ca OLN Dod” BIOLOGY CLASS-XI_ PART-1 & II ‘i Dr. B.B. Arora NEW SYLLABUS Nytra AK. Sabharwal‘According to new syilabus prescribed by Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), New Delhi and State Boards of Uttarakhand, Kamataka (1st Year PUC), Chhatisgarh, Jharkhand, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal, Kerala, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Assam, Manipur and other States following CBSE & ISC curriculum. MODERNS abc BIOLOGY INDIA'S FIRST SMART BOOK Class XI strictly sapere PART-II with zane ‘qa syllabus quiaelings, soued DY i ncEkT jc-BS Dial Singh Cole, A. K. Sabharwal MSc., MPhil. (Gold-Medalist), Formerly Head, Deptt. of Zoology, S.D. College, Panipat GENERAL EDITORS Dr. Ruchi Arora Raj Sabharwal ‘Suman Shiova “| MODERN PUBLISHERS (Producers of Quality Textbooks)OUR ADDRESSES IN INDIA (F New Delhi: HBD House, Gulab Bhawan, 8, Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg ‘Ph. 23517951, 23348909 |B. Mumbal: 883, TTC. Industil Ares, MLLD.C. Of. Thane-Belpur Road, Naw Mumba Ph. 32006410, 27780821, 8691053365 2. 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We have taken utmost care and paid much attention while odting and printing this book but we would bog o stato that Authors and Publishers should not be hold sponsible for unintontonal mistakes that might have crept in. However, errors brought to our notice shall be gfatetully acknowledged and attended to Published by; Balwant Sharma MODERN PUBLISHERS MBD House, Railway Road, Jalandhar Printed at: HOLY FAITH INTERNATIONAL (P) LTD. wy wane mesup com B.9 & 10, Site IV, Industrial Area, Sahibabad (U.P) Toll Free No. : 1860 200 2233,>t Y CONTENTS PART-II UNIT-IV PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 11. Transport in Plants 13-1157 ¢ Chapter Summary 11/37-11/37 @ NCERI Exercise Questions Solved 11/38-11/39 ¢ NCERT Exemplar Problems Solved 11/39-11/44 © Revision Exercises 11/46-11/49 Competition File 11/49-11/56 12. Mineral Nutrition 12/12/31 Chapter Summary 12/16-12/16 © NCERT Exercise Questions Solved 12/16-12/17 NCERT Exemplar Problems Solved 12/17-12/20 ¢ Revision Exercises 12/22-12/25 ‘¢ Competition File 12/25-12/30 13. Photosynthesis in Higher Plants 13/13/44 © Chapter Summary 13/25-13/25 © NUERI exercise Questions Solved 13/26-13/27 NCERT Exemplar Problems Solved 13/27-13/32 @ Revision Exercises 13/34-13/37 © Competition File 13/37-13/43, 14. Respiration in Plants 14/14/38 ¢ Chapter Summary 14/21-14/21 @ NCERT Exercise Questions Solved 14/22-14/23 NCERT Exemplar Problems Solved 14/23-14/26 @ Revision Exercises 14/29-14/32 ¢ Competition File 14/32-14/37 15. Plant Growth and Development 15/1-15/43 ¢ Chapter Summary 15/25-15/25 NCERT Exercise Questions Solved 15/26-15/27 NCERT Exemplar Problems Solved 15/27-15/30 # Revision Exercises 15/33-15/36 Competition File 15/36-15/42 UNIT- V HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 16. Digestion and Absorption 16/3-16/54 © Chapter Summary 16/26-16/27 @ NCERT Exercise Questions Solved 16/28-16/3017. 19. 21. o ~ @ NCERT Exemplar Problems Solved @ Revision Exercises © Competition File Breathing and Exchange of Gases Chapter Summary ‘¢ NCERT Exercise Questions Solved © NCERT Exemplar Problems Solved 2 Revision Exercises © Competition File Body Fluids and Circulation Chapter Summary ¢ NCERT Exercise Questions Solved © NCERT Exemplar Problems Solved © Revision Exercises © Competition File Excretory Products and Their Elimination Chapter Summary NCERT Exercise Questions Solved NCERT Exemplar Problems Solved Revision Exercises © Competition File Locomotion and Movement Chapter Summary ‘ NCERT Exercise Questions Solved © NCERT Exemplar Problems Solved @ Revision Exercises © Competition File ‘Neural Control and Coordination Chapter Summary ‘@ NCERT Exercise Questions Solved © NCERT Exemplar Problems Solved © Revision Exercises © Competition File Chemical Coordination and Integration Chapter Summary ‘¢ NCERT Exercise Questions Solved ‘© NCERT Exemplar Problems Solved @ Revision Exercises © Competition File Answers to Practice Tests of Chapters (11 to 22) 16/30-16/33 16/36-16/39 16/39-16/53 W7N-17/42 17/19-17/20 17/20-17/21 17/22-17/24 17/27-17 /30 17/30-17/41 18/1-18/47 18/22-18/22 18/23-18/24 18/25-18/28 18/31-18/34 18/34-18/46 19/1-19/46 19/21-19/21 19/22-19/23 19/23-19/26 19/29-19/33 19/33-19/45 20/1-20/45 20/22-20/23 20/23-20/24 20/24-20/27 20/30-20/34 20/34-20/44 21/1-2057 21/30-21/31 21/32-21/33 21/33-21/36 21/39-21/42 21/42-21/56 22/1-22/52 22/22-22/23 22/24-22/26 22/26-22/29 22/33-22/35 22/35-22/51 1-10PLANT PHYSIOLOGY PLANTS MINERAL NUTRITION PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS RESPIRATION IN PLANTS. PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENTCHAPTER A TRANSPOR 15,23 5, 16,22, 28 « ‘CERT FILE © NCERT Fxercise Questions (with Answers) 38 ‘@ NCERT Exemplar Problems Solved (vith Answers & Hints) of HOTS & BRAIN TWISTING QUESTIONS 4 (with Answers) QUICK MEMORY TEST 45 (with Answers) REVISION EXERCISES (with previous years’ CBSE & Other State Boards Examinations) Very Short Answer Questions - ‘One mark each (with Answers) 46 + Short Answer Questions - Two marks each, (with Answers) “© Short Answer Questions - Three marks each ‘# Long Answer Questions - Five marks each ees COMPETITION FILE (WITH ANSWERS & HINTS) ‘ Multiple Chote Questions (From ; AIPMT & Other Competitive Exams) @ Matching Type Questions ‘@ Assertion Type Questions + Analogy Type Questions + Reasoning Type Questions Additional Multiple Choice Questions (CHAPTER PRACTICE TEST agaress MECHANISM OF WATER ABSORPTION Water can be absorbed by two methods : (a) Active absorption (b) Passive absorption. (a) Active absorption Water is absorbed due to activities going on in roots, In active type of absorption shoot does not play any role. There are two theories of active absorption (a) Osmotic theory of active absorption. (b) Non-osmotic theory of active absorption, (i) Osmotictheory of active absorption. According, to this theory absorption of water occurs by osmosis. ‘The osmotic pressure of soil water is less than 1 atm, ‘as compared to cell sap, which ranges between 2-7 atm, Endosmosis of water into root hairs occurs by the existence of DPD. Absorption of water continues till DPD becomes zero. The evidence in support of the theory comes from root pressure. (ii) Non-osmotic theory of active absorption. It has been observed that water can be absorbed even when the concentration of cell sap is lower than that of soil ‘water. In other words, water is absorbed against the concentration gradient. Here, the absorption of water cccurs with the help of energy. The energy in the form of ATP is released duc to metabolic activities of root cells such as respiration ete. It has been further observed by ‘Thimann (1951) that absorption rate and respiration rate are closely related giving the idea that energy released during respiration is responsible for absorption of water. (b) Passive absorption Watermay be absorbed by passive absorption when transpiration rate is high or soil is dry. Due to high transpiration rate, water deficit is created in transpiring, cells. Rapid transpiration removes water and reduces the surrounding root cells to make up water deficit. Kramer (1937) found that water absorbed is almost equal to ‘water transpired, thus giving an experimental evidence in the support of passive absorption of water (Fig. 1) Role of root endodermis in mineral absorption The root endodermal cells bear many transport proteins embedded in their plasma membranes, which permit certain solutes to cross them but not others. Such proteins behave as control sites, where plant adjusts the amount and type of solute that is to be absorbed from soil. In this way root endodermis regulates the quantity and type of minerals and ions, finally to be transported through xylem.