in sum an energy ‘issipator, bot some of the energy is returnable under suitable conditions of operation 2.213 D.C. or ohmic resistance: linear resistors ‘The de, or ohmic-cesistance of Hinear resistors (a category confined principally {o metalic conductors isa function ofthe ‘imensions ofthe conducting path and of the resistivity ofthe material from which the conductor is made. A wite of Fength rosesection a and fesstvity p has, at constant given tempera tore, a esstance R=plja ohms where , land aare in a consistent system of dimensions (ein melee, in square metres, pin ohms per Im length and Lm” ‘rosescetion generally contracted to obm-mettes). The ex: pression above, though widely applicable, i tue only on the [sumption tht the current is uniformly distributed over the Cross-section of the conductor and flows in paths parallel to the boundary wal. I this assumption is inadmissible, its necessary to resort to integration or the use ofeurcent-ow lines. Figure 25 Smnmarises the expresions forthe resistance of certain acrange- ‘ments and shapes of conductors. Resistivity “The resistivity of conductors depends on their Composition, physical condition (eg. dampness in the case of hom-mtals alloying, manufacturing and heat treatment chem'= Cal purity, mechanical working. and ageing. The resistance. temperature confcient describes the rate of change of resistivity tvith temperature, Its practically 0040 per °C at 20°C for copper, Most pure metals have a resistivity that rises with “Table 2.2 Conductivity of aqueous salons (mS/em) (a) NaOH =eaustic soda (b) NH Cl=sal ammoniae (@NaCl=common salt (@) NaNO, Chilean saltpetre fe) CaCl, “eakium chloride (ZnCl, =zine chloride Concenteation 3) @ > ‘ t o & RB 1 2 ns Bw 3 wm tM 4 bo 6S 5 D3 #8 15 Wo 88 0 Cn) Thermal etecte 2/7 \h Figure 2.5 Resistance in particular cases temperature. Some alloys have a very small oecient. Carbon is hotable in that its esstiity dacteases markedly with tempe {ute rise, while uranium dioxide has a resistivity whieh falls inthe fatio 50:1 overa range ofa few hundred degrees. Table 22Tststhe resistivity p and the resstance-emperature coefficient for a fnumber of representative materials, The ect of temperature is fsseised in accordance with the expressions Ry=Rel-+20,); RyRy Ul +00\1 +204), for R=R(t +200, —0)] wiere Ro Ry, Ry ate the resistances at temperatures 0,0, and 8, land 2 isthe resistance temporature coefficient at 0°C. 22.14 Liguld conductors “The variations of resistance ofa given aqueous solution of an clectrolyte with temperature fllow the approximate rule: Ry=Rel(l+0030) where 8 isthe temperature in °C, The conductivity (or reiprocal Df resistivity) varies widely with the pereentage strength of the Solution, For low concentrations the variation i that given in Tbe 22 2.2.5 Frequency effects “The resistance ofa given conductors flected by the frequency of| the current carried by i The simplest example is that of an isolated wire of eirevlar cross-section. The inductance of the Central parts ofthe conductor greater than that ofthe outside ‘Skin because ofthe ditional ox linkages due to the internal ‘ragnetic flux lines, The impedance of the central parts is Consequently greater, and the curtent ows mainly stand near the surface ofthe conductor, where the impedance is least, The (@)_ NaHCO, » baking sods () Na,CO, soda ash ()NasSO,=Glaubers salt 1k) AL{S0,),K,80,=alum CuSO, blue vitriol © foo fia im wo 5 4 3 3 6 5 6 ® Ae a 2 5 5 yo % on wo ig) » Boon ost > ok 6 so nu 2 li. © 2/12 elscwotschnotoay Mogretic te Yoarene Sian See ‘eater Looe ‘ oo Figure 28 Magnetic fils 24,1 Magnetic circuit By analogy with the electric circuit, the magnetic Mux produced by a given current ina magnetic circuit is found from the magnetomotive force and the circuit reluctance. The maf, produced by a coil of N tums earying a current I is F=NI Ampere-turns. This is expended over any closed path inking the ccarrent {- Ata given point in a magneti fel in fee space the mam per unit length or magnetsing force H gives nse to a ‘magnetic ux density By Holl where y= 45/10" Ifthe medium in which the field exists has a relative permeability the ux density established is Be By Will = lt ‘Thesummation of H “round any path linking an N-turm iret carrying current isthe total mim. F. Ifthe distebution of is Known, the magnetic