SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF S&T DEVELOPMENT & STATUS OF SOCIAL

SCIENCES RESEARCH IN HINDI SPEAKING AREAS OF INDIA

Subhan Khan and Pramod Kumar Prajapati

1.0 INTRODUCTION

India, one of the oldest civilizations in the world, has-one of the earliest traditions of
education, research and writing. Social science research, or more specifically treatises
on social philosophy, and normative social thought in India, can be traced as far back as
Manu's Dharmashastra brought out in the second or third century BC. It is a
comprehensive study of Indian society as it existed at that time, though its emphasis is
on the moral and normative aspects of social and economic action. Kautilya's
Arthashastra, 324-296 BC, is essentially a treatise on statecraft, and describes in detail
the political and economic structuring and functioning of Indian society. Shamita
Sharma, while reviewing the social science research in India has revealed that India
has also been the subject of social science research for both Asian and western scholars
for many centuries1. Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador to the court of King
Chandragupta Maurya from 324 BC to 300 BC, had written a book on India describing
the prevailing structure of Indian society and the customs of Indian people. In 1030 AD,
Al Biruni, a Persian scholar who visited India, completed his book in which he gave a
detailed account of his observations on Indian social and cultural life. His writings
describe the religion, customs and manners of the Hindus along with the status of
science at that time2. The writings of Bernier, a French traveller, provide useful and
interesting information about Indian society of the 17th century during the reigns of the
Mughal kings Shahjahan and Aurangzeb3. Though most of these accounts are based
more on personal observations than on scientific enquiry, they do represent important
sources of data and information for modern social science4. During pre-independence
era, India produced many thinkers, writers, economists, policymakers, religious and
social reformers, moral philosophers, such as Dadabhai Naoroji, G. K. Gokhale, K. C.
Sen, M. G. Ranade, C. Dutt, Raja Rammohun Roy, Ramakrishna Paramhamsa, and
Swami Vivekananda.

1
In India, the development of modern social science dates back to the 19th century, when
a number of research societies were set up by the Britishers in their colonial interests.
Since the Britishers were not familiar with Indian society and its culture, they often had
to face problems in interacting with Indian people and in general administration. To
resolve this problem, they started collecting extensive data and information on Indian
society with the sole objective of obtaining a better understanding of the Indian people,
their culture, traditions, customs and beliefs. Besides, their research was also focused on
the Indian society’s peculiar aspects, like the rural community system, joint family
system, caste system, and tribal cultures and festivals, etc. Though all this gave an
impetus to social science research in India, to a large extent, it was this kind of research
and data collection of the British administrators and scholars who formed the basis of
modern social science research in India. Even today colonial heritage continues to
influence much of our social science5.

The western education introduced by the British, resulted in motivating interests in

some of the social science6. Indian economists, for solving India’s problems, instead of
following analytical approach, began to regard economics as an ideological approach.
However, presently there is a need to understand the social dimension of S&T
development and status of social science research in India which is based on scientific
enquiry and could set an agenda for future research in social sciences.

2.0 SOCIAL SCIENCES INFRASTRUCTURE

India has a great tradition of education and research in social science. Presently, there
are about 450 universities/deemed universities/research institutes having status of a
university. Social science research, thus, is not new to the Indian subcontinent.
Thousands of social science periodicals are in circulation in India and a large number of
PhD degrees are awarded by Indian universities every year. It was, therefore, realized
that a comprehensive study of social science research in India would be difficult and
time consuming, but it would be useful to highlight the trends in social science research
in India after independence before studying its current status and prospects of its future
development. The development of social science research in India can be divided into
two phases: 1947-1969 and 1970-1990. It was reported that prior to independence and
even during the subsequent one and half decades, social science research in India was
essentially in the domain and responsibility of universities. As per University Grants