|. Graph representing the possible relationship retween water absorption and transpiration Passage of water in root or pathway of water in root Theentry of water into the root hair dilutes the cell sap. ‘Thus water molecules in root hair increase as compared ‘Table 1. Differences between Diffusion pressure deficit and Water potential. MODERN'S abe + OF BIOLOGY-x! toadjacent cortical cells. At this stage DPD of root hairs is lower than that of adjacent cortex. Due to higher DPD in cortex, waterentersin these cells (Fig.2), Process continues till the water reaches the passage cells of endoxermis, ‘These passage cells lie opposite the protoxylem. ‘They allow water toenter the pericycle. In xylem, turgor pressure is lacking, So, water enters the xylem from pericycle for upward movement of sap. Factors affecting water absorption Some of the factors affecting the rate of absorption are listed below : 1. Available soil water. Most easily available water to the plants is capillary water. 2,Soil temperature. Temperature below 4°C reduces the absorption of water. The absorption is maximum generally between 20°C to 30°C soil temperature. 3. Soil solutes. Higher concentration of soluble mineral salts increases the OP of soil solution and absorption of water is inhibited. 4. Aeration of soil. In poorly acrated soil, deficientin oxygen absorption of wateris highly reduced. 5. Transpiration. Higher is the rate of transpiration, more will be the rate of absorption of water. Character Diffusion pressure deficit Water potential 1 Abbreviation | It is abbreviated as DPD. Teg called as y, where y is (Ps). 2 Nomenelature| _Itwas originally called assuction pressure | Its the chemical potential of water which is equivalent to by Renner, DPD with negative sign. 3. Unit Unitofmeasurementisatmospheres(atm). | Unitof measurementisbars pressure unit) withnegativesign, 4. Definition | DPD is the difforence in the diffusion | Itis the difforonce between free energy of water molecules [pressure of solution and pure solvent... | in pure water and solution, 5. Derivation | DPD- OP—TP Ve Yn + ¥,+¥> where OP = osmotic presse and where i, = matric potential and ‘TP = turgor pressure vy, ~ solute potential and y, ~ pressure potential 6 Movement | Water moves from lower DPD to higher _ | Water moves energotically ‘downhill side ie, from higher DPD. ‘water potential to lower water potential =] ROOT EPIDERMIS Fig. 2. A. Root hair in contact with capillary water; B. Pathways for water uptake by the root. Through the cortex, water may travel via the apoplast pathway, the transmembrane pathway (vacuolar pathway), and the SOUL PARTICLE PASSAGE CEL ‘ seuastic ano EPOcrMIs ‘symplast pathway. CAPILLARY WATER, CASPARIAN STRIP, PERCYCLE‘TRANSPORT IN PLANTS. ‘Tensiometer isthe instrament for measuring soil ater tension. chavinels, Only captlary coater is woalable to plants. Hus and clay are feo colloidal complexes of sot ‘The amount of sate left the sil afer the plant has permanently wilted isthe wilted AI organic plant debris which has recently fallen on soil is called litter or Ay, layer The organic matter is clots, due to this water ling capacity is relatively high, Apoplast is the non-living continuity of plant body rohich consists of cell xotl, intercellular spaces and rater filled xylem Symplast pathway consists of the entire network of cll cytoplasm interconnected by plasmodesmata, Auxin treated cells can absorb water even from hypertonic solution by active process. PWS law af Table 2. Differences between Passive and Active waterbsorption. Character Passive water absorption ‘Active water absorption T Energy ‘Not required Required. 2. Pressure on xylem. Negative. Positive. 3. Season ‘Takes place in all seasons. In season when rate of transpiration is low. 4. Transpiration Essential, Plays no role. 5. Living cells Not required! Required. 6. Metabolic inhibitors Show no effect. Stop the process. CELL TO CELL TRANSPORT PLANT WATER RELATIONS During plant’ life cycle, large amounts of water are continuously absorbed from the soil and moved through theplant. Water is essential forall physiological activities of plants, Water acts as excellent solvent. Land plants get their major water supply from the soil, Wateris most important constituent of plant, The very composition of plants attests this, most herbaceous plants being made up of 70 to 85 per cent water and even woody parts of plants consisting of as muchas 50, per cent water. Moreover, plants growing in soil are constantly losing large quantities of water by transpiration. Without the constant supply of water, the plant could not carry on. any of its physiological activities suchas photosynthesis, respiration and growth. During photosynthesis, water acts as a source of oxygen. Over small distances, substances moveby diffusion and by cytoplasmic streaming further helped by active transport. Movement of water and food over long distances takes place through xylem and phloem (vascular tissue) called as translocation. Plant cells are made up of cell wall and protoplast. Plasma membrane and protoplasm together constitute the protoplast. Protoplasm consists of nucleus and cytoplasm. Both represent the living contents of cell. ‘Three compartments can be identified within the plant cell : i) Vacuole (ii) Protoplasm and (iii) Cell ‘wall, All the three compartments are partitioned by plasma membranes i. tonoplast separates vacuole and protoplasmand plasmalemma separates protoplasm and cell wall, Plasma membrane is selectively permeable in nature. Obviously, a knowledge of manner in which plant gets water is important. In this chapter, we shall study the absorption, translocation of water and transpi in plants. MEANS OF TRANSPORT DIFFUSION ‘The movement of the molecules of gases, liquids and solutes from the region of higher concentration to the region oflowerconcentration isknownas diffusion. or Diffusion is the net movement of molecules or ions of a given substance from a region of higher concentration to lower one by virtue of their kinetic energy. or It is the movement of molecules from high diffusion pressure to low diffusion pressure. ‘The rate and direction of diffusion depend upon the difference in concentration of matter ie., gas, liquid or