Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE International Conference on
Networking, Sensing and Control, Okayama, Japan, March 26-29, 2009
Virtual Sensing Techniques and Their Applications
Lichuan Liu, Member, IEEE, Sen M. Kuo, Senior Member, IEEE, MengChu Zhou, Fellow, IEEE
Abstract— Developing new sensing technologies to obtain
desired and accurate information more effectively from the
limited sensor positions is one of the critical challenges that
scientists and engineers aspire to undertake in the 21st century.
This paper surveys applications of virtual sensing in different
fields, e.g., transportation, wireless communication, sensor
networks and active noise control. It reviews the existing
methods used to infer virtual sensing information. The virtual
sensing techniques and their application in active noise control
are especially discussed.
Index terms: Virtual sensing, active noise control.
I. INTRODUCTION
I n many practical applications, obtaining the sensing data by
placing the sensors at the optimal (virtual) locations is
difficult or even impossible. Physical sensors are widely
used in many applications and products, such as control,
communication, bioengineering, medical, industry, and
chemical engineering, to measure and monitor physical
phenomena, such as temperature, humidity, pressure, speed,
chemical components, and emissions from motor vehicles.
Physical sensors often take direct measurements of the
physical phenomena and convert these measurements into
sensing data for further processing. They are usually costly,
need to be maintained and are sometimes unreliable. Further,
when control systems rely on physical sensors to operate
properly, a failure of a physical sensor may render such
control systems inoperable. Instead of direct measurements,
virtual sensors are developed to process various physically
measured data and to produce values that are previously
measured directly by physical sensors [Grichnik2007].
Virtual sensors and virtual sensing have many applications in
different areas, such as computer science, wireless
networking, communication, remote sensing, and chemistry.
Recently, virtual sensing techniques and their applications
in noise control have intensively attracted many interests
from researchers and industry [Elliott1992]. Noise problems
have become more and more evident through the increasing
amount of industrial equipment in use. The growth in
high-density housing increases the exposure of populations to
noise sources. At the same time, cost constraints have resulted
in a tendency to use lighter materials, which results in an
increase in unwanted noise problems. Noise can be reduced
using passive techniques such as enclosures, barriers, and
silencers. These passive techniques can attenuate noises over
L. Liu and S. Kuo are with the Electrical Engineering Department,
Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60116 USA (email:
Lichuan@ceet.niu.edu and Kuo@ceet.niu.edu)
M. Zhou is with Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, New
Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ 07102 USA. (e-mail:
zhou@njit.edu).
978-1-4244-3492-3/09/$25.00 ©2009 IEEE
a broad frequency range, but they become expensive and are
ineffective for low-frequency noises. The drawbacks of
passive techniques have motivated the development of active
noise control (ANC) [Nelson1992] [Kuo2001] based on the
principle of superposition. ANC systems improve
low-frequency noise control with potential benefits in size,
weight reduction, and lower system cost.
In many ANC applications, global noise reduction is very
expensive and difficult to realize. Thus the objective of many
practical ANC systems is to reduce noise at certain desired
locations called “quiet zones,” which are often generated
around the physically installed so-called “error sensors”.
However, for many real-world applications, it is impractical
to place such error sensors very close to the desired locations,
such as human ears. The challenge is to create quiet zones
around the target points without actually placing error sensors
at those desired virtual locations. The goal of many
researches is to design effective virtual sensing techniques.
Therefore, in ANC systems, one can place error sensors at
physically practical locations and process the sensor signals
to make them equivalent to the signals obtained from the
virtual sensors at desired locations. Such techniques would
provide dramatic improvements over current ANC schemes
operating under real-world constraints.
The paper is organized as follows. In Section II, virtual
sensor and virtual sensing are introduced. Section III
investigates the application of virtual sensors and sensing
techniques in different areas. Virtual sensor network is also
discussed in this section. Section IV, a case study illustrates
how the virtual sensing technology is used in ANC systems.
Section V offers conclusion.