2
Commission (UGC) India had as on 31-12-2008 , 411 Universities, comprising
234State Universities,121 Deemed Universities,25Central Universities and 31 Private
Universities , besides , 38 other institutions including 33 Institutes of National
Importance, and 5 Institutions Established under State Legislature Act7. The Hindi-
speaking areas, in addition to the fields of science and technology (S&T), have
considerably heavy academic infrastructure in social sciences. The Hindi speaking
state/union territory wise area, population, number of universities, colleges and
institutions of national importance are shown in the in Annexure. In most of these
universities and academic institutions, apart from institutions specially dealing with
science and technology, research is carried out in various fields of social sciences not
related to science and technology. Thus, Hindi-speaking areas are making a significant
contribution to social sciences research. These include more than 250 universities in
different states, viz. Bihar(15), Chandigarh (2), Chhattisgarh( 10), NCT of Delhi(17),
Gujrat(23), Himachal Pradesh(4), Jharkhand(6), Madhya Pradesh(17), Maharashtra(41),
Punjab(10), Rajasthan (27), Uttar Pradesh(37), Uttarakhand(14). There could be many
reasons for paying little attention by academic research institutions to studies on
understanding science and society interaction. The studies at the university level are
largely carried out by research scholars for their Ph.D degrees.

Also, research fellows work on projects sponsored by Social Science agencies like
Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR), Indian Council of Philosophical
Research (ICPR) and Indian Council of Social Sciences Research (ICSSR). These
agencies sponsor research studies in areas which are largely already identified.
However, considerable opportunities for getting financial assistance for research are
available from scientific agencies in the fields related to science, technology and society
interaction and management. These S&T agencies include Department of Science and
Technology (DST), Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Ministry of Environment and
Forests (MOE&F), etc. Approaching these agencies by the universities’ departments of
social sciences will increase the interest of social scientists in problems related to
science and technology. At present, the situation is distressing as most of the social,
economic and cultural studies related to science and technology are undertaken by those
who are basically trained as natural scientists and are working in scientific institutions
for social studies on S&T. Most of these studies, therefore, lack methodological rigour
as these are generally carried out by scientists and technologists. Social scientists do not
prefer to join scientific institutions for social studies on S&T. The experience is that the

3
social scientists fear that joining a scientific institution would alienate them from their
professional communities and vice versa.

3.0 S&T POLICY STUDIES

Generally, S&T policy studies are undertaken by scientists and technologists in

institutions or academic groups created for this purpose. Social sciences have not yet
fully adopted the natural science and technology policy studies as a preferred discipline
for research. There is a need to bridge the gap between natural sciences and social
sciences. The basic science certainly leads to technological development. But, social
scientists must understand how this technological development will affect the society as
a whole, and they must regulate the developments in S&T to have a check on their
adverse effects on the society and culture. Social sciences, as they are developed, seem
to be not equipped to manage science and solve the problems created by science8.
Social scientists must encourage the students to study the various S&T issues related to
societal development and its implications.

To any informed and systematic observer, science evidently has had many aspects and
qualities as human culture at large. The sociology, history, politics and economics of
science should be integrated, and these should be joined with psychology, aesthetic,
logic and methodology, anthropology and certainly philosophy of science and
technology. Whether all these systems of knowledge can be brought into an orderly
integration is yet to be seen but the goal remains vivid: To understand science and
technology as a whole, in their various aspects and their ramifying effects on social and
cultural practices of mankind as well as on the evolving qualities of human cognition9.

A profound awareness of social, economic, spatial and cultural aspects of science and
technology revolution will certainly lead to the conclusion that they are strongly linked
with all spheres of life. One could hardly name any domain of social activity that is not
touched or influenced by the latest application of science and technology. Social
sciences, culture, education and information must become more dynamic and flexible,
and develop to a considerable extent in order to meet the challenges of scientific and
technological revolution. The question is do we understand what we know? And
whatever we discover and invent can comprehend their implications to us, values,

4
attitudes, institutions and environment? 10 Following is a tentative agenda for research
in social sciences in relation to science and technology development.

4.0 SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH AGENDA RELATED TO S&T

POLICY STUDIES
4.1 Socio-economic Upgradation through S&T

Socio-economic inequality is regarded a basic and inescapable feature of society.

