Physics Short Notes

PHYSICS
1. Unit and Measurement ............................................................................................................................. 2
2. Motion in a Straight line ........................................................................................................................... 3
3. Motion in a Plane ...................................................................................................................................... 3
4. Laws of Motion ......................................................................................................................................... 4
5. Work Energy and Power ........................................................................................................................... 4
6. System of Particles and Rotational Motion .............................................................................................. 6
7. Gravitation .............................................................................................................................................. 11
8. Mechanical Properties of Solids .............................................................................................................. 12
9. Mechanical Properties of Fluids .............................................................................................................. 13
10. Thermal properties of Matter ............................................................................................................... 14
11. Thermodynamics................................................................................................................................... 15
12. Kinetic Theory of gases ......................................................................................................................... 16
13. Oscillations ............................................................................................................................................ 18
14. Waves .................................................................................................................................................... 20
15. Electric Charges and Fields.................................................................................................................... 22
16. Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance ............................................................................................... 24
17. Current Electricity ................................................................................................................................. 27
18. Moving Charges and Magnetic Field ..................................................................................................... 28
19. Magnetism and Matter ......................................................................................................................... 30
20. Electromagnetic Induction .................................................................................................................... 32
21. Electromagnetic Waves ........................................................................................................................ 33
22. Ray Optics and Optical Instruments...................................................................................................... 34
23. Wave Optics .......................................................................................................................................... 36
24. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter ................................................................................................... 37
25. Atoms .................................................................................................................................................... 38
26. Nuclei .................................................................................................................................................... 38
27. Semiconductor Electronics ................................................................................................................... 39
28. Communication System ........................................................................................................................ 39

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 Physics Short Notes

1. UNIT AND MEASUREMENT

 Fundamental Units :

Sr. No. Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol

1 Length Metre m
2 Mass Kilogram Kg
3 Time Second S
4 Electric Current Ampere A
5 Temperature Kelvin K
6 Luminous Intensity Candela Cd
7 Amount of Substance Mole mol

 Supplementary Units :

Sr. No. Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol

1. Plane Angle Radian r
2 Solid Angle Steradian Sr

Basis
(1). Distance of an object by parallax method, D 
Parallax angle

(2). Absolute error = True value – Measured value  [ an ]

(3). True value = Arithmetic mean of the measured values

a1  a2  ....  an
amean 
n
amean
(4). Relative error in the measurement of a quantity 
amean

amean
(5). Percentage error   100
amean

(6). Maximum permissible error in addition or subtraction of two quantities (A  A) and (B  B) :
 A  B

ap  bq z a b C
(7). When z  , then maximum relative in z is p q r
r z a b C
c

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 Physics Short Notes

2. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

(1). For objects in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the five quantities, displacement x, time
taken t, initial velocity v 0 , final velocity v and acceleration a are related by a set of kinematic equations
of motions. These are

v  v 0  at

1
x  v 0t  at2
2

v 2  v 02  2ax

The above equations are the equations of motion for particle. If the position of the particle at t = 0 is 0.
If the particle starts at x  x0 i.e. if it is at x 0 at t = 0, then in the above equation x is replaced by
(x  x0 ) .

(2). The relative velocity of an object moving with velocity v A w.r.t. an object B moving with velocity vB
is given by

v AB  v A  vB

3. MOTION IN A PLANE

(1). Law of cosines, if R  P  Q then R  P2  Q2  2PQ cos 

Here,   angle between P and Q

Q cos 
(2). Direction of R  tan   :   angle between R and P
P  Q sin 

(3). Position of an object at time t, if it is initially at r0 , having initial velocity v0 and moving with constant
acceleration a , is

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 Physics Short Notes

1
r  r0  v 0t  a2
2

4. LAWS OF MOTION

dp dv dm dv
(1). Force: F  m v , when m is constant F  m  ma
dt dt dt dt
(2). Conservation of linear momentum:  pi   p j

(3). For motion of a car on level road maximum safest velocity is v max  sRg

 (s  tan ) 
(4). For motion of a car on banked road maximum safest velocity is v max  Rg 
 1  s tan  

1 v2
Angle of banking:   tan
rg

5. WORK ENERGY AND POWER

(1). The work-energy theorem states that for conservative forces acting on the body, the change in
kinetic energy of a body equal to the net work done by the net force on the body.