II. VIRTUAL SENSOR AND SENSING
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and
converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or
by an instrument [wiki_sensor]. For example, a microphone
converts the measured acoustic pressure into an electrical
signal that can be read by a scope. A digital thermometer
converts the temperature into voltage signal that can be read
by human beings. The sensors can be divided into two
categories: physical sensors and virtual sensors. Physical
sensors (PS) often take direct measurement of the physical
phenomena near the place to be sensed. Virtual sensors (VS)
are also known as soft sensors, smart sensors or estimators;
they are used in place of the real sensors [Wilson1997]. VS
take readings for real physical sensors and calculate the
outputs by using some process models.
Physical sensors and associated hardware are often costly,
sometimes unreliable and need to be maintained. Furthermore,
physical sensors often provide periodical sensing data at fixed
locations and cannot be deployed in every position need to be
31
sensed. In many applications, virtual sensors are used to: 1)
Replace a temporarily installed sensor; 2) Provide continuous
outputs based on periodic physical sensor measurements; 3)
Predict in advance the sensing data for a system, which allows
predictive control; and 4) Provide robustness when physical
sensor fails or is under maintenance. Virtual sensors need
system models or transfer functions to process the data form
real sensors. Therefore the model accuracy is critical. Wilson
proposed to use neural network to establish the system model
[Wilson97].
Input Real sensor outputs
Real sensors
Virtual
sensor
Virtual sensor
outputs
processing
Use dynamical model of system or
“transfer function”
Fig. 1. Concept of virtual sensors.
Sensing is to grasp the nature, significance, or meaning of a
physical phenomenon or stimulus. Generally, physical
sensing or real sensing obtains direct measurement of the
physical phenomena. However, it is well known that
gathering information from a location by a physical or
intimate contact sensor is a necessary, but by no means
sufficient condition. Over the last decades, especially the last
few years, an alternative sensing method, know as ‘virtual
sensing’ or ‘virtual sensor’, enables the faithful collection of
data from virtual locations (the location far away from the
sensor’s physical location).
At the heart of the new approach is one crucial
observation. The information, for example, acoustic signal is
propagated, reflected, attenuated, and/or amplified in and by
the medium. The signal at one place is the modified copy with
delay, interference and distortion of the signal at another
location. Therefore, the information at one place can be
recovered by information at other location(s). In modern
sensing techniques, remote sensing can be viewed as ‘virtual
sensing’. For example, aircraft, satellites or ship craft
equipped with sensing devices acquires information from a
given area. Virtual sensing techniques are broadly applicable
and enable one to predict or estimate information at one
location from the information obtained at other location(s). In
short, virtual sensing is to use physical sensing data and a
suitable model to grasp the information of interested areas
without putting real sensors there and/or physically
contacting the object directly.
III. APPLICATION OVERVIEW
We briefly review different virtual sensor and virtual
sensing applications in this section.
A. Virtual Sensor
Virtual sensors are widely used in many application areas,
such as: intelligent transportation systems, computer science,
chemistry and automation.
32
Dailey and Cathey [2006] develop a virtual sensor system
in Washington State’s Traffic Management System. This
system provides real-time congestion information by using
intelligent transportation systems. For the areas already
deployed with sensors, the real-time data can be collected
from the physical (real) sensors and transmitted to the control
center. These raw data are then processed to obtain the virtual
traffic data for those roadways where presently there are no
physical sensors. The real and virtual traffic data are then
provided to Washington State Department of Transportation.
In computer science, virtual sensors are software entities,
which abstract sensing functionality of real sensors. Virtual
sensors here hide hardware dependencies [Hardy99] and
provide consistent and reconfigurable software modules to
the upper-level applications. Virtual sensors offer some
advantages. They are easier to be maintained and upgraded
because the lower-level interfacing and the upper-level
application are decoupled. Virtual sensors are easier and
simpler to use because upper-layer applications can use
consistent and relevant application programmer interfaces
(API) to access different sensors.