fox density or By can be found for al points in thefield, and a knowledge ofthe area ofthe magnetic path gives © Ba, the total magnetic fun. ‘Only in afew cases of great geometrical simplicity can the flax ‘ductoa givensyetem of current be ound prestely, Among these are the following. “Long straight isolated wire (Figure 2.100) Thisis not titty & sealsable case but the resulis are useful. Assume acorent of 1 ‘The mmf. around any closed linking path is therefore 1 Ar. Experiment shows thatthe magnetic field i syrmeticl about, and concentric with, the axis ofthe wire. Around aclosed path of Figure 210 Magnetic cieuits radius x metres there will be a uniform distribution of mms. so tat H=F)2nx= rx (A) ‘Consequently, in free space the Mux density (T) at radi x i By Hot Ina medium of constant permeability 1 ug the Mux density Be jf, There will be magnetic Mx following closed circular pathewthin heeros-scction of the wreisellatany radius the Im. is F= (xi) because the cieular path links only that part fof the (uniformly distributed) current within the path. The Imagnetsing force is H~ F/2nx-=s/2ar? and the corresponding Mur density ina non-magnetic conductor Bool = tox!207? andj ties as much ifthe conductor material has a relative permeablity jc The expressions above are for a conductor barrent of PA. ‘Concentric conductors (Figure 2.108) Here only the inner conductor contributes the magnctic flux in the space between the ‘conductors and in ite because all such fx can link only the liner current. The fox distribution is found exactly asin the previous ease but can now be summed in defined limits. I the ‘ter conductors sufiiently thin radially, the flux in the inter- Conductor space, per meteeaxil length ofthe system, i b/2mx (* Ho af" ete of ‘Toroid (Figure 2.10e) This epresents the closest approach to a perfectly symmetrical magnetic circuit, ih which the mms. Gisributed evenly round the magnetic path and the mami. per rmette Hf corresponds at all points exatly to the fx density isting at those points. The magnetic fox is therefore wholly ‘confined to the path Let the mean radius ofthe toroid be Rand Itscross-sectional area be 4. Then, with N uniformly distributed tums carrying a current [and a toroid core of permeability, FAR Fenty H=FD2RR; B=pHt; ‘This applies approuimately to a long solenoid of length 1, replacing R by I/2x. The permeability wil usually be ‘Composite magnetic circu containing iron (Figure 210d) For simplicity practical composite magnetic circuits are arbitrarily divided into parts along which the Mux density is deemed constant, For each part, Fa Hl= Blja= BIAluA = 08 where S=Utd isthe reluctance Its reciprocal A= 1/S= Alli the permeance, The expression F=OS resembles E=IR for 8 simple de circuit and i therefore sometimes called the magnetic Ohm's law. "The total excitation for the magnsie circuit is Ba H yh + Hale +Hly + fora series of parts of length J, 1, along which magnetic field intensities of Hy, 1..(A-t/m) are necessary. For re space dnd non-magntic materials, y,=1 and By=yyH, 30 that Bolie™8000008,, This means that an excitation 800000 A-t is requited to establish unit magnetic Mux density [UT] overa length =m. For ferromagnetic material tis sul to employ B-H graphs (magnetisation curves) for the. de temination of the excitation required, because such materi txhibita saturation phenomenon Typical BH curves are given in Figures 217 and 2.2 20 Figur am whet hist Phen ands figue om vis tar the The ing the the the the v0 Us et fy ath tad ted ay va tis od at ‘yy val ee. ‘als 20 Traafarmer see oe Hsia sel 2 cont ea g ol oa ° 2 + $ a Magri ls strange H Atm) Figure 2.11 Mosneteaton curves 13, Sos bE & 04 f ae oa) a2 0 70000 Hike Relive permessity 4, Figure 212 Mogneisation an pemasbiity cures 24h Permeability Certuin diamagnetic materials have 4 relative permeability slightly kss than that of vacuum. Thus. bismuth as r= 0:99, ‘Other materials have gy slightly greater than unity: these are called paramagnetic. Iron, nickel, cobalt, steels. Heusler alloy (61% Cu, 27% Mn, 13%, Al) and a number of others of great ‘metallurgical interest have ferromagnetic properties, in which the flux density is not directly proportional tothe magnetising force ‘but which under suitable conditions ar stronely magnetic, The ‘more usual constructional materals employed