solution at different points. The diffusion of one matter is independent of other. That is why many gases and solutes diffuse simultaneously and independently atdifferent rates in different directions at the same place and time, without interfering with each other. Prom soil, water and ions of simple inorganic salts pass into plants through the root cells by a process which is basically diffusion, though greatly modified by other factors, The water and solutes pass through the dead and living vessels and also from cell to cell by diffusion. The other common terms used to denote pressure are bar and kg/cm in® 1 bar = 0.987 atm = 10 dyne/ em? = 1.0189 kg cm? = 145 Ib/in® Phenomenon of diffusion can be observed everyday. Smell of scent spreads by diffusion. When a crystal of copper sulphate (Fig. 3) is placed in a beaker containing ‘water, a dense blue colour is seen around the crystal It decreases with increase in distance from the crystal representing the diffusion of copper sulphate molecules in water. The diffusion pressure of pure solvent is ‘more than that of same solvent in a solution. Diffusion of molecules is due to the reason that molecules are in the state of a constant motion (kinetic energy). All molecules bear kinetic energy or free energy at temperature above -273°C. There is an inherent tendency in the molecules of a substance to move from the region of their higher kinetic energy (higher concentration) to the region of their lower kinetic energy (lower concentration). AKER ‘GRYSTAL DiFFUSING PARTICLES Fig. 3. Diffusion oF Copper sulphate crystal in water. Diffusion pressure may be defined as a tendency of different particles (ions or molecules) to diffuse: It is cause of diffusion-than the result, Greater the concentration of diffusing particles, greater is their diffusion pressure and ice-versa. The diffusion pressure of pure solvent is maximum as compared to the same solvent in solution. Diffusion pressure can be ex experiment : Fill a rubber balloon with any odoriferous gas ¢g., hydrogen sulphide. The gas molecules are confined to space within the balloon and their molecules exert ited by the following MODERN’S abe + OF BIOLOGY-X! a pressure on walls of the balloon. Prick the balloon. Gas is released immediately. Release of gas leads to collapse of balloon. The pressure under which gas has been released from the balloon represents the diffusion pressure, Factors influencing rate of diffusion 1 Diffusion pressure gradient. A gradient must be present for diffusion to occur. Greater the diffusion pressure gradient, more rapid will be the rate of diffusion, 2. Size of substances, For smaller substances, diffusion rate is faster. 3. Solubility in lipids. Substances soluble in li diffuse faster through the membrane. Importance of diffusion 1. Gaseous exchange during the processes of photosynthesis and respiration takes place with the help of diffusion. 2. The process of diffusion is involved in the transpiration of water vapours. 3. Aroma of flowers is due to diffusion of volatile aromatic compounds to attract pollinating animals. 4. During passive salt uptake, the fons are absorbed by process of diffusion, 5. Diffusion helps in translocation of food materials FACILITATED DIMTUSION FIG. 4) Definition. It is a type of diffusion in which substances move across the membrane along their concentration gradient in the presence of certain carrier protein molecules, called permeases, present in the membrane. Substances that have hydrophilic moiety, find it difficult to pass through the membrane. Movements of such substancesis facilitated through some proteins. Such proteins provide sites at which such molecules move across the membrane. Proteins develop a channel, Prom these channels present on membranes, molecules pass. Characteristics 1 It is a kind of passive transport, because not being energy depenclent. 2. Some channels present on membrane are always ‘open; others can be controlled. Some channels are large to permit variety of molecules to pass. 3. Huge pores are formed in outer membranes of plastids, mitochondria and few bacteria due to presence of porin proteins, Water channels are made up of eight different types of aquaporins. 4. Like diffusion, concentration gradient is main driving force for it 8. Itisa highly selective process, in which permeases involved show substrate specificity. 6. Ik is carrier assisted transport so faster than simple diffusion‘TRANSPORT IN PLANTS a PROTEIN SPANS: ONS SUCH AS Ne” PABS THROUGH THE PROTEIN PORE ‘Lose, ‘THe GLUCOSE: MOLECULE BINDS WITH THE CARRLER PROTEN MOLECULE (CAUSING IT TO. (CHANGE SHAPE ‘THE QLUCOSE MOLECULE DIFFUSES OUT OF THE CARRIER PROTEIN CHANGES SHAPE, SO FORE BECOMES. PROTEIN MOLECULE "TOO NARROW TO ALLOW IONS THROUGH FACILITATED DIFFUSION GATED CHANNEL PROTEINS * e Fig. 4. A. Facilitated diffusion: B. Gated channel proteins, us Fig. 5. Passive symport, antiport and uniport in facilitated diffusion,Significance Facilitated diffusion helps in transportation of glucose in liver cells and RBCs through their cell membrane. It also helps in absorption of fructose and nucleotides in small intestine. Facilitated diffusions the movementof water soluble ‘moleculesthrough specific intrinsic carrier protein ‘molecules or channel protein molecule in the cell surface membrane. It does not require protein. © Channel proteins can be open or closed and are so called gated channels. © Active transport movesionsand molecules across a membrane against the concentration gradient. It requires energy. Passive symports and antiports ew transport proteins or carrier proteins permit difasion only frwo types of molecules move together (i) Symport. In symport, both molecules cross the membrane in the same direction (Fig. 5). (i) Antiport. In antiport, both molecules cross the ‘membrane in opposite directions. (ii) Uniport. In uniport, molecule moves across a ‘membrane independent of other molecules. ACTIVE TRANSPORT What happens when the cell needs to move substances against their concentration gradient? It will need energy in this case. Some intrinsic protein molecules, ATE OF DFFUSION {HROUGH MEMBRANE MODERN'S abe + OF BIOLOGY-x! function as molecular pumps. The permit the cell to g0 for active transport to accumulate glucose or ions against concentration gradient. Cells undergoing active transport beer sbundant mitochondria to provide ATP needed to power active transport. Few interesting features of active transport are : (@ It shows uphill transport because in this case ‘movementcan occur from lower concentration to higher concentration, (i) Carrier proteins are highly specific ike enzymes for substances to be carried, across the membrane, (ii) Inhibitor can inhibit the process by reacting with protein side chains. (iv) When all the protein carriers are in use oF saturated with substances to be carried, transporate rate reaches its maxintt Several vital processes depend on active transport including : © Absorption of amino acids from the gut Absorption of mineral ions by plant roots; © Excretion