Several moral, social and cultural arguments are advanced in support of prevailing
inequalities. The degree of socio-economic inequality very much depends on the
opportunities available to people for employment and participation in economic and
political activities11.

The socio-economic upgradation of people can be achieved through science and

technology. For this, there is a need for capacity development of the users of advances
in science and technology. This could be done through technical trainings and
interaction workshops. The various fields for research in this area are:
• Socio-economic upgradation of rural artisans through S&T
• Adoption of S&T for skill upgradation by non-farm sector
• Value addition to the products being manufactured by tiny and small–scale
entrepreneurs
• Development of Marketing Model based on S&T
• Principles for specific zones.
• Entrepreneurship development through S&T applications
• Linking of traditional technologies with modern technologies.

4.2 S&T Developments Policy and Globalization

In India it is a quantum jump from undertaking S&T policy studies for indigenization to
S&T policy in relation to globalization. Surprisingly, there is little contribution of S&T
policy studies in the context of globalization. In fact, globalization has added many new
dimensions to the development of S&T and their application for social, economic and
cultural development. It provides increased opportunities for international cooperation
and networking for technology acquisition, adoption, development and
commercialization. The government policy on protection of indigenous S&T is being
5
abandoned as the foremost requirement for globalization. Simultaneously, conditions
are being created for indigenous S&T system to respond to market forces. The social
goals of self-reliance need to be redefined taking into account the availability of
indigenous capability and accessibility to scientific and technological resources at
international level under the strategies being currently pursued towards globalization.
The main focus is on economic development and restricting role of S&T in social
development. This trend is likely to have serious repercussions for the future
development of Indian society. Under such forcing circumstances, it is becoming
increasingly difficult for the political system to enforce its will of “commitment to
people” fully on the course of development. It is uncertain whether conditions created
by globalization would reduce disparities in different segments of society by increasing
the ability of poor segments to have access to developments in S&T and to apply them
for their benefit. Consequently, technological problems feature prominently in political
debates as also in expression of social goals12. During the past more than five decades, a
fairly strong base of S&T has been built up in India and is being geared towards
attainment of social and economic goals. There is need to examine as to whether, in the
pursuit of globalization of economy, the national S&T policies are identifiable with the
societal goals. It is a myth? The question is whether indigenous technology needs to be
protected from evil impact of globalization. What is important is to globalize
consciousness and explode the myth simultaneously, which will automatically bring in
social development and retain our cultural and bio-diversity. For this, it is necessary
that natural scientists and social scientists come together with the aim of pursuing
human agenda for social development.

4.3 Industrialization and Urbanization

Industrialization and urbanization go hand in hand. Economic liberalization and

technological change have changed conditions of industrialization. The need for more
sophisticated technologies and highly skilled workforce has made it more difficult to
participate in global production. There is more than one route to industrialization.
Depending on the initial conditions prevailing in the country, the choice of
industrialization strategy will have considerable impact on industrial growth and
competitiveness. What are the alternative choices for industrial development? The
reason for the failure to achieve self-reliant capital goods industry is not difficult to
find, the lack of industrial competitiveness being the main culprit. An industrialization

6
strategy that protects domestic industries from international competition suppresses the
inflow of foreign capital goods, risks creating technological obsolesce and inefficient
industries, which are incapable of benefiting from rapidly changing technologies
available in the outside world13.

Adoption of new technologies promotes economic development which depends, to a

great extent, on competition whether domestic or foreign as a spur to increased quality
and productivity. This, in turn, depends on the existence of a market economy. For this
reason, the path of scientific and technological development is rather different for
economies that encourage competition on the one hand and that discourage it through
protective tariffs and domestic barriers to entry and exit on the other. Scientific and
technological development does not, therefore, necessarily correlates directly with such
purely economic indices as growth in GNP per capita, although it does depend, in part
and on the physical and social infrastructure made possible overall economic
development14. This also requires technological choices to be made for bringing
desirable social development.