In chemistry, gas sensing systems with high sensitivity and
selectivity are required for such applications as air quality
control, leak detection, and explosion warning. Ankara et al.
[2004] design a low-power virtual sensor array based on
micro-machined gas sensors for fast discrimination between
H2, CO and related humidity. Schütze and Gramm [2004]
propose to design high-performance virtual multi-sensory
systems for a wide variety of applications. They extract
steady-state values and time constraints for different gas
concentrations and sensor temperatures, and then predict the
virtual sensor output. The virtual sensing systems can be
individually adapted.
Bellas et al. [2000] use virtual sensing in mobile robot
design. Mobile robots’ controller manages explicit
information in different levels. Real sensors and virtual
sensors are utilized at the sensing level to improve the
precision of the sensing information. They establish an
artificial neural network, and then use it with time delays as
virtual sensors. The virtual sensor outputs are estimated
through a temporal correlation of real sensing values. This
scheme can increase the response precision of mobile robots.
B. Virtual Sensing
In this section, we introduce virtual sensing techniques and
their applications in wireless networking, mechanical
engineering and remote sensing.
In wireless networks, virtual carrier sensing is widely used.
Carrier sensing (CS) mechanisms are used to identify the
channel availability for transmission and avoid packet
collision. The physical CS is performed at the physical layer,
which senses the carrier directly and determines the channel
availability based on the level of interference and noise
around the user. The virtual carrier sensing (VCS) is an
alternative mechanism to the physical CS and performs at the
Medium Access Control (MAC) sublayer [Hung2007]. It
does not sense the carrier directly. It often uses RTS (request
to send) and CTS (clear to send) control frames to predict the
channel’s status based on the sequence of received frames
[IEEEsandard99], For example, IEEE 802.11 MAC uses RTS
and CTS for virtual CS. In [Ko2000], researchers also focus
on directional virtual carrier sensing (DVCS).
The injection modeling industry has continuously sought
precision and quality molding. Once the important variables
related to the molding process are determined, how to obtain
those variables accurately becomes a crucial factor. It is
difficult to obtain all these variables due to lack of proper
sensing mechanisms because of cost, inaccessibility, and
sometimes, appearance concerns. Cheng et al. [2004] propose
a virtual sensing approach to on-line monitoring and
regulation of process variables in an injection modeling
process. Based on the nonlinear observer theory, virtual
sensors estimate process behavior using easily obtained
measurements. Then these virtual sensing data are used to
improve the molding process.
The remote sensing system is the transfer of the observable
phenomena through different channels like a sensor system,
decision system, and delivery system. In practice, satellite is
the most widely used way for large-scale remote sensing
because it can cover relatively large area. The deployment of
state-of-the-art new satellites allows one to provide a
tremendous amount of data for remote sensing users. It is
important for user community to find the suitable data set for
testing their algorithm and methodology. Virtual remote
sensing is a system developed for simulating and testing
different data and algorithms instead of using the huge
amount of data from the modern satellites. Users can test the
atmosphere, scene and sensor parameters [Guerrero2007]. In
this virtual system, some existing models used for real remote
sensing systems are modified, coupled with each other, in
order to generate the new model for simulation usage.
In short, virtual sensing is to use physical sensing data and a
suitable model to grasp the information of interested areas
that is difficult or impossible to reach.
C. Virtual Sensor Network
Sensor networks have been widely used for monitoring,
space exploration, sensing and control applications.
Generally, a sensor network is deployed and designed for a
specific application. Compared with wired network and
mobile ad-hoc network, the tiny sensors have limited
resources, such as energy, power and memory. Therefore, it is
difficult and sometimes impossible to deploy the whole
layered protocols stack in sensor networks [Marco2003]. It is
important that multiple sensor networks are capable of
sharing physical network resources and information for a
wide variety of conditions. In [Marco03], the concept of
virtual sensor network (VSN) is introduced. VSN can provide
protocol support for the formation, usage, adaptation and
maintenance of subsets of sensor collaboration on specific
tasks.