of urea and hydrogen ions by the ‘mammalian kidney; (¢ Exchange of sodium and potassium ionsinnerve calls; @ Loading of sugar from the leaf into the phloem ‘in plants, Filling of the contractile vacuole in amoeba. © The phloem in the leaves of a plant are rich in sugars because of high rate of active transport. Fig. 6. Diffusion of water and glucose. ig: 7. Active transport‘TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 114 Table 3 Comparison of Simple diffusion, Facilitated diffusion and Active transport. Characteristic Simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion | Active ansport T._| Requirement of membrane protein 2, | Highly selective nature 3. | Transport saturation 4. | Uphill transport 5. _| ATP requirement Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes REEEE PLANT WATER RELATIONS PERMEABILITY Permeability is the degree of diffusion of gases, liquids and dissolved substances through a membrane. The diffusion of water and solutes into plant cells from the environment is greatly modified by membranes enclosing the protoplasts. The membranes are of following, three types: 1. Permeable. Permeable membranes allow free ‘movement of water and solutes into interior and exterior of the cell eg, cell walls in plant cells. 2. Impermeable. Such membranes prevent diffusion of water and solutes into the protoplasm of cell ¢g., suberized walls of cork cells, cuticle layer of leat. 3. Semipermeable. Such membranes are alive and selective in their action. Such membranes allow solvent “onone side to move freely but at the same time resist the ‘movement of solutes. Due to their selective nature such, membranes are also called as differentially permeable or selectively permeable. Fish and animal bladders, egg membrane, plasma membrane of cell are all semi- permeable membranes. Osmosis Osmosis is special type of diffusion of a liquid, when solvent moves through a semipermeable membrane from a place of higher diffusion pressure to a place of lower diffusion pressure. or It is the migration of solvent from a hypotonic solution (of lower concentration) to hypertonic solution (of higher concentration) through a semipermeable membrane to keep the concentration equal. ‘Types of osmosis. When the water moves out of the cell due to hypertonic solution (of higher concentration), the type of osmosis. is termed exosmosis. If water enters the cell due to hypotonic solution (of lower concentration), the process is called endosmosis. How to get a semipermeable membrane from an egg? © Create a hole at one side of ex. ‘© Remove albumin and yolk through this hole (© Keep the shell in hydrochloric acid for 2-4 hours. © The egg shell dissolves keeping the membrane intact. Concentrate wart ‘SOLUTION OF PERMEABLE a MEMRAM B Fig, 8 strates the osmosis. A. Before osmosis: 'B. Aftor osmosis, DEMONSTRATION a) Thistle funnel experiment to show osmosis Tie the mouth of a thistle funnel with an egg membrane oranimal bladder which are semi-permeable innature, Putsugar solution (hypertonicsolution) inside the thistle funnel, Thistle furnel is dipped in water ‘with the help of a stand. A rise in level is noticed after some time. This is due to the diffusion of water into thistle funnel through semi-permeable membrane by the process of osmosis (Fig. 9). Fig. 9, Demonstration of osmosis and osmotic pressure in a thistle funnel (osmometen. Water diffuses into thistle funnel having sugar solution through semi-permeable membrane, Difusion ‘continues until the force toning to drive water into the tubs igbalanced by (A) the force generated by the hydrostatic head (pin the tube or (B) tho presure can be applied by the piston lesstop the water movement into funnel(b) Demonstration of osmosis by potato osmoscope Potato osmoscope. Peel off the skin of large sized potato with the help of scalpel. Cut its one end to make the base flat, Make a hollow cavity in the potato almost up to the bottom, Put sugar solution into the cavity and mark the level by inserting a pin in the wall of the cavity of tuber. Place the potato in beaker containing, ‘water (Fig, 10). After some time, it will be noticed that level in cavity rise. Itis due to phenomenon of osmosis, ‘The experiment demonstrates that living cells of potato act as differentially permeable membrane. POTATO. Py eri ster) Fig. 10. Potato osmoscope A. Before osmosis B. After osmosis. Table 4. Differences between Diffusion and Osmosis. Character, Diffusion Osmosis 1. Definition |It is the movement Tes the movement of Jof molecules ot ions solvent molecules from lofsolid, gas or liquid | a rogion oF its (solvent) irom a. region. of| highorconcentration to higher concentration| region of its (solvent) to lower concen-| ower concentration tration, through a semiper= meable membrane, 2 Medium |ittakesplaceinsolid,| It occurs only in sobiat liquid or gases. "| uliquid nedium. 3. Membrane|It does not require | Itneeds the presence of the presence of semi-| semipermeable mem- [penhesblemembrane, | brane Explanation of hypertonic, isotonicand hypotonic solution in relation to cell sap. Hypertonic solution. It is a solution in which the ‘osmotic concentration is more than that of cell sap. Isotonic solution. It ia solution in which osmotic concentration is similar to that of cell sap. Hypotonie solution, It is a solution in which concentration is less than that of cell sap. OSMOTIC PRESSURE Osmotic pressure of a solution is the pressure which must be applied to it in order to prevent the passage of solvent due to osmosis. Or Osmotic pressure is that equivalent of maximum hydrostatic pressure which is produced in the solution, when this solution is separated from its pure solvent. by a semipermeable membrane. It can also be defined as “the excessive hydrostatic pressure which must be applied to it in order to make MODERN'S abe + OF BIOLOGY-x! its water potential equal to that of pure water.” Osmotic pressure is equal to the pressure which is needed to prevent the passage of pure water into an aqueous solution through a semi-permeable membrane. In other words, itis that pressure which is needed to check the process of osmosi Fig, 11. A diagrammatic representation of the relationship ‘of osmotic pressure (OP). Tugor pressure (TP) and wall [pressure (WP) the state of final equilibrium. Osmotic pressure or osmotic potential or solute potential are numerically equal, but osmotic potential hhas'a negative sign. Osmotic pressure (symbol = pi) fails to develop in isolated solution, Osmotic pressure has only the potential tomanifest a pressure when placed in osmometer. Thus solution has an osmotic potential (y). Osmotic potential is negative of osmotic pressure, since they are equal but opposite forces. Wa Inreverse osmosis, by applying additional pressure (more than osmotic pressure required to check the entry of water into solution), water can be made to move out of solution from thistle funnel into water. By reverse osmosis, salts can be removed from saline water. Factors controlling the osmosis are : 1. Concentration of dissolved solutes, 2. Pressure difference a solution. TURGOR PRESSURE ‘The plant cll, when placed in pure water, swells but does not burst. Because of negative osmotic potential of the vacuolar sohution (cell sap), water will move into the cell and will cause the plasmalemma be pressed against the cell wall. The actual pressure that develops—that is the pressure responsible for pushing the membrane against cell wall is termed turgor pressure, In other words, we can say that when water enters the living cell, a pressure is developed within the cell due to turgidity. The hydrostatic pressure developed inside the cell on the cell wall due to endosmosis is, called turgor pressure. The cell wall being rigid exerts an equal and opposi pressure in the opposite direction called wall pressure.