K f  Ki  Wnet

Where Ki and Kf are initial and final kinetic energies and Wnet is the net work done.

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 Physics Short Notes

(2). For a conservative force in one dimension, Potential energy function V(x) is defined such that
dV(x)
F(x)  
dx
(3). Average power of a force is defined as the ratio of the work, W, to the total time t taken.

W
 Pav 
t
(4). The instantaneous power is defined as the limiting value of the average power as time interval
dW
approaches zero. P 
dt
Power can also be expressed as

dr
P  F  Fv here, dr is displacement vector.
dt
(5). Work done by Constant Force :

W  FS

(6). Work done by multiple forces

 F  F1  F2  F3  .....

W  [F]  S …i

W  F1  S  F2  S  F3  S  ........

Or W  W1  W2  W3  .....

(7). Work done by A variable force

dW  F  ds

(8). Relation between momentum and kinetic energy

P2
K and P  2 m K ; P  Linear momentum
2m

(9). Potential energy

U2 r2 r2

 dU    F  dr i.e., U2  U1   F  dr  W
U1 r1 r1

r
U    F  dr  W


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 Physics Short Notes

(10). Conservative Forces

U
F
r

(11). Work-Energy theorem

WC  WNC  WPS  K

(12). Modified Form of work-Energy Theorem

WC  U

WNC  WPS  K  U

WNC  WPS  E

(12). Power

W
The average power (P or Pav ) delivered by an agent is given by P or pav 
t

F  dS dS
P F  Fv
dt dt

6. SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

(1). According to the theorem of perpendicular axes moment of inertia of a body about perpendicular
axis is Iz  Ix  I y'

Where Ix ,I y ,Iz , are the moment of inertia of the rigid body about x, y and z axes respectively x and y
axes lie in the plane of the body and z-axis lies perpendicular to the plane of the body and passes
through the point of intersection of x and y.

(2). According to the theorem of parallel axes I  IC  Mdc

Where IC is the moment of inertia of the body about an axis passing through its centre of mass and d is
the perpendicular distance between the two axes.

Table 1: Moment of inertia of some symmetrical bodies

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 Physics Short Notes

Body Axis Figure M.I.

(1) Rod (Length L) Perpendicular to rod, at the ML2

midpoint centre of mass
12

(2) Circular ring (radius R) Passing through centre and MR2

perpendicular the plane

(3) Circular ring (Radius Diameter MR 2

R)
2

(4) Circular Disc (radius R) Perpendicular to the disc at MR 2

centre
2

(5) Circular Disc (radius R) Diameter MR 2

4

(6) Hollow cylinder Axis of cylinder MR2

(radius R)

(7) Solid cylinder (radius Axis of cylinder MR 2

R)
2

(8) Solid sphere (radius R) Diameter 2

MR 2
5

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 Physics Short Notes

(9) Hollow sphere (radius Diameter 2

R) MR 2
3

(3). Relation between moment of inertia (I) and angular momentum L is given by L  l 

(4). Relation between moment of inertia (I) and kinetic energy of rotation is given by

1
K.E.rotation  l2
2
(5). Relation between of inertia (l) and torque ( )    l

(6). If no external torque acts on the system, the total angular momentum of the system remains
unchanged l11  l22

(7). Position vector of centre of mass of a discrete particle system

n

m1 r1  m2 r2  ......  mn rn  mi ri
i1
rCM  
m1  m2  ......  mn n
 mi
i1

Where mi is the mass of the ith particle and r1 is the position of the ith particle corresponding
xCM  y CM and z CM co-ordinates are

n n n
 mn
i i  mi y i  mizi
l1 i1 i1
xCM  n
, y CM  n
, z CM  n
 mi  mi  mi
i1 i1 i1

n
 miv i
(8). Velocity of centre of mass, v CM  i1
 mi

n
 miai
(9). Acceleration of CM, aCM  i1
n
 mi
i1

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 Physics Short Notes

n 
(10). Momentum of system, P  P1  P2  .....  Pn    mi  v CM
 i1 
 
(11). Centre of mass of continuous mass distribution

rCM 
 dmre , xCM 
 x dm , y CM 
 y dm , z CM 
 zdm
dm  dm  dm  dm

(12). Given below are the positions of centre of mass of some commonly used objects.