4.4 Climate Change and S&T Development

Humankind has only one home, the earth, and we all bear the responsibility to provide
an inhabitable condition for future generation. Research efforts may have to be made to
undertake major programmes/projects to solving such environmental problems as
global warming, acid rains, ozone layer depletion, and destruction of eco-systems such
as tropical rain forests, species extinction and desertification. It also needs to undertake
work in areas related to energy, food, population, waste treatment, recycling as well as
environmental management, ethics, philosophy and education. This could contribute, in
the long-run, to forming a basis for enabling the harmonious co-existence of people,
societies and the environment as well as enabling humankind to have scientific
knowledge for the realization of a global community to apply S&T for the good of all.
The possible areas for research work are:
- Environmental policy measures, programmes, national and international
conventions and laws.
- Technologies relevant for conservation and sustainable use of biological
diversities.
- Alternative sustainable development models.

7
 - Historical, social, economic, and cultural factors responsible for depletion of
resources and management of future catastrophe?
- Availability and use of renewable resources for environmental sustainability,
alternative technology, technological efficiency, and consumption level,
conservation, etc.

4.5 Social, Economic, Environmental and Cultural Dimensions of

S&T

Technology is the centre of gravity touching every aspect of human life. We are
presently living in a technology- driven society. The ability to capitalize, manage and
adopt technology in strategic processes and products is a new management need as well
as challenge. Also, it is desired that the objectives of technology be developed and
defined in consonance with the characteristics of the sections of a society which are
likely to derive benefits from its application. Some of the areas which need to
developed for research programmes and studies are:
- Technical change and economic progress
- Technology and social issues
- Technological innovation and skill formation
- Gender and technical change
- Historical perspective of technological development
- Socio-economic & political dimensions of technology
- Innovation theories, models, process and policies (Theories related to
technology, innovation and diffusion, resources for innovation, economics of
innovation, innovation process, industrial network, models of innovation,
innovation policy & management and case studies)
- Social climate of innovation
- S&T human resource development
- Environmental implications of contemporary technological paradigm
- Trade and environment
- Sustainable development and technological issues
- Impact of technology on environment and culture
- New technology: Prospects and social implications
- Technology, international trade and cooperation

8
 - Social Dimensions of Intellectual property rights (IPRs)
- Technology for development of rural & informal sectors.
- National system of innovation (Policy, planning, evaluation, assessment,
transfer, trade, social mastery of technology, laws, entrepreneurship).

4.6 Science and Society

Science and technology development process cannot be treated as a linear and

necessary process of evolution and progress. It has not been something like a natural
progress according to some kinds of natural laws, but it has been the consequence of
socio-economic and socio-cultural developments of society as a whole15. It means that
science and society interaction operates both ways, i.e. science influences the course of
society and in turn, society influences the direction and spread of science. Therefore,
science should not be treated as an additional activity of society instead it is a part of
the culture of society. So science and society encompasses all aspects and processes
reflecting on science and society interaction. In this context some of the areas for study
are:
- Science and ethics.
- Science education and education in science.
- Understanding the relationship between natural sciences and social sciences.
- Science and social philosophies (religion, peace, security, etc.).
- Futuristic sociology of science.

4.7 Technology Assessment (TA) and Forecasting

A major difficulty in technology transfer the cultural differences attached to different

technological systems. On the one hand, a technology is considered as universal, while
on the other, it is deeply related to historical background and cultural development of a
place. As a consequence, technology developed in one venue can seldom be shifted to
another. This condition emphasizes the serious needs of development. And needless to
add, a technology developed to solve largely the urban problems may not necessarily be
applicable to the needs of the countryside. Further, it is important to assess a given
technology in its initial stages rather than at the time of implementation. There,
probably, never will be a general formulation or prescription for doing technology
assessment. The approach and context of each study must be determined by what is

9
being assessed, how much money is available for it, and who is going to use the results.
Although a common set of tools for examining the impacts of all technologies may be
lacking, all technology assessments should have some features or elements in common,
if they are to be more than mere cost-benefit, marketing, feasibility or system studies.
The technology assessment (TA) studies may assess first to third or fourth order
impacts. Also technology forecasting (TF) studies may be undertaken in relation to
several order impacts before the technology is developed.