‘TRANSPORT IN PLANTS As a result of this interplay of forces, the plant cell under these conditions is said to be turgid. When the ‘wall pressure equals the turgor pressure then entry of ‘water into the cell stops. At this stage water potential (y ie,, Psi) of cell és equal to that of its environment, ‘Thus a stage of dynamic equilibrium sets in with no net movement. However, an equal exchange of water molecules can occur across the cell. DIFFUSION PRESSURE DEFICIT (DPD) OR SUCTION PRESSURE The term diffusion pressure and diffusion pressure deficit were coined by B.S. Meyer in 1938, Originally DPD was described by the term suction pressure by Renner (1915). Recently, the term water potential y (Psi) is used for DPD, but negative in value. ‘The prossitm ovortnd hy diffissing particles is called diffusion pressure. When solute particles are added to it, the diffusion pressure of the solution gets lowered, ‘The amount by which diffusion pressure of a solution is lower than that of its pure solvent is known as diffusion pressure deficit. Interrelationship of DPD, OP and TP (WP) DPD indicates the sucking power of suction pressure. AS water enters into the cell the TP of the cell is increased. Cell wall exerts equal and oppo WP against TP. The actual force responsible for entry ‘of water will be therefore OP—TP Consider that a plant cell with OP = 10 atm, is immersed in pure water. In the beginning TP inside the cell is zero i DPD=OP=10 atm. When water enters into the cell, TP increases, ‘Turgidity increases and cell wall develops equal and. posite WP. At the stage of equilibrium TP = 10 atm. and DPD will become zero, It is important to note that OP was same when cell was flaccid. and turgid DPD-OP-TP (0-0=10 (when flaccid) (0-10=0 (ashen turgid) Hone CONE ig: 12. Changes taking place during uptake of water. When two aqueous solutions having different osmotic pressures are separated by a semi-permeable membrane, their DPD will tend to equate. Cell to cell movement of water depends upon the DPD and not on osmotic pressure and turgor pressure. Following, two examples show that in cells A and B osmotic pressure is same, but having DPD in cell B greater than A, water moves from A to B. Similarly cell C and D are having same value of turgor pressure, but DPD of Cis greater than D. Due to this water will move from'D to C when DPD is same both the cells, there will be no further movement of cells, colle op OP = 10 atm. 1F TP = dal DPD DPD = 6 atm. care cap OP =A atm, oP = Satm TP = 6atm. TP = 6 atm DPD = 4atm. DPD = 2atm. ‘THE CONCEPT OF WATER POTENTIAL, ‘The chemical potential is the fee energy per mole of any substance in a chemical system. Therefore, the chemical potential of a substance under conditions of constant pressure and temperature depends on the ‘number of molecules of substance that is present. The potential energy of water is called water potential. For example — water is stored behind a dam. When this ‘water is allowed to fall downhill, its potential energy is converted into electrical energy. The conversion occurs, under the effect of gravity. Pressure also provides energy to water, Increase in pressure leads to increase in free energy thereby increasing water potential. The measurement unit of water potential is pascal, Pa (1 mega pascal, Mpa = 10 bars). It is represented by Greek letter, Psi (y). Water potential y, is the difference between chemical potential of water at any point in a system (jw) and that of pure water under standard conditions (1io"). The value of water potential can be calculated by formula: (100) — (Heo*) = RT weft where y, = water potential, R is gas constant, T is, abyolule temperature (K), eis the vapour pressure of the solution in the system at temperature T, and e’ the vapour pressure of pure water at the same tempera- ture, ‘The direction in which water will move from one cell to another cell depends on water potential in two regions. Water potential is measured in bars.Abarisa pressure unit which equals 14.5 Ib /in’, 750mm Hg or 0.987 atm, Water will flow from a region of high water potential to one of lower water potential. Water potential expresses the spontaneous movement of water from one region to another in terms of the difference in free energy of water between the two regions. The free energy represents the thermodynamic parameter informing the direction in which physical and chemical changes occur (potential to do work). Free energy is the sum of energy of a system capable of doing work. Ifa substance like sugar is dissolved in pure water, resulting solution has an osmotic potential of lower value (more negative) than pure water, An increase in solute will produce a more negative osmotic potential and hence water potential Amount of sabites (concentration) and external pressure and gravity are three factors which affect the water potential. The water potential of pure water at atmospheric pressure comes equal to 2 When solutes are added the value of water potent decreases. For example, 0.1 M solution containing any solute has water potential of 2.3 bars, The value of water potential of solution is lower than that of pure water. For solutions, such as contents of cells, water potential (y,) can be calculated by adding, internal factors like gravity potential (y.), solute potential (y.) and pressure potential (y,). (WD=¥,+ H+ ¥, ‘The gravity potential (y,) is the component of water potential influenced by the effect of gravity on water potential. Itdepends on factorslike heightof water above reference state of water, the density of water and the acceleration due to gravity. When vertical length is less than 5 metres, value of y, is negligible, Tha it may be ignored. The modified equation is We FM, Solute potential (y,) or osmotic potential is the amount by which the water potential is reduced as a result of the presence of solutes. Pressure potential (y,) is positive in contrast to negative value of water potential and solute potential and operates in plant cell in the form of wall pressure. ‘Why to get confused with negative value of water potential? Pure water bears the highest value of water potential ie. zero. When solute is added to water, the value of water potential is lowered. Thus all solutions are with negative