S.No. Object Location of centre of mass

i. L
x CM  , y  0 , zCM  0
2 CM

ii. 2R
xCM  0 , y CM  , zCM  0


iii. 4R
xCM  0 , y CM  ,z 0
3 CM

iv. 2R 2R
xCM  , y CM  , zCM  0
 

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 Physics Short Notes

v. 4R 4R
xCM  , y CM  ,z 0
3 3 CM

vi. R
xCM  0 , y CM  ,z 0
2 CM

vii. 3R
xCM  0 , y CM  , zCM  0
8

(13). Head-on collision

Velocity of bodies m1 ,m2 after collision are

 m  em2  m2 (1  e)  m  em1  m1 (1  e)
v1   1  u1  u2 ; v 2   2  u2  u
 m1  m2  m1  m2  m1  m2  m1  m2 1

Here e is coefficient of restitution.

1 m1m2
Loss in kinetic energy, KE  (u  u2 )2 (1  e2 )
2 m1  m2 1

(14). For elastic collision KE  0 and e = 1, then velocities after collision are

 m  m2   2m2   m  m1  2m1
v1   1  u1    u2 ; v 2   2  u2  u
 m1  m2   m1  m2   m1  m2  m1  m2 1

(15). For perfectly inelastic collision, e = 0, then velocities after collision are

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 Physics Short Notes

m1u1  m2u2 1 m1m2

v1  v 2  and loss in kinetic energy is KE  (u1  u2 )2
m1  m2 2 m1  m2

7. GRAVITATION

Gm1m2
(1). Ne to s u i e sal la of g a itatio F 
r2

Gm1m2
In vector form, F   (r )
r2

dA L
(2). According to Keple s IInd law 
dt 2m

4 2 3
(3). A o di g to Keple s IIIrd law T 
2
R  T2  R 3
GM
Where, T = Time period of revolution, and R = Semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit.

Gm1m2
Ne to s u i e sal la of gravitation F 
r2
GMe
. A ele atio due to g a it g is g 
R 2e

2
 R 
(5). Variation of g at altitude h is gh  g  e 
Re  h 

 2h 
If h < < R then, gh  g 1  
 Re 

 d
(6). Variation of g at depth d is gd  g 1  
 Re 

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 Physics Short Notes

1 1
(7). Gravitational potential energy U  WAB  GMm   
 r2 r1 

GMm
If, r1  , r2  r  U  
r

8. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

gL2 MgL
(1). Elongation produced in rod of length ‘L’ due to its own weight is L  
2Y 2AY
(2). Thermal Stress Y  

1
(3). Elastic potential energy density U  (stress)  (strain)
2

P 1
(4). Bulk modulus, B  V (5). Compressibility 
V B

r 4 r / r
(6). Restoring couple per unit twist  (7).   
2 L / L

9BS
(8). Relation between Y,B,S  Y  (9). Relation between Y,B,  , Y  3B(1  2)
3B  S

3B  2S
(10). Relation between Y,S Y  2S(1  ) (11). Poisso s ‘atio  
6B  2S

Wt3
(12). Depression at the middle of a beam y 
4Ybd3

Fh 2S(1  )
(13) Sheer Modulus S  (14) Relation between B,S, , B 
Ax 3(1  2)

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 Physics Short Notes

9. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

substance
(1). Relative density of a substance rel 
water at 4o C

(2). Gauge pressure Pg  gh

(3). Apparent weight of a body of density  in a fluid of density 

 
W '  W  1   , W = weight of the body in air
 

(4). Equation of continuity Av = constant

Here, A = cross-sectional area of pipe and v = fluid velocity

. Be oulli s e uatio : At any point in a streamline flow

1
P  gh  v 2  constant
2
Here, P= pressure, v = fluid velocity and  is density.

F
(6). Coefficient Of viscosity  
vA
Here, F = Viscous force, = Separation between two lamina, A = Area of each lamina and v = Relative
velocity of two lamina