4.8 Scientific Community and Society

Despite the growing social perspective over modern S&T, it continues to occupy an
instrumental role in the development agenda of developing countries which are
relentlessly striving towards modernization and industrialization. The example of the
unprecedented wealth, standards of living, and comforts in transportation, recreation
and communication made possible by S&T scientific community stand out to inspire
the ruling elite in the developing countries like India. Much of the S&T potential in the
developed countries is constituted directly or indirectly by efficient organization and
functioning of their professional scientific communities. Even though the real potential
of S&T is enmeshed with socio-economic, political and other aspects, it is difficult to
deny the centrality of the role of scientific community in the overall development
process16. Some of the topics for research in this area could be:
- New challenges before scientific community in responding to new technologies
such as bio-technology, nanotechnology, information technology, micro-
electronics, telecommunication, new materials, etc.
- The role of elite science groups and individuals in resource allocation for the
development of science.
- Historical, social, cultural aspects in relation to the formation and role of
scientific community.
- Role of scientific community in institutionalization of science and technology.
- Strengths and weaknesses of scientific community in relation to scientific
institutions, scientific leadership, etc.
- S&T educational and training programmes for HRD and the emerging status of
scientific community.

10
4.9 Regional Studies and S&T

A region is characterised by certain natural resources and capabilities. Also some of the
regions may be underdeveloped due to various social, economic, political and cultural
reasons. Their development may require certain inputs of various kinds such as
financial and manpower. Studies may be carried out to highlight the resources, status
and features of development, issues and responses of S&T policy and strategy for the
economic betterment of a region17. Also democracy must ensure a just distribution of
income and reducing the gap between regions. Comparative studies may bring out the
salient features of the regions. Considering the importance of regional development,
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), earlier established Regional
Research Laboratories (RRLs) in Bhopal, Bhubaneswar, Hyderabad, Jammu and
Trivandrum. But, subsequently renamed them with focus on scientific and technological
disciplines. However, in addition to widening the scope of research these S&T
institutions continued to identify scientific and natural wealth in their respective region
and undertake scientific developments that could provide economic benefit to the
region.

5.0 CONCLUSIONS

There could be many reasons which explain as to why little attention has been paid by
academic /research institutions towards to carrying out studies on understanding science
and society interactions. The experience is that the social scientists fear that joining a
scientific institution would alienate them from their respective professional
communities. The situation is distressing as most of the social, economic and cultural
studies related to science and technology are undertaken by those trained as natural
scientists, who work in scientific institutions for social studies on S&T. However,
considerable opportunities for getting financial assistance for research are available
from scientific agencies in the fields related to science, technology and society
interaction and management. A tentative agenda for research in social sciences in
relation to science and technology has been developed and presented. It includes studies
on social inequality; S&T policy and globalization; industrialization and urbanization;
climate change; social, economic, environmental and cultural dimension of science and
technology; science and society; technology assessment and forecasting; scientific
community; and regional studies.