water potential value. An interesting example can be given in this fashion. Suppose a person is gambling in casino with no money in his pocket and he loses 10 rupees, he comes under debt to casino i.e. he has-10 rupees. More he loses, more. he increases the debt. Bigger the debt the lower is MODERN’S abe + OF BIOLOGY-X! the level of his money on the other hand bigger the debt, more money is required by him to pay back the debt. in the same pattern, more negative is the value (of water potential the greator the water debt which [permits the rapid flow of water into system. A water Flow of -30 K Pa is less than that of -15 K Pa, As a result water migrates from the solution of 15K Pa. ‘to — 30 KPa. Tt is exactly compared with the example ‘that temperature of ~30°C is less than ~15°C and heat will move from a system of 15°C to -30°C. IMPORTANCE OF TURGOR PRESSURE AND OSMOSIS 1. Plants live and grow notmally due to turgidity in cells and turgidity in. plants which depends upon 2. The rigidity of plant organs is maintained by turgidity caused due to endosmosis. 3. Turgor pressure leads to cell enlargement in ‘meristematic cells, 4. Leaves remain erect and expanded due to turgidity and donot wil. Turgidity provides mechanical strength to non-woody tissues of plants like Zea mays (maize), Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane) and Musa paradisiaca (banana). 5. Opening and closure of stomata occurs due to osmosis. 6. Movement of plant and plant parts «g., bean, ‘Mimosa pucica (sensitive plant or touch-me-noi), Indian telegraph plant and bursting of many fruits occurs due to turgidity caused by osmosis. 7. Cell to cell movement of water occurs due to osmosis, 8, Water is absorbed by the process of osmosis in roots. 9. High osmotic concentration of cells greatly increases the resistance to dessication by increasing the resistance to freezing and also decreasing the rate of water loss. Similarly turgid cells behave in reverse fashion. Relationship of Water potential, Osmotic potential and Pressure potential Example. If an aqueous solution with osmotic potential of — 10 bars is placed in semipermeable membrane (Fig, 13) and submerged in pure water (¥, ), turgor pressure equivalent to 10 bars will develop in solution at initial stage. It can be shown by the following reaction: We = Wet Vp At initial stage, 10 = 10 + 0 ‘When two systems get equilibrium, water potential of internal solution will become zero (Fig. 13) At equilibrium, 0 = 10 +10‘TRANSPORT IN PLANTS. 11113) [SOLUTION A TEARS) [10 [souumion 6 (eans)|-10 | -20] 20 INITAL STATE, ‘EQUILIBRIUM Fig. 18. Relationship of Water potential, Osmotie Potential and Pressure Potential (turgor pressure). Water potential of solutions A and B are the same at equilibrium. ‘able 5. Differences between Osmotic pressure and. Osmotic potential Character | Osmotic pressure ‘Osmotic potential T-Defini= | Fis the prssure which must It is the amount By which tion _|be applied to it in order to | water potential is reduced as. prevent the passageof solvent | a result of prosence of solutes. due to osmosis. 2.Unit [Bars withpositivesign. __| Bars with nogative sign. 3. Effect of | OP of pure solvent (water) is |The value of pute solvent solute | zero. The value increases due | (water) isalso zero. Addition. particles. | toadaition oF solute particies. | oF solute particles makes the value of osmotic potential _ more negative. 14. Changes tt coum een plentcel takes (Dect | Date Nuseseateeheen ten | CReTaE(CZesne eee en fe chang toc en pinta aks eg pm er ee Provsurg (pressure potential) are equal’ olution svith less OP to| solution with more osmotic Inagnitide but differ in signs water potential solution with moreOP. | potential to solution with less feel spis zoo water potentialnucteug Fig. 15. Various stages in plasmolysis A. turgid plant cell; B. incipient plasmolysis; C. a plasmolysed cell, Factors affecting water potential Amount of solutes and extemal pressure are two factors which affect the water potential. The water potential of pure water at atmospheric pressure is zero. When solutes are added, value of water potential decreases. WILTING If loss of water from aerial parts of a plant (transpiration) exceeds the rate of absorption, plant wilts, The partial loss of turgidity which does not cause visible wilting is known as incipient wilting, If plants {ail to regain their original stage duc to general loss of turgor, stage represents permanent wilting. In herbaceous plants during summer season plants wilt during hot days and regain thefr turgi-dity and freshness during night, the type of wilting is called as Wilting is observed usually in those plants in which tissues are made up of thin walled parenchymatous cells which are responsible for maintaining the turgidity in plants, Permanent Wilting Percentage (PWP) is the percentage of water on the dry weight basis of the soil that is present in the soil when the plants growing in it first touch the condition of permanent wilting, This value varies between 1-15% and depends upon the texture of the soil e., clay has higher PWP than sand. PLASMOLYSIS When a plant cel is immersed in a sohution which has a higher solute concentration than the cell sap, protoplasm contracts. This can be observed by mounting apiece of Spirogyra filament orepidermal tissue in strong sugar solution (hypertonic), First of all volume of cell decreases due to exit of water from sap vacuole. Now the protoplasm shrinks and pulls it away from cell wall Itleavesa gap between cell wall and plasma membrane, MODERN'S abe + OF BIOLOGY-x! This shrinkage of protoplasm from cell wall is known, as plasmolysis (Fig. 15). When the plasmolysed cell is placed in. hypotonic solution, protoplasm regains its original form and the processis called as deplasmolysis. ‘Osmotic pressure of the cell sap can be calculated bby formula: OP=CRT ‘where C= Molar concentration of solution atineipient plasmolysis, R=gas constant (0.082) and T= absolute temperature (i., 273 + *C). However, above formula is applicable only in case of non- electrolytes like sucrose. In a cell which is plasmolysed to the extent that the protoplast loses contact with the cellulose wall, the value of y, is zero and y,=y,, When the cell is fully turgid y, i$ equal and opposite to y,soy,, The concentration of external solution can be noticed which causes the cellsjust begin the plasmolysis, (incipient plasmolysis) so that protoplasts just lose contact with cell walls. We assume that now the value of (water potential) is equal to y, (olute potential). For practical purposes incipient plasmolysis is taken as a point, when half of the cells are visibly plasmolysed. Significance of plasmolysis, (1) It is practiced to know living nature of cell. (2) It proves the permeability of the cell wall and the semipermeable nature of the protoplasm. (3) Plasmolysis is a vital process as it explains the phenomenon of osmosi (4) The process of plasmolysis is involved in killing of weeds from ‘tennis courts. (5) It is used to preserve meat, jelly etc. as their salting kills bacteria by plasmolysis. (6) It is used to determine the osmotic pressure of the cell (2) Plasmolysis is helpful in preventing the growth of plants in the cracks of walls.