(7). According to Stokes la F  6av

Here, a = radius a ball or drop and v = velocity of ball or drop

2a2
(8). Formula for Terminal velocity is v T  (  )g
9

Where,  = density of falling body,  = density of fluid and  = coefficient of viscosity

vd
(9). Reynolds number. R e  where, d = diameter of the pipe


2S
(10). Excess pressure inside a liquid drop or a cavity of radius R is  Pi  P0  where S is surface
R
tension

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 Physics Short Notes

4S
(11). Excess pressure inside an air bubble is Pi  P0 
R

2S cos 
(12). Height of a liquid in a capillary tube is h 
rg

Where,  = angle of contact,  = density of the liquid and g = acceleration due to gravity

10. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

(1). Conversion of temperature from one scale to other.

5 9
(a) From C  F tC  (tF  32), & tF  tC  32
9 5

(b) From C  K T  tC  273.15, & tC  T  273.15

9 5
(c) ) From F  K tF  T  459.67, & T  tF  255.37
5 9

Where T, tC , tF , stand for temperature reading on Kelvin scale, Celsius scale, Fahrenheit scale
respectively.

(2).   2,   3 (Relation between  , ,  )

kA(T1  T2 )t
(3). (a) Q 
x
Where Q is the amount of heat that flows in time t across the opposite faces of a rod of length x and
cross-section A. T1 and T2 are the temperatures of the faces in the steady state and k is the coefficient of
thermal conductivity of the material of the rod.

 dT  dT
(b) Q  kA  t Where represents the temperature gradient.
 dx  dx

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 Physics Short Notes

dQ  dT 
(c) H   kA   H is called the heat current.
dt  dx 

Q1
(4). (a) Coefficient of reflectivity is r 
Q

Q2
(b) Coefficient of absorptivity a 
Q

Q3
(c)Coefficient of transitivity t 
Q
Where Q1 is the radiant energy reflected, Q2 is the radiant energy absorbed and Q3 is the radiant energy
transmitted through a surface on which Q is the incident radiant energy

(T1  T0 )
(5). (a) ln  Kt
(T2  T0 )

(T1  T2 ) T T 
(b)  K  1 2  T0 
t  2 
The a o e t o e uatio s ep ese ts Ne to s la of ooli g. He e, t is the ti e take a ody to cool
from T1 to T2 in a surrounding at temperature T0.

11. THERMODYNAMICS

(1). First law of thermodynamics Q  U  W

(2). Work done, W  PV

 Q  U  PV

(3). Relation between specific heats for a gas Cp  Cr  R

. Fo isothe al p o ess, i a o di g to Bo le s la PV = constant

According to Charles law (For volume) V  T constant and Charles law (for pressure) P  T

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 Physics Short Notes

V2 V
And (ii) Work done is W  RT ln  2.303 RT log 2
V1 V1

Cp
. Fo adia ati p o ess, i A o di g to Bo le s la PV  = constant Where,  
Cv

P1V1  P2V2 R  T1  T2 
And (ii) Work done is W  
 1  1
(6). Slope of adiabatic =  (slope of isotherm)

(7). For Carnot engine,

Q2 T  Q1 T1 
(i) Efficiency of engine is   1  1 2   
Q1 T  Q2 T2 

W
(ii) And work done is W  Q1  Q2  
Q1

(8). For Refrigerator

Q2 Q 1
(i) Coefficient of performance is    2  
Q1  Q2 W 

Q1 Q1 1
(9). For Heat pump r  
W Q1  Q2 

12. KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

(1). Ideal gas equation is PV  RT where  is number of moles and R is gas constant

1 mM 2
Pressure exerted by ideal gas on container is P  v
3 V

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 Physics Short Notes

3kBT 8KBT
(2) R.M.S. velocity vrms  (3). Average velocity v av 
m m

2KBT
(4). Most probable velocity vmp 
m

1
(5). Mean free path ( ) 
2nd2
Where n = number density and d = diameter of molecule

Table 2: Some important points about molecules of gas

S.No. Atomicity No. of Cp Cv CP

degree of 
Cv
freedom
1. Monoatomic 3 5 3 5
R R
2 2 3
2 Diatomic 5 7 5 7
R R
2 2 5
3. Linear molecule (Triatomic) 7 7 5 7
R R
2 2 5
4. Non-linear molecule (Triatomic) 6 4R 3R 4
3

n1Cv  n2Cv
(6). For mixture of gas, molar specific heat at constant volume is given by Cv(mix)  1 2
n1  n2

Where n1 and n2 are number of moles of two gases mixed together C v and C v are molar specific
1 2
heat at constant volume of 2 gas.