The VSN research can be divided into two classes. The
first one is called a gateway-based approach. It uses
application-level gateways to integrate several sensor
networks into an external network [Marco2003]. This
gateway can relay packets for different networks. Each sensor
network can select its own communication protocol based on
the network constraints and its specific application. The
33
disadvantage of this approach is that an end-user cannot
directly access each individual sensor node. Fall [2003]
propose another gateway-based approach by deploying a
bundle layer in different networks. This layer stores and
forwards packets. It is easy to integrate with several different
networks but the entire deployment cost increases since a new
bundle layer needs to be inserted into the existing protocols.
The second one is called overlay-based approach. It can be
further categorized into TCP/IP overlay sensor network
approach and sensor network overlay TCP/IP approach. The
former implements IP stack on each sensor node, and then
different sensor networks can work together through IP
addresses. Its drawbacks are the extra protocol overhead and
implementation difficulties for recourse-limited sensors. The
latter deploys the sensor network protocol stacks are over
TCP/IP. Therefore, each Internet host can be viewed and
works as a sensor node. Its disadvantage is the increased
protocol header overhead to TCP/IP networks [Dai2004].
IV. APPLICATION IN ACTIVE NOISE CONTROL
Traditional ANC systems can minimize the measured
acoustic pressure at the physical error sensor (microphone)
location and generate quiet zone with limited size around the
physical sensor. However, it is difficult or even impossible to
place the physical sensors at the optimal locations, for
example, human ears. Moreover, when the optimal location is
mobile, it is necessary to catch the spatial-varying error signal
and generate a moving quiet zone. A number of virtual
sensing algorithms have been developed for ANC.
A. Background
ANC systems use secondary sources to produce anti-noise
that has the same amplitude but opposite phase to cancel out
the undesired primary noise. As illustrated in Fig. 2, a
single-channel broadband ANC system uses the reference
sensor to pick up the primary noise source. The reference
signal x(n) is processed to generate the secondary sound
(anti-noise) y(n). The residual noise e(n) is picked up by the
error sensor and used to update the adaptive filter W(z) in the
ANC system. P(z) and S(z) are the primary and secondary
path transfer functions from the primary and secondary
sources to the error sensor. The adaptive ANC filter is
updated by the least-mean square (LMS) algorithm to
minimize the error signal e(n).
Therefore, an important design issue in ANC systems is to
place error sensors at optimal locations to create and
maximize the noise reduction at desired zones. However, it
may not be possible to place the error sensors at the optimum
locations determined by acoustic theory and user
specifications. For example, in electronic mufflers used for
reducing engine noise, it is difficult to place error sensors at
the outlet of an exhaust pipe since we have to protect the error
sensors from high temperature, fast airflow, and corrosive
environment.
 Reference Secondary Error location, and qs is the secondary source strength.
Noise loudspeaker microphone
microphone
source Similarly, the sound pressure at a VS location can be
expressed as
P(z) y(n) S(z) pv = pb + Z v + q s [2]
ANC where pb is the sound pressure at the virtual location due to
x(n) W(z) e(n)
the noise source, and Z v is the transfer impedance from the
Fig. 2. Single-channel broadband ANC system in a duct. secondary source to the physical sensor location.
B. Algorithm Overview and Engineering Problems Assuming that the spatial rate of change of the primary
field is generally small at low frequencies, the sound pressure
In conjunction with ANC algorithms, virtual sensors
at the VS location can be estimated as
have successfully moved the location of maximum noise
attenuation away from the physical error sensor in a headset pˆ v = pa − ( Z a − Z v ) + qs [3]
[J. Garcia-Bonito1996], in a free field [Kestell2001], in This equation shows the estimated sound pressure pˆ v at the
narrow ducts [Munn2003], and in large confined spaces
[Roure1999]. The virtual sensing technologies used for ANC VS location can be canceled by introducing the secondary
can be divided into two classes: 1) requiring preliminary (or source using only measurements pa from the physical sensor.
offline training) stage setup and 2) not requiring preliminary
Therefore, the output from the physical sensor, pa , can be
identification stage.