11
REFERENCES

1) Sharma Shamita, 1992, ,Social Science Research in India: A Review,: Economic

and Political Weekly, Vol. 27, No. 49/50 (Dec. 5-12, 1992), pp. 2642-2646
2) Al-Biruni,1983, India-The Land and the People, New Delhi, Book Trust of India
3) Bernier, F,1826, Travels in the Mughal Empire, London
4) Dube, S C, 1980, India in Social Sciences in Asia: IV, UNESCO.
5) Sharma Shamita, 1992, (ibid)
6) Dhanagare, D , 1985, In Atal (ed), 'India' in Sociology and Social Anthropology
in Asia and the Pacific, Wiley Eastern, New Delhi.
7) University Grant Commission (UGC), 2008, New Delhi.
8) Unesco-Nistads , 1994, Final Report of Science and Technology for Social
Development , Unesco-Nistads International Seminar –Preparatory to the World
Submit for Social Development- March 1995, held on 12-14 December 1994,
New Delhi., New Delhi; Unesco-Nistads, New Delhi.
9) Unesco, 1981, The Social Implications of Scientific and Technological
Revolution-A Unesco Seminar, Paris, Unesco.
10) Richta, Radovan, 1981, The Role of Social Sciences, in The Social Implications
of Scientific and Technological Revolution-A Unesco Seminar, ibid, pp 39-100.
11) Rahman, A, 1979, Science and Technology for a New Social Order,
Alternatives, January, 1979, iv(3), 317-33
12) Qureshi, M.A., 2006, Science and Technology for Social Development in the
Context of Globalisation, in Rajeshwar Prasad (Ed.), Social Development-Role
of Science and Technology, Y.K. Publishers , Agra, pp38-51
13) Qureshi, M.A., Theoretical Approach for Choice of Appropriate Technology for
Rural Areas, In V. P. Kharbanda and Ashok Jain, Science and Technology
Strategy for Development in India and China-A Comparative Study, New Delhi,
Har-Anand Publications Pvt. Ltd. , pp 257-81
14) Qureshi, M.A., 2006, Indian Science and Technology Development Policies,
New Delhi, Mewat Development Society (MDS), 2006
15) Michacel Greven Th.,1982, Collected Essays on History and Policy Science,
New Delhi, NISTADS, 1982
16) Gaillard, Jacques; Krishna, VV; & Waast, Ronald (eds): Scientific Communities
in the Developing World, Sage Books, New Delhi, 1997.

12
 17) Khan, Subhan, 1984, “Socio-Economic Dimensions of Science & Technology
for Integrated Rural Development of Mewat in Haryana”, Ph. D. Thesis
(Unpublished), Haryana Agricultural University (HAU), Hisar (Haryana) India.

Paper contributed to the Seminar on ‘Status of Social Science Teaching and Research in
Hindi Speaking Areas’ held during January 17-18, 2009 at Hotel Grand, Agra
organised jointly by Indian Association of Social Science Institutions (Agra Chapter) &
Indian Social Science Association (ISSA), Agra (UP).; Dr. Subhan Khan is Scientist
‘G’ at National Institute of Science, Technology and Development Studies (NISTADS),
CSIR, New Delhi; M. A. Qureshi is President, Mewat Development Society (MDS),
Chharora, (Taoru), Mewat (Haryana); & Pramod Kumar Prajapati, is a student, New
Delhi

13
 Annexure

Population, Universities, Colleges and Institutions of National Importance in Hindi

Speaking Areas of India

Sr Name of area Area(sq. Population No. of No. of colleges as on Total Institutes of

No. (state/UT) km) (as per 2001 universities 31/12/2008 national
Census) (as on Govt Non- importance
31/12/08) Government
Aided Un-
aided
1 Andaman & 8,249 3,56,152 02 02 - - 02 -
Nicobar
(UT)
2 Bihar 94,163 82,998,509 15 205 91 30 326 1

3 Chandigarh 114 900,635 2 11 07 - 18 2

(UT )
4 Chhattisgarh 135,194 20,833,803 10 11 07 - 18 1

5 Delhi 14,585 13,850,507 17 36 40 04 80 2

6 Gujarat 196,024 5,06,71,017 23 39 323 12 374 1

7 Haryana 44,212 2,11,44,564 12 47 98 02 147 1

8 Himachal 55,673 6,077,900 4 39 10 - 49 1

Pradesh
9 Jharkhand 79,700 26,945,829 6 61 25 10 98 1

10 Madhya 308,252 60,348,000 17 295 124 20 439 1

Pradesh
11 Maharashtra 307,713 96,878,62 41 75 694 123 892 2

12 Punjab 50,362 24,358,990 10 48 162 06 216 1

13 Rajasthan 342,239 56,507,188 27 129 90 20 239 1

14 Uttar 2,36,286 166,197,921 37 96 410 371 877 2

Pradesh

15 Uttrakhand 53,483 8,489,349 14 30 12 03 45 1

Sources :Based on the documents titled, (i) “The Official Languages (Use For Official Purposes of the Union) –
Manual Regarding the Use of the Official Language Hindi, Department of Official Language, Ministry of Home
Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi, pp 103 & (ii) University Grants Commission (UGC), 2008, New Delhi

14