(7) For mixture of gases with n1 ,& n2 moles the following relation holds true.

n1  n2 n n
 1  2
 1 1  1  2  1

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13. OSCILLATIONS

(1) Displacement equation for SHM x  A sin (t  ) Or

x  A cos[t  ] 
where A is amplitude and t    is phase of the wave

(2). Velocity in SHM v  A cos t and v   A  x

2 2

(3). Acceleration in SHM is a   A sin t and a   x

2 2

(4). Energy in SHM is

1 1
(i) Potential energy U  m2x2 (ii) Kinetic energy K  m2 (A2  x2 )
2 2

1
(iii) Total energy E  m2A2
2
(5). For Simple pendulum

L 1
(i) Time period of pendulum is T  2 (ii) If L is large T  2
g 1 1 
g  
L R 

T 1 L L
(iii)  (iv) Accelerated pendulum T  2
T 2 L ga

l
(6). For torsional pendulum, time period of oscillation is T  2 ; where I is moment of inertia
k

l
(7). For physical pendulum, time period of oscillation is T  2 ; where l is moment of inertia of
mgd
body about axis passing through hinge and, d : Distance of centre of mass from hinge

(8). Damped simple harmonic motion

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 Physics Short Notes

d2x dx
(i) Force action on oscillation body is m   kx  b
2 dt
dt

u/2m k b2
(ii) Equation of motion is x  Ae cos('t  ) Where  '  
m 4m2

(9). Forced oscillator

md2x
(i) Force acting on body is  kx  bv  F0 sin t
dt2

F
(ii) Equation of motion is x  A sin [wt  ] Where A 
2
 b 
m (
2
 20 )2  
m

. Supe positio of T o SHM s

(i) In same direction

x1  A1 sin t and x2  A2 sin (t  )

Resultant amplitude is Ar  A12  A22  2A1A2 cos 

(ii) In perpendicular direction

x1  A1 sin t and y1  A2 sin(t  )

(a) Resultant motion is SHM along straight line, if   0 or   


(b) Resultant motion is circular, if   and A1  A2
2


(c) Resultant motion is an (light) elliptical path, if   and A1  A2
2

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 Physics Short Notes

14. WAVES

(1). Equation of a plane progressive harmonic wave travelling along positive direction of X-axis is

y(x, t)  a sin (kx  t  )

And along negative direction of X-axis is y(x, t)  a sin(kx  t  )

Where, y(x,t)  Displacement as a function of position x and time t,

a  Amplitude of the wave,   Angular frequency of the wave,

k  Angular wave number, (kx  t  )  Phase,

And   Phase constant or initial phase angle

2
(2). Angular wave number or propagation constant (k) k


 
(3). Speed of a progressive wave v   f
k T

(4) Speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string

T
v where, T  Tension in the string, and   Mass per unit length


(5). Speed of sound wave in a fluid

B
v where, B  Bulk modulus, and   density of medium


(6). Speed of sound wave in metallic bar

Y
v he e, Y = ou g s odulus of elasti it of etalli a


. Speed of sou d i ai o gases Ne to s fo mula (connected)]

v
v where, P  Pressure,   Density of air (or gas) and   Atomicity of air (or gas)


20
 Physics Short Notes

v2 1
(8). The effect of density on velocity of sound 
v1 2

v1 T 273  t
(9). The effect of temperature on velocity of sound  
v0 T0 273

(10). If two waves having the same amplitude and frequency, but differing by a constant phase  , travel
in the same direction, the wave resulting from their superposition is given by

   
y(x,t)  2a cos  sin  kx  t  
 2  2

(11). If we have a wave

y1 (x,t)  a sin(kx  t) then,

(i) Equation of wave reflected at a rigid boundary

yr (x,t)  a sin(kx  t  ) Or yr (x, t)  a sin (kx  t)

i.e. the reflected wave is 180o out of phase.