‘TRANSPORT IN PLANTS. ‘Table 6. Differences between Flasmolysis and Deplasmolysis. ‘Character Plasmolysis Deplasmolysis 1. Definition Ttis the shrinkage of protoplasm from is cell wall | Ttis swelling of shrinked protoplasm to regain its ‘when cell is placed in hypertonic solution. original unplasmolysed shape when cells placed in hypotonic solution. 2. Type of osmosis. | Exasmosis. Endosmosis. 3. Vitality, ‘tcan kill the protoplasm. It takes place only in those plasmolysed cells ‘where protoplasm is stil in living form. IM) PRACTICE PROBLEMS—CELL WATER RELATIONS How the osmotic pressure of given solution (non-clectrolyte) such as sucrose can be calculated? Define chemical potential and matric potential, ‘What increases the water potential of a solution? [Name two factors that affect water potential ayeene Ifa cell is placed in hypotonic solution, what will happen? 1. What ANSWERS TO PRACTICE PROBLEMS otonie slution? or=crT [Name the major sots of internal factors which determine the value of water potential What will happen ta the asmotic pressti when thene is an inemase in the eancentration of sate? Is water potential measurable? How is it represented and measured? ‘What is the water potential of pure water at atmospheric pressure? |. Osmotic pressure can be calculated by using following relationship : whore Cis molar concentration of solution at incipient plasmolysis. Ris the gas constant which is 0.082. Tis the absolute temperaturei.e.273 +PC_Amolar solution of sucrose solution separated from pure water by semipermeable membrane has an O.P. of approximately 22.4 atm. at °C. (Chemical potential isthe froe energy of one mole ofa suivstance in a system under constant temperature and pressure ‘Matic potential is the component of water potential influenced by presence of matric (matrix). ‘Water potential is affected by factors pressure Zero. Matric potential (y,), solute potential (y,) and pressure potential (y,). Less quantity of solute increases the watet potential af a solution, With increase in concentration of solute, osmotic pressure will also increase. Endosmosis takes place. The cell absorbs water and becemes turgid ‘Water potential is measurable. [tis represented by Greek etter y (Psi) and measured in bars }_Asolution having concentrations of solute of solvent molecules (water) exactly equal to another solution towhich itis compared, IMBIBITION Imbibition is the phenomenon of absorption of water or any other liquiid without forming a solution. Plant ellscontain many hydrophiliccolloids (imbibants) such as proteins, cellulose, starches etc. Materials like seedisand wood when come in contact with water imbibe ‘water and swell up considerably. Similarly if dry gum or pieces of agar-agar ate placed in water, they swell up due to imbibition. The tenacity with which water molactilosare hold an imbihing stirFaco is the function of their water potential, the nature ofthe surfaces (specially charge and distance between water molecules and surface), The quantity of water absorbed is determined by the degree of cohesion of its molecules. During the process of imbibition water is absorbed without the formation of solution, The liquid (usually water) which is imbibed is called as imbibate. The imbibate is held in between and over the surface of particles through the process of capillarity and adsorption. During imbibition, water molecules get tightly. adsorbed and become immobilized. They lose most of their kinetic energy in the form of heat. It is called heat of wetting or heat of hydration. This heat can be easily observed during the process of kneading of wheat flour, where the starch and cellulose imbibe water. Dry seeds bear a highly negative water potential when such seeds are brought in contact with water (Hw = 0), steep water potential gradiant develops, This leads to rapid movement of water to the surface of dry seeds. Imhibition process continues tll the equilibrium, is attained between contents of seed and water present outside. ‘The phenomenon of imbibition has three important aspects:1. Volume change. During the process of imbibition, imbibants increase in volume. Ithas been observed that there is an actual compression of water. This is due to arrangement of water molecules on surface of imbibant and occupy less volume than the same molecules do when are in free stage in the normal liquid. During, the process of imbibition affinity develops between the adsorbant and liquid imbibed. A sort of water potential gradient is established between the surface of adsorbant and the liquid imbibed. 2. Production of heat. There is release of part of kinetic energy of water molecules in the form of heat during the process of imbibition. 3. Development of imbibitional pressure. The pressure which an imbibant will develop if submerged in pure imbibing liquid is called imbibitional pressure. Imbibitional pressure i alco called ae matric potential (ée., water potential of matrix) in reference to plant water relations. The value of imbibition pressure is tremendous. Air dried pea seeds when come in contact with water can develop the imbibition pressure upto the value oF 1000 atm. The process of imbibition can be shown by soaking some dry seeds of pea or gram in water (Fig. 16). When. dipped in water, a steep water potential gradient is established. The water enters into the capillaries of imbibants and get adsorbed. It is still interesting to note that if dry seeds or pieces of dry wood are fixed into cracks of rock and then’ MODERN’S abe + OF BIOLOGY-X! Fig. 16. Demonstration of imibibition-the dry pea seeds Jmbibe water and swell soaked with water, dué to imbibition, rock may break Importance/significance of imbil ition 1. The Water is first imbibed by walls of root hairs and then absorbed. 2. Water is absorbed by germinating seeds through the process of imbibition. 