inthe magnetic Circuits of electrical machinery may have peak permeabilities in the neighbourhood of 30010000, A group of nickel alloys ineluding mumetal (737, Ni,22", Fe, 5% Cu) permalloy’C (73.4%, Ni 133% Fe, 3.7% Mo, 5%, Co) and hypernik (50% Ni 50% Fel, show ‘much higher permeabilities at low densitis (Figure 212), Permeabiltes depend on exact chemical com position, heat treatment, mechanical stress and temperature Conditions, a wells onthe Mux density. Values of excceding Soe 10 can be achieve, 24.1.2 Core losses AA ferromagnetic core subcted to eyeles of magnetsation, Whether alterating (reversing), rotating or pulsating, exhibits hysteresis Figure 2.15 showsthe cyle BH relation typical ofthis Phenomenon. The significant quantities remanent flux density lind coercive force arealso shown, The area ofthe hysteresis loop Figure isa measure ofthe energy loss in the eycle per unit volume of material. An empirical expression fr the hystress loss in 8 ‘ore taken through J yeles of magnetisation per second is Magna itl teens 2273 Energy tured in eminent Senaneisng Figure 2.13. Hysteresis ‘pak By W per unit mass or volume Here By is the maximum induction reached and dy i the Inysteretie constant depending on the molecular quality and retire of the core metal The exponent x may Tie between 1.5 fand 2.3 Ii offen taken as 2. 'A farther ease of los in the same circumstances isthe eddy current lass, de t the PR losses of induced currents. It ean be ‘Shown to be e=kt?{?B* W per unit mass oF volume the constant ke depending on the resistivity of the metal and 1 being its thickness, the material being laminated to decrease the induced emf. per lamina and to inerease the resistance of the path in which the eddy currents flow. In practice, curves of loss per kilogram of per eubie mete for various fux densities are ‘employed thecurves being constructed from the results fearful tests. It should be noted that hysteresis loss i dependent on the maximum Mx density Bw while the eddy current loss is a function of ms. induced current and em, and therefore ofthe rams. flux density B, and not the maximurh density Bm 241.3 Permanent magnets Permanent magnets are made from heat treated alloys, or from es and rare earth, (0 give the Matera large hysteress loop. Figure 24 shows the demagnetisation B/H quadrant of the Joop of typical material. In use, a magnet produces magnetic Figure 214 soo! pemanent magoet conditions ‘energy inthe remainder ofthe magnetic cireuit derived from a measure of self demagnetsation’ consequently, the working point ofthe magnet ison the loop between the coercive force) 2e"0 ‘ux point and the zero foree/remanent Nox point. Difleret pats ‘ofthe magnet will work at diferent points 09 the loop, owing to Teakage, and the copuitions bocome much more comploy i The reluctanes of the extemal magnetic cieuit Auctuates. 2120 etecroteenrology Figure 225 Eletnctelde 252 Capacitance (On the configuration and geometry of the conductor system in Figure 2.4 depends the sclation between the charge q on cach conductor and the pd, between them. Then g=CV, where Cis the capacitance of the’ capacitor formed by the system. A tapacitor has unit capacitance (Fifa) the energy stored inthe associated electrified is J fora pd of | V, or () the pis | V fora charge of C. Definition (a) follows From the encrgy storage Property: ifthe pd. across a capacitor i raised uniformly from ero t0 F,,acharge 4, =C) is established at an average pl. 1¥,, so that the energy input is Weta =bcn, We 25.21 Disletries Up to this point it has been assumed that the electri fed bbeoeen the plates ofa capacitor has been established through vacuous space. Ifa material insulator be used—gss, liquid or Solid—the electric fil will exist therein, Tt will act on the molecules of the diletric material in accordance with eet Trostalie principles to ‘stretch’ or “otate’ them, and £0 10 ‘onentate the positive and negative molecular charges in opposite irections. This polarisation ofthe dielectric may be imagined to take place as in Figure 226. Before the pais applied, the 4a, eo Figure 226 Dioletic polarisation and breakdown ‘molecules ofthe dielectric material are neutral an unstained. As the pis raised from zero asin (a), the electric ficld acts to separate the postive and negative elements, the small charge F It can be