(ii) Equation of wave reflected at an open boundary yr (x, t)  a sin(kx  t)

i.e. the reflected wave is a phase with the incident wave.

(12). Equation of a standing wave on a string with fixed ends y(x,t)  [2a sin kx]cos t

nv
Frequency of normal modes of oscillation f n  1,2,3.....
2L

(13). Standing waves in a closed organ pipe (closed at one end) of length L.

 1 v
Frequency of normal modes of oscillation. f  n   n  1,2....
 2  2L

 fn  (2n  1)f1

Where fn is the frequency of nth normal mode of oscillation. Only odd harmonics are present in a closed
pipe.

(14). Standing waves in an open organ pipe (open at both ends)

nv
Frequency of normal modes of oscillation f n  1,2,3....
2L

 fn  nf1

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 Physics Short Notes

Where fn is frequency of nth normal mode of oscillation.

(15). Beat frequency (m)

m  Difference in frequencies of two sources

m  (v1  v2 ) or (v2  v1 )

 v  v0 
. Dopple s effe t f  f0  
 v  v s 

Where, f  Observed frequency, f0  Source frequency,

v  Speed of sound through the medium, v 0  Velocity of observer relative to the medium

and vs  Source velocity relative to the medium

 In using this formula, velocities in the directions (i.e. from observer to the source) should be treated
as positive and those opposite to it should be taken as negative.

15. ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

q1q2
(1). Electric force between two charges is given by F 
40R2

q2
And F  q1E where E  is the electric field due to charge q2
4 0R 2

q1 q2  1 1 
(2) Electric potential energy for system of two charges is U  W    
4 0  r1 r2 

q1 q2
For r2   , U
4 0r1

22
 Physics Short Notes

U
(3) Electrostatic potential is V 
q

(4). Electric field on the axis of a dipole of moment p  2aQ at a distance R from the centre is
2Rp 2p
E . If R > > a then E 
4 0 (R 2  a2 )2 4 0R 3

(5). Electric field on the equatorial line of the dipole at a distance R from the centre is

p p
E . If R > > a then E 
3
4 0R 2
4 0 (R  a )
2 2 2

(6). Torque  experienced by a short dipole kept in uniform external electric field E is
  p  E  pE sin 0 nˆ

(7). Perpendicular deflection of a charge q in a uniform electric field E after travelling a straight distance
qEx 2
x is y , where m is mass of the charge and v0 is initial speed of perpendicular entry in the electric
2mv 20
field.

(8). Electric flux E  E  S  ES cos  . Area vector S is perpendicular to the surface area.

Q
(9). Gauss law :  E  dS   . Here E is the electric field due to all the charges inside as well as outside
0
the Gaussian surface, while Q is the net charge enclosed inside Gaussian surface.

(10). Electric field due to infinitely long charged wire of linear charge density  at a perpendicular

distance R is E 
20R


(11). Electric field due to singal layer of surface charge density  is . Field due to oppositely
20

charged conducting plates is in between the gap but zero outside.
0

Q
(12). Field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell of radius R is E  for outside points
4 0r 2
and zero inside (r is distance from the centre of shell)

23
 Physics Short Notes

d Q  r
(13). Field due to a charge uniformly distributed in a spherical volume is E   r2  
dr  4  R 3  30
 0 
Q
for inside points and E  for outside point.
4 0r 2

3Q
Here   is volume charge density and Q is total charge inside the sphere.
4 R3

16. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

(1). Electric potential :

(a) Potential due to a conducting sphere of radius r with charge q (solid or hollow) at a distance r from
the centre

 1 q  1 q
V  if (r > R) or V  if (r = R)
 4   4 
 0 r  0 R

1 q
or V if (r < R)
4 0 R

v | v |
(b) Relation between electric field potential | E |  
 

(2). Electric dipole potential:

1  p cos  
(a) V   
4 0  r 2 

(b) Potential energy of a dipole in an external electric field

U()  P  E

24
 Physics Short Notes

(3). Capacitors :

A
Capacitance of a potential plate capacitor C  0
d

1 Q2 1 2
(4). Electric field energy : (a) U  QV   CV
2 2C 2

1
(b) Energy density of energy stored in electric field u  0E2
2
(5) Combination of capacitors :

1 1 1 1
(a) When capacitors are combined in series,     .....
Ceq C1 C2 C3

(b) When capacitors are connected in parallel. Ceq  C1  C2  C3  ......