3. Jamming of wooden doors and windows during, rainy season is due to imbibition, 4. Germinating seeds can break the concrete pavements and roads etc. 5. The water moves into ovul into seeds by the process of imbibition. are ripening Plants wilt when turgor pressure inside the cells of such tiseue go down below zero. Pressure chamber is used for mensiring water potential of whole lenoes, shoots ete. ‘The value of osmotic pressure of the sol solition in a well watered sot i fess than 1 atmosphere, ‘Osmotic pressure can be calculated by flloing relationship OP = cRT (where C= molar concentration of solution, R is ges constant and T is absolute temperature 273°C). The basic driving force in osmosis ts the diference in the free energy of water on the tv sides of membrane. Cryoscopic osmometer miensures the esmatic potential of solution by measuring it freezing point. Equimolar concentration of tvo solution of ron-ioniing substances will lave same osniatic pressure. ns evident plasmolyis, eytoplasi spithdramos itself fron cell wal COLP. docs not increase addition of insoluble solute in the solution. D.P.D. can besome ero filly turgid cell). TP. caw also become zero (flacid cell). However O.P. of a cel can never be zero. (One gin, mole of solute dissolved in 1 lit,/1000 cof solution is molar solution. However one gin. mole of solute when added 0 1 lit 1000 of solution is mole solution ‘Table 7. Differences between Imbibition and Diffusion, Character Tabibition Diffusion ‘L Definition | Ibis a special Kind of diffusion in which water molocules 2. Rate 3. Heat 4. Pressure are adsorbed to the surface of hydrophilic colloids. ‘The quantity of water absorbed depends upon the degree ‘of cohesion of its molecules. Teproducos heat. It develops a pressure called imbibitional pressure with very high value. Tis the movement of molacules orions ofa solute ‘orsolvent from the region of higher concentration to that ofits lower concentration. ‘The rate and direction of diffusion depends upon the difference in concentration of matter. ‘Heat is not produced. It develops diffusion pressure (pressure exerted by diffusing particles),‘TRANSPORT IN PLANTS. LONG DISTANCE TRANSPORT LONG DISTANCE TRANSPORT OF WATER Long distance transport of substance cannot take place by process like diffusion alone. It is very slow process. The movement of a molecule across a plant cell with size of 50 um takes about 2.5s. By this process ‘water movementovera distanceof Im, can take 32 years. In large multicellular complex organisms materials usually move by mass or bulk flow system. Here the ‘water moves in bulk from one place to another due to pressure differences at two points. In diffusion different substancesmove independently due to theirconcentration gradients. However in mass flow the substancesare swept in the same pace. This type of ‘movement is called as translocation. Mass (er masse) or bulk flow SURERZATION ano. UNiFicaTion wareR) MOST RAPIO ENTRANCE (OF WATER AND SALT STE conrex: ROOT HAIR ZONE we sow ENTRANCE OF DIFFERENTIATING WATER AND SALT REGION OF ELONGATION eLarivety IWPERMERSLE MeRISTEMATIC we TO WATER oor car Fig. 17. Areas of root involved in absorption and ‘translocation of water. ‘movement occurs through positive hydrostatic pressure gradient like garden hose or like a hydrostatic pressure gradient like sucking through a straw. Plants absorb water through its entire surface ie., roots, stem and leaves. However, mainly the water is absorbed by roots. The area of young roots where most absorption takes place is the root hair zone (Fig. 17) This zone is the area of greatest permeability. Root hairs are delicate structures and last not more than two days. Root hairs are extensions of the epidermal cells. ‘They have sticky walls by which they adhere tightly CELL WALL PLASMODESMATA, TONOPLAST 1117 to soil particles. Though small, the root hair zone has a large surface area. Pathways of water movement in root (i) Apoplast pathway. In this pathway water moves exclusively through the cell wall without crossing any ‘membranes. (i) Symplast pathway. In this pathway watermoves from one cell to another cell through plasmodesmata. (ii) Transmembrane pathway. Water after passing, through cortex is blocked by casparian strips present on endodermis. The casparian strips are formed due to deposition of wax like substance, suberin. In this pathway, water crosses at least two membranes from each cell in its path, These two plasma membranes are found on entering and exiting of water. Here, water may also enter through fonoplast surrounding the vacuole ice, also called as vacuolar pathway. aPopLAst PATHWAY syPLAst PATHWAY VACUOLAR, PATHWAY YACUOLE CELL WALL CYTOPLASM “LPAPOPLAST PATHWAY Aa SYMPLAST PATHWAY > vacuoian paTaway (TRANSMEMBRANE PATHWAY) Fig. 18 A. Pathways of water movement. Fig. 18 B. A simplified version of pathways of water in root () Apoplast; (i) Symplas; (i) Transmembrane pathway. WATER MOVEMENT UP A PLANT (THE ASCENT OF SAP) ‘The upward movement of water from the root towards the top of the plant is called ascent of sap. ‘The upward transport of water in plants which are in some cases as tall as 400 ft. poses a serious problem.MODERN’S abe + OF BIOLOGY-X! ‘Table 8. Differences between Apoplast pathway and Symplast pathway. aS es Spmplast pathway 1 Definition “The apoplast pathway is tho system ofadjacent | The symplast pathway is the system oF cellwallthat continuous throughoutthe plant | intexonnetted protoplast (plasmedsmata). ‘xcept at caspatan tips 2. Entry ofwater | Hert water molecules Cont enter nto the call | Here water molecules enter into the cell sap Sap. They move Ubugh ell wall and intrcal- | and then pass from one cell 9 another lang ehe fer spaces. Concentration gradient, 3. Speed Movements fast Movement is stow. 4. Principle Flow accurs die oadhesiveand coheswveforces | Flow occurs due to oplasmic streaming. of water 5. Crossing of oll | Does not occur Occurs. membrane PATH OF ASCENT OF SAP Now itis well known fact that water rises upwards in the plant through xylem. Itcanbbe proved by following ‘ovo experiments : (a) Movement of dyes. When a leafy green shoot of Balsam plant with transparent stem is placed in eosine solution, it is noticed after some time that red streaks appear in stem and veins of leaves become red. ‘When transverse section of stem is taken it is noticed that only walls of xylem vessels have been stained red (Fig. 19), TuRaD Fig, 19, Ringing experiment to show the path Of ascent of sap. (b) Ringing experiment. In thisexperimentall tissues external to xylem form a part of branch is girdled. Now this ringed twig is placed in a beaker containing water. Itis noticed that upper leaves of shoot remains and indicates water is still moving upwards through xylem (Fig. 20), Fig. 20. Fosine tost to demonstrate ascent of sap. ‘THEORIES FOR ASCENT OF SAP (MECHANISM) ‘The various theoties caft be classified as under : 1. Vital thiarios 2. Root presstite theory 3. Physical theories ‘W/Vital theories According to vital theories upward movement of ‘water takes place due to activity of living cells of plant bordering xylem. (a) Godlewski’s relay pump theory. According, to Godlewski (1884) ascent of sap takes place due to shythmatic change in the osmotic pressure of living, cells of xylem parenchyma and medullary rays and are responsible for bringing about a pumping action of ‘water in upward direction (Fig. 21). Living cells absorb water due to osmosis from bordering vessels (which act as reservoirs of water) and finally water is pumped into xylem vessel due to lowering of pressure in living cells. Thus a staircase type of movement occurs. Janse (1887) supported the theory and showed that if lower part of the shoot is killed upper leaves were affected. i Fy) toner 4 | arlrcssure Shams Afr 4 aetrnesoune | Samer Fig, 21. Goldewski’s Theory of Ascent of sap. Criticism. Theory was discarded due to following, reasons: 1 Strasburger (1893), Overton (1911) and MacDougal (1966) showed that transport of water was independent