considered. as composed of two. seie-connected capacitors each of C= eefi(ay) faradjmete being the ine-o-nentral capacitance. A 3-phase ine has fine- (heute eapactanec ential with Cte interpretation ofthe ‘facing afor tansposed asymmetrical lines being the same as for thee inductance. “the voltage gradient ofa 2-wir line i shown in Figure 2.27) tap the gradient in the immediate vicinity of a wire may be {akon ds dus to the ehagge thereon, the further wire having little ‘fect: consequent, Eq Virlalaih is the yolage gradient ata conductor surface 25.23 Connection of capacitors Ifa bunk of capacitors ofcapacitance C, Cz... beconnecte Jn purlll and raised in combination cach tothe pa the tte Galop is the sum ofthe individual charges VC. VCx, VCs Mince the total combined capacitance i Cac HO tCy+ With a series connection, the same displacement current cousin each eapacitorand the pd. V across the series assembly iS the sum ofthe individual pds aM ret Hobe MQi HUE) so that the combined capacitance i obtained trom CHOICE) +E) WEDD ve 25.24 Voltage applied toa capacitor “The bass for determining the conditions ina cteuitcontsining Capacitor to whicha voltages applied isthat the pd wacross the ‘apseitor is cated definitely by iseapacitance Cro the charged ‘isplaced on is pater: >= Ce “Teta ditect voltage V besuddenly applied wa citeuit devoid of allcharacteritie parameters except that of capacitance C. Atte Mataat of ts application, the capacitor must acept a charve Tey, yeaa ina afiitely Tange current lowing for ‘Fanshingly short time. The enceey stored is W=1Vq~\CV! Jane TF the voltage i raised or lowered uniformly, the charge ‘unt correspondingly change, By a constant charBing or ds Thavelng caren owing during the change (Figure 228), ithe applied voltage is sinusoidal, as in 16), such that Figure 2.28 Votlage applied toa pre capacitor p= rqcos2aft the same argument Jeads 10 the requirement that the chaige 18 ‘Then the cuvtent is '=da/dh, i. f= -0Ciq sino with a peak fg=oCig and an ems. value 1=0CV= VIX, Winere = 1 isthe capacitive reactance 2.53 Dielectric breakdown ‘A dielectric material mst posses (a) high insulation resistivity (S avoid leakage conduction, which dissipates the capacitor TGetny in heat) a permatvity suitable For the purpose high {Sr capacitors and low for insulation generally; ()a high eletee ‘rength to withstand large voltage gradients so that only thin ‘Material ‘a required, It rarely possible t0 secure optimum properties in one and the same material. Porat dicctic wll breakdown (i filt insulate) when the Joltage gradient excesds the value that the material can ‘withstand. The breakdown mechanism is complex. 2530 Gases ‘With guscous diclctrics (eg, ait, hydrogen, fons are abways ‘resent on aecount of light, Beat, sparking, ef. These are st PiStion making additional fosation, which may be comlaive Biusing glow discharge, sparking or acing unless the field Stenath i below a crtel value, A fe strength ofthe order of Sivim i limiting vale fr gses at normal temperature and jrosure. The dielectric strength increases with the ans peste “The polarisation in gazes small on account ofthe compa ‘ively arge distances between molecules. Consequenti, the relative permittivity is not very different fom unity 254.2 Ligids ‘When very pure igus may behave ike gases, Usually however Impurities are present. A smal proportion of the molecules forms votive or negative ions, and foeigh particles in suspension Fiore, dust, water droplets) ate prone to align themselves into (Giconductng filaments: heating produces vapour, and ges see preatdawn may be initiated Water, because ofits exe ‘nally igh permitivity, especially deleterious in liquids such aso. 25.45 Solis Solid dicketrcs ate rarely homogeneous, and axe offen fy: froscopie, Local space charges may appear. producing &bs0‘>- fiom effets; filament conducting paths may be present; and Tea heating (with consequent deterioration) may oeeur. Break {Gown depends on many ators especially ermal ones, and is = function ofthe time of application of the pa 2/10 Nawork analee for R=Dand ¥ = Owhen the source power isissipated entirely in The maximum-power condition s utilised enly with sources ‘whose power capability i very smal, 328 Steady-state ac. networks ‘An alternating curtent flows altemately in the specitid postive direction