(c) Capacitance of spherical capacitor,

ab
C  4 0 . (When outer shell is earthed). or
ba

b2
C  40 . (When inner shell is earthed) or
ba

C  40R (For a sphere of radius R)

20
(d) Cylindrical capacitor, C 
b
ln  
a
(6). Dielectrics :

 1 Dipole moment
(a) Induced charge, q'  q  1   (b) Polarization p 
 k Volume

Electric dipole moment is p  eE

e
 K 1 where e is electrical susceptibility, and K is dielectric constant.
0

25
 Physics Short Notes

26
 Physics Short Notes

17. CURRENT ELECTRICITY

(1). Resistance of a uniform conductor of length L, area of cross-section A and resistivity  along its

length, R  
A

di 1
(2). Current density j  (3). Conductance G  .
ds R

eE i
i4) Drift velocity v d  t.  (5). Current i  neAv d
m neA

m 1
(6) Resistivity is    where  is resistivity.
ne2 t 

vd
(7) A o di g to Oh s la j  E and V  iR (8) Mobility of free electrons  
E

(9)   ne (10). Thermal resistivity of material is T  0 [1  (T  T0 )]

R
(11). Potential difference across a cell during discharging V    ir 
R r
(12). Potential difference across a cell during charging V    ir

n
(13) For n cells in series across load R, current through load i
R  nt

n
(14). For n identical cells in parallel across load R, current through load i 
nR  r
(15). Wheatstone bridge network

R1 R3
For balanced Wheatstone bridge 
R2 R4

(16). If unknown resistance X is in the left gap, known resistance R is in the right gap of meter bridge and
R
balancing length from left end is l then X 
100 
(17) Potentiometer

27
 Physics Short Notes

1  
(i) Comparison of emf  1
(ii) Internal resistance of cell r   1
 1  R
2 
2  2 

18. MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETIC FIELD

S.No. Situation Formula

1.
Lorentz force q[E  v  B]
2.
Condition for a charged particle to go undeflected in a cross E
electric and magnetic field 
B
3.
A charge particle thrown perpendicular to uniform magnetic (i) Circular
field
mv
(i) Path (ii) r 
qB
(ii) Radius
2m
(iii) Time period (iii) t 
qB
4.
A charge particle thrown at some angle to a uniform magnetic (i) Helix
field
mv sin 
(i) Path (ii) r 
qB
(ii) Radius
2m
(iii) Time period (iii) t 
qB
(iv) Pitch
(iv) T  v cos 

5.
Cyclotron frequency qB
f
2m
6.
Maximum kinetic energy of a charged particle in a cyclotron q2B2R 2
(With R as radius of dee) K
2m

28
 Physics Short Notes

7.
Force on a straight current carrying conductor in a uniform F  i( l  B)
magnetic field

8.
Force on a arbitrary shaped current carrying conductor in a F  i d  B  i  B
uniform magnetic field
9.
Magnetic moment of a current carrying loop Mi A
10.
Torque on a current carrying loop placed in a uniform magnetic   M B
field
11.
Biot-Savart Law 0i d  r
dB 
4 r3
12.
Magnetic field at a point distance x from the centre of a current 0iR 2
carrying circular loop
2(R 2  x 2 )3/2
13.
Magnetic field at the centre of a current carrying circular loop  0i
2R
14.
Magnetic field on the axis of a current carrying circular loop far 0 2M
away from the centre of the loop
4  x3
(Moment behaves as magnetic dipole)

15.
Magnetic field on the centre of current carrying circular arc 0 i

4 t
16.
A pe e s i ula la
 Bd  0i

17.
Magnetic field due to a long thin current carrying wire 0i
B
2r
18.
Magnetic field inside a long straight current carrying cylindrical 0 i
conductor at a distance r from the axis. B  r
2 R 2
19.
Magnetic field outside a long straight current carrying conductor 0 2i
at a distance r from the axis B 
4 r
20.
Magnetic field inside a long solenoid B  0ni