1) Class 1- requiring preliminary identification processed by a digital signal processing algorithm to obtain
The first type algorithms are based on the assumption pˆ v if Z p , Z v , and qs are available. Knowing pˆ v , we can
that the spatial rate of pressure change in the primary field is
design ANC system to drive it to zero, thus producing a quiet
small, thus the primary sound pressure can be regarded as the
zone around the VS location.
same at both the virtual and actual locations. During the
The ANC system can be modeled with the primary and
preliminary stage, the transfer functions can be derived by an
secondary sources represented as point monopoles with
extrapolation of the signals measured by physical sensors.
spherical pressure amplitude radiation pattern as follows
Secondary
Noise loudspeaker
[Kestell2001]:
source Mv − jkr
jωρ 0 qe
pr = [4]
Canceling e’(n) Mp 4π r
Reference signal
where p is the pressure amplitude measured at a distance r
signal
ANC Virtual sensing e(n) from the source, ρ 0 is the air density, q is the source signal
e’(n) algorithm strength, and k is the wave number.
The remote microphone technique [Roure1999] is an
Fig.3. Concept of using VS for electronic mufflers
extension to virtual microphone arrangement and estimates
the virtual sensing data from the physical sensor by a
Virtual microphone arrangement is the first virtual sensing
transform matrix. Similar to the virtual microphone
technique used in ANC application proposed by Elliot and
arrangement, it requires the accurate model of the transfer
David [1992]. In this method, if the primary sound field does
function that can be obtained from the preliminary
not change significantly between physical and virtual
identification stage. It achieves better performance than the
microphones, the authors assume that the primary sound
virtual microphone arrangement method. This method can be
pressures at the physical and virtual locations are equal
used for a remote moving microphone technique. Peterson et
[Elliott1992] [Kuo2003]. Hence, the primary sound at the
al. [2006] propose a method to estimate moving virtual
virtual location is used as the primary sound at the virtual
location sensing data. They first estimate several
location. For the secondary sound, the transfer functions for
spatially-fixed virtual location data by remote microphone
the physical and virtual locations are obtained in the
technique, and then any moving virtual location in this region
preliminary identification stage and modeled as
confined by those fixed locations can be detected by spatial
finite-impulse response (FIR) or infinite-impulse response
interpolation.
(IIR) filters.
The adaptive least mean square (LMS) virtual microphone
As shown in Fig. 3, the sound pressure at the physical
technique [Munn2004] uses a microphone array to predict the
error sensor location may be expressed as
virtual sensor output in which the weights for microphone
[Garcia-Bonito1997]
outputs are adapted by the LMS algorithm. The performance
p p = pa + Z p + q s [1]
of this method decreases when the sensor array is far away
where pa is the sound pressure at the physical location from the virtual location. Similar to the moving remote
microphone technique, this method can be extended to
due to the noise source, Z is the transfer impedance
p
moving LMS virtual microphone technique [Peterson2007].
from the secondary source to the physical microphone

34
 The Kalman filtering virtual sensing method
[Peterson2008] use Kalman filtering theory to predict the
virtual sensing data. The whole virtual sensing system is
modeled by a state-space system, the physical sensor output is
used to estimate the virtual sensor output and update the plant
state. One advantage of this method is the relationships
between the secondary sound and physical/virtual sensor are
modeled by the state-space system instead of two different
FIR/IIR filters. The main disadvantage of this method is that
it is only suitable for low-order systems. Peterson [2007a]
used the spatial-interpolating method to extend this method
for moving virtual location scenario.
2) Class 2-not requiring preliminary identification
The second class includes the forward difference
prediction method and stochastically optimal diffuse field
virtual sensing method. The preliminary identification stage
is not needed for these two methods. The forward difference
prediction technique is developed by Gawron [1992]. This
technique uses microphone array to estimate the virtual
location output. A polynomial is fit to the existing sensor
array, and then the signal at the virtual location can be
estimated by extrapolating the polynomial.
e p 2 ( n)
ev (n)
e p1 (n)
e p 2 ( n) e p 3 (n)
e p1 (n)
ev (n)
Fig. 4. Forward difference extrapolation, (a) two physical
microphones are used, and (b) three physical microphones are
used
As shown in Fig. 4 (a), the pressure at the virtual location
can be estimated by two physical microphones via linear
forward extrapolation,
ev ( n) = e p 2 ( n) +
( e p 2 ( n) − e p1 ( n) ) x [5]
2h
This pressure can be also estimated by a second-order finite
difference estimate if we have three physical microphones, as
shown in Fig. 4 (b).
x( x + h) x ( x + 2h) ( x + 2h )( x + h)
ev ( n) = e p1 ( n) + e p 2 (n) +
2 2
2h 2h 2h
[6]
The advantage of this method is that the preliminary setup
is not required [Cazzolato1999]. The drawbacks are that it
can only be used for low-frequency sound fields and the
distance between the virtual location and the sensor array
must be less than the wavelength λ.
The stochastically optimal diffuse field virtual sensing
method [Moreau2007] is proposed for pure tone diffuse
sound fields. This method does not require a preliminary
identification stage nor the transfer functions between the
error sensors and the sources. In this environment, physical
sensors measure the pressures and pressure gradients. Then
the pressure and pressure gradient at a virtual position is
estimated by the weighted sum of those measurements. This
method works well when the distance between the virtual one
and physical ones is smaller than a certain value (e. g. λ/2).
Most of these algorithms are only applicable to cases
where the frequency of the primary noise is very low or the
distance between the virtual and actual sensor is very small,
such as in headsets. For those schemes that do not have the
limitation above, the system performance depends heavily on
the system model and is very sensitive to the locations of the
physical sensors.
Table I. Comparison for different virtual sensing
algorithms for ANC
Off- Transfer
line Static Moving Function
model or state model
Virtual
Y Y Y
microphone
Remote
Y Y Y Y
microphone
Adaptive
Y Y Y
LMS
Kalman filter Y Y Y Y
Forward
Y
difference
Diffuse field Y
C. Future Research
One important area of the future research is the theory
and techniques of virtual sensing for ANC to effectively
reduce low-frequency noises at the desired virtual error
sensor locations. While the existing algorithms can
successfully obtain virtual sensing data for ANC use, the
constraints discussed above limit the practical usability to real
applications. To overcome this problem, we are currently
investigating a method to predict the virtual sensing data
based on the collaboration among a bunch of physical
sensors. Those spatially-fixed or mobile physical sensors
communicate and share sensing data with each other. A
subset of sensors is selected to work together. Different
combinations can generate different virtual sensor arrays with
variety of sensor number, delay taps and array shape. The
sensor array is used to estimate the virtual sensing data.
Finally, we need to integrate ANC systems with virtual
sensing algorithms for the maximum noise reduction and
verify the performance using real-time experiments. The
e p 3 (n) integrated system must have fast convergence and tracking
2
capability to cope with the time-varying parameters of the
systems.
V. CONCLUSION
This paper has surveyed virtual sensors, virtual sensing
techniques and their applications in different areas and
focused on the active noise control (ANC). The ANC
35
background problems are addressed and some existing
solutions are introduced. Class 1 (requiring preliminary
identification) algorithms need transfer models between the
source and the physical/virtual sensors. Those models are
modeled by transfer functions expressed by FIR (or IIR)
filters and space-state system. Class 2 (not requiring
preliminary identification) algorithms estimate the virtual
sensor output by extrapolating polynomial or sum of
weighted outcomes of a set of sensors. The advantages and
constraints are also analyzed in this paper, and then the future
research is discussed to enhance today’s ANC systems.
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