and then inthe negative dtetion in acre repeating {his eye continuously. A graph of current or voltage ta time base hows the wave-formas a succession of instantaneous values. Ingeneral there will bea maximum or peak valuein both positive and negative half-periods where the current or voltages reatst. ‘The time for one complete cycle isthe period T. The number of periods per second isthe frequency f= IT. ‘An alerting curent is produced by an altemating voltage ‘Two such quantities may have a diference of phase 0 which a precise meaning canbe given only when the quantities are both Sinusoidal functions of time 3.28.1 Rootmean-square (rms) value ‘The numerical value assigned toan aternatingeurrentor voltage is normally defined in terms of mean power ina pure eistor. An falteratng current of {A is that which produces heat energy at the same mean rate a a direct current of 1A inthe same non reactive resistor isthe instantaneous value ofan ac ina pure resistance R, the heat developed in atime element dis dw= Rae. The mean rate (ie. the mean power) over a complete period Tis PR rou ['aveuin {tre and isthe cms, value of the current. An alternating voltage is ‘efined in a similar way theinstantaneous powerisr*/R,and the mean is V3/R where Vis the square root ofthe mean v Tn some cases the peak or the mean value of the current or voltage waveform 'S more significant, particularly with symmetric, ube or rectified wavesorms, The value to be lunderstood bythe term mean i then obvious, Tn the ease ofa symmetrical wave, the halfperiod mean value i intended, asthe mean overa complete peviod is 270. Table 2.2 gives the mean and ms, values for a numberof typical wave-“orms, together with the values of The techniques developed for the solution of steady-state ae networks depend on the waveform. One technique applies (0 purely sinusoidal quantities, another 10 periodic but non: ‘Sinusoidal waveforms. In each case the network i assumed tobe Tinea® so thatthe prisepleof superposition i valid 3.29 Sinusoidal alternating quant For puse sinusoidal waveforms, eutrent ean be expressed as a function of time, =m sn(2f)= sino) completing cycles ‘Table 32. Vawes of aemnaing quantities (peak) Waveform rms. meon Ky Sinusoidal hn dat Halfovave ecified sine ist ao Fullewave rectified sine kn iat Rectangular ro a ‘Toangular Lie 193 ins witha period T=1/f. The quantity 2x is contracted 10 0, the angular [requeney. The sinewave shape has the advantages ‘that (its mathematically simple and isintegral and diferental fare both cosinusosdal, (i) it isa wave-form desirable for power [Beneration, transmision and wllisation, and (i) it lends tel (0 ‘hasor and complexor representation "Thegraph ofa sinusoidal current or voltage of requeney fean be plotted toa time-angle base wt by us of trigonometric ables. Aiernatively it can be represented by the projection of Tine of| lenuth equal tothe peak value and rotating counterclockwise at angular speed co about one end OA stationary line ean represent the sine wave, paricuarly in lation to other sine waves of the same frequency bot out ofstep. Two such waves, say and with Deak alles tin andi tespectvely, can be writen, v=omsinat and iiq sinfar—#) aad drawn asin Figure 3.14, the phase difference or phase angle between them being rad. Then wolines, OA and OB,havingan angular displacement g, ean represent the two waves in peak ‘magnitude and relative ime phase. Figure 3.18 Phasor: Although developed from rotating lines ofpeak-value length it is more convenient to change the scale and treat the lengths as rims. values. The processes of addition and subtraction of rms. ‘values are performed asifth ins were coplanar vector forces in mechanics. Physically, however, the lines are not vectors: they Substitute for salar quantities, alternating sinusoidally with time. They are termed phasors. Certain associated quantities, such as impedance, admittance and apparent power, can also be represented by directed lines, but as they are not sinusoids they are texmed complexors or complex operators. Both phasors and complexors can be dealt with by application of the theory of ‘omplex numbers. The definitions concemed are Complexor A gener term fora non-vector quantity expressed ‘2-4 complex number Phasor. A complexor (eg. voltage oF current) derived from a time-varying sinusoidal quantity and expressed as a complex number Complex operator A complexor derived for the ratio of two ‘phasors (eg. impedance and admittance), or a complesor Wich, operating on a phasor, gives another phisor (ez. 12, in which V and Fare phasors but Z is a complex ‘operato. 329.1 Complexor algebra “The fouranthmetis proceses for complexorsate applications of the theory of complex numbers Compleror in Figure #15 can heexpresed by se magnitodedand itsangk fwith spect oan arbitrary ‘datum dicction there taken as horizontal) a8 the Simple polar form a-=aU. AKeratively it can be writen as Faw oD data scale byar by) ori: oper cant obvie 90, Polat Rect Expe Trig wher Co Thet Ada Suber when comp ond: th 8 of sof the ‘uaa ® Datum ° Figure 218, Compexors -+ inthe rectangular orm in terms ofits projetionp onthe Eada gona qoadatre ast rit angles thereto asa Scalar magetade slong the datum) is tated counterclockwise ‘angle erad OF )8y he operator} Twosuceesie operations Dy tien a8 7) ee aration ox rad (1807), making the rpg ito gn eflst a mulipleaton by —1. Three ‘Spuration (*) give and four give +9, Thus any complesor Sane loatd inthe compen catum-quadratre plane. Furet Stvous ons ar the trgonomer, atc} 0) andthe Sxponensa™aexpGo) Summarsing.the four deserptions ar Polar Rectangular Exponential Fepenometric amatos 8a) wher am Vip? +4) and Parana) ‘Considetcompletors e=psia=or and bertis= DL “The basis manipulations ae Addition arb=(p +7 +09) Sshracion ~batp—)=30~) Mutipication ‘Theexposentalandpolarformsaremoredirest than the restangular oF tigonomene: b= (pra) far) TewiaeMeebe (+P) Division ere ao the angular forms ate prefered aib=Lipr-ta)+qr= pa) +3) slaespLia— P=) A) Conjugate The conjugate of a complror amp inmace it Weepeqmacte ay. the quadrature component (and therefore the ale) being reversed. Then ab mabe (a9) abc 8-2) Parte “The last expression i wsed to ‘rationalise’ the denominator in the complesor division proces. 3.29.2 Impedance and admittance operators Sinusoidal voltages and curents can be represented by phasors be expressions VeIZ=1/¥ and P= VY =V/z, Curren and ‘ollage phasors are elated by multiplication or division with the Complex operators Zand Y, Series eesistance Rand reactance 3X Gan'be armnged as a rghtangled tangle of hypotenuse ele X2) and the angle between Z and Ris O=arctan(X/R). {The relation between Zand. ¥ for the same series network cements with Z= +) ao RiN RW 2 RAjN GEEINMRIA)” RP RI 4X22) where @ and B are defined in terms of RX and Z. The series Omponents and X bosome parallel branches in ¥, one a pate Ctmutance. the othr a pure suseeptance, Further, a postive oak \ bk A Figura 3.18 Imoodanee and admitance angles angled impedance has, as inverse equivalent a negative-angled ‘admittance (Figure 3.16). ‘The impolance and phase angle of a number of circuit ‘combinations are given in Table 33, Impedance and admittance oe! Ifthe characteristics ofa device rn cir can be expresed in terms of an equivalent circuit in Gihich the impedances and/or admitances vary according to Tome law, then the eorent taken fora given applied voltage (or {he voltage fora given current) ean be obtained graphically by use ‘kan admittance or impedance locus diagram. Im Figure 27a) lt OP represent an impedance Z= R+5X and! OG the corresponding wdmittance Y=G~B, Point Q is ‘Strained from P by finding frst the geometric inverse point Soch that OQ'= {/OP to scale, and then refleting OQ'aerossthe ‘Satu ine to give OQ and thos 2 reversed angle ~B, a process termes complexor inversion. IZ has successive values Zy, Zs ‘nthe impedance locus the corresponding admittanes Ya {icon the admittance locus. The inversion process may be poin- Dby-point, but in many eases certain proposition can reduce the labour Inverseof astraigh line The gcometricinvers ofa straight line “ABabouta pont noton thelinesacicle passing rough O swith ts centre Mon the perpendicular OC from O to AB Trigure 3170) Then A’ is the geometric inverse of A,B’ of B te also, Ais the inverse of A,B of BY et. Inverse of acircle From the foregoing, the geometic inverse of Noel abouta point Oon itcireumference sa straight ine. I, ihomever,O isnot onthe circumference, the inverse sa second ‘ce beiween the same tangents; but the distances OM and ‘OM from the origin O tothe centres M and M’ ofthe circles fare not inveres of each other. “The choles of scales arises in_the inversion process: for example, the inverse of an impedance Z=800 70° is Y= ‘0021-7078. Tess usually possible to decide on a scale by taking a salient feature uch asa cirle diameter) asa basis, 329. Power rhe instantaneous power delivered toa Load isthe product ofthe Instantaneous voltage pad current i Let ¢= fq sit and snot =p) as in Figure 4/8; then the instantaneous power p= HninGene 6 -cost20r~ I] This & a quantity Muctuating at angular Frequency 20 with, in fneral excursions into negative power (i. that returned by the [bad tothe source) Over an integral numberof periods the mean power is Pb €08 0 = VF 005 where V and Fare ms. vals, N2 Network anasis Impedance: Admittance: anlX/R) sfotaniX/) Rejol. Re ijoe arcanol/R)———aretangioC RY a are Sar Ce! fie 4 1 2 3 cobtik Lsiocr ji Z=Hol—W0e) ReHob—1ioe) ong Ae tte Om tni2 aretan{(ot.—1/oCVR] setan(Rit) {ae oa a 5 : \ Rejul Lit ~w2LC)~ CR] 2 oe IRF Ho tit (ott P eR? RFF Hob Hoe Aw RAR ru? RiorC? Brot RoC —LiCKoL- lias : ~arctan[RloC = Hook] arctan Lt —«LC)=CREV/R} artan(By4) Resonance conditions for LC networks numbered 1-6 bore for «== //(LCh M14=0000 2)i4=R0=0. 3) (Z=2,0=0 WIA=R0=0 arctan R) for Reciok. (6) Z=R fonst) for R= r= JiLsCY Figure 347 Inveson Now resolve to the active and reactive components y= lin 08 PIN ct hy=Csin sfx bn) asin Figure 3.18(b; hen the instantaneous power can be written tell C08 si? at — gig St NN E05 ct ‘Over whole numberof periods the average of the ist ter i PS cO8 b= VI o08 4 tal wo ving the average rate of energy transfer rom soureeto load. The Second isa double frequency sinusoid ofaverage aie zero, thecnergy flow changing direction rhythmically between source x —s and load at a peak rate Q=Wniasin d= VEsing “The power conditions thus summarise tothe following: “Active power P: the mean of the instantaneous power over an integral nomber of periods giving the mean rat of energy Uuansfr from source to Toad in watts (W), oactve power Q: the maximum rate of enesgy interchange ‘between source and loadin eactve voltamperes (a) “Apparent power She produet of the rms. voltage and current in "altampetes (VA). ‘Both Pand Q represent real power The apparent power isnot power at all but i an arbitary product VI. Nevertheless Because of the way in which P and @ are defined, we can write PQ =(VIFle08 6 +5in? =U? whence $= /(P2+%), & convenient combination of mean Zave power wth peak power circulation Complex power: the’ active and reactive powers can be “Jetemined for voltage and current phasors by S=PLiQ-Vir or S=V4T using the conjugate of either I oF ¥. Power factor. the ratio of active to apparent power, F/ Tor sinusoidal conditions. cos d 41.294 Resonance [A condition of resonance occurs when the load contains two forms of energystoring clement (Land C) such that, at the Frequency of operation, the two energies are equal. The reactive [owes requirements ave then satisfied intemal asthe inductor cases energy at the rate that the capacitor requires it. The Tource supplies only the active power demand ofthe encrp)~ {Tisipaing load components, the load externally appearing to be purely resistive lcceptorresonance Testes RLCeireutin Figure 3. 19(a) has, angular frequeney othe impedance Z=R-+3X, where X 18 ce oC, wich for w= p= I// ULC) is 200, The impedance then ZR and the input eureent has @ maximum f= V/Rs Conditions of aecepior resonance. Tnernlly, large Solages TIRy L TI t A ® oc ! Vs ' | ; =o ee Figure 349, Resonance @ asic network araisis 3/79 appear across the reactive components, vit, J. Fal = Voll R) Vo=IeengC)= ViONER) “The tems L/R and /CR ate the time-constants ofthe reactive Toca, and igl/f isthe Q-value of a practical inductor of ‘tuuctanee Land lossresistance The Q-value may be lage (eg, 100) for resonance ata high frequency ejector resonance This occu in a parallel combination of L find Cth enctpes ciscolating around the closed LC loop. in ‘igure J19(0) the resistance Ris zero, the terminal input ‘Ritance vanishes at angular frequency 91) /(LC), with sree Ifogh and an input susceptance B=0. Whete the circuit ‘Contains resstance the resonance conditions are less definite Shaws possible erteria are () 2o~ VLC), (i) the input ‘Mdunttance a ennimnin and (i the input admittance purely

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