29
 Physics Short Notes

21.
Magnetic field inside a toroid 0Ni
B
2r
22.
Force per unit length between two current carrying wire 0i1i2
F
2r
23.
Current sensitivity of moving coil galvanometer  NBA

i k
24.
Voltage sensitivity of moving galvanometer  NBA

V kR
25.
Shunt resistance required to convert galvanometer into G
ammeter of range i ( ig is the full scale deflected current of rg 
 i 
galvanometer)   1
 ig 
 
26.
Resistance required to convert galvanometer into voltmeter of V
range V R G
ig

19. MAGNETISM AND MATTER

(1). Bar magnet : The electrostatic Analog

Electrostatics Magnetism

1 Permittivity = 0
Permittivity =
0

Charge q Magnetic pole strength (qn)

Dipole Moment Magnetic Dipole Moment

p  ql M  qml

30
 Physics Short Notes

q1q2 0 qm(1)qm(2)
F F
4 0r 2
4 t2

F  qE F  qmB

2p 0 2M
Axial Field E  B
4 0r 2 4  r3

p 0 M
Equatorial Field E  B
4 0r 2 4 r2

Torque   p  E   M B

Potential Energy U  p  E U  M  B

Work W  pE(cos 1  cos 2 ) W  MB(cos 1  cos 2 )

0 qm
(2). Field due to a magnetic monopole B   rˆ
4 r2
(3). B on the axial line or end on position of a bar magnet

0 2Mr  0 2M 
B  for r  l, B   
4  (r 2  l2 )2  4 r2 

(4). B on the equatorial line or broad side on position of a bar magnet

0 M  0 M 
B  for r  l, B   
4  (r  l2 )3/2
2
 4 r3 


(5). Time period angular SHM T  2 here  is moment of inertia.
MB

. Gauss s la i ag etis  B  ds  0
Bv
(7). Fo ho izo tal a d e ti al o po e t of ea th s ag eti field,  tan 
BH

31
 Physics Short Notes

tan 
(8). tan 1 
'
(9). cot2   cot2 1  cot2 2
cos 

B B 
(10). Magnetic intensity is H   (11). Relative magnetic permittivity is r 
0  0

M 1
(12). Magnetic Susceptibility m  (13). r  1  m (14).  
H (T  Tc )

20. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

    
(1). Average induced emf e    2 1 
t  t2  t1 

d(t)
(2). Instantaneous induced emf e(t)  
dt

(3). Motional emf  B v   

(4). Motional emf e  de  (v  B)dl  (v  B) j

d

(5). E  dl  
dt B
[ E  electric (induced) field, B  Magnetic flux]

(6). B  Li  L  self inductance of the coil

di
(7). Induced emf e  L (8). L  0rn2  A  i Where L coefficient of self-inductance
dt

di1
(9). 2  Mi1 and 2  M Where M is co efficient of mutual inductance
dt

(10). The emf induced (in dynamo) e(t)  BA sin t  

(11). Mutual inductance M  01n1n2Ai

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 Physics Short Notes

21. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

dE d  E  ds CdV
(1). Displacement current lD  0  0 
dt dt dt
. Ma ell s E uatio :

q
(a)  E  ds   (b)  B  ds  0
0

d d  dE 
(c)  E  dl   dt B  dt  B  ds (d)  B  dl  0  lc  0 dt 


(3). Ey  E0 sin(t  kx) and B2  B0 sin (t  kx)

1 1
c vacuum  ; cmedium 
0 0 r0r 0

E ERMS E
(4).   c
B0 BRMS B

(5). Average of wave lav = Average energy density  (speed of light)

E0B0 E2 cB2
Of lav  Uav    0  0
20 2c0 20

1  2 B2  B2
(6). Instantaneous energy density uav   0E    0E 
2
2 0  0

1 B02 0E02 B02

Average energy density uav  0E0 
2
 
4 40 2 20

(7). Energy = (momentum), c or U  Pc

I0
(8). Radiation pressure R.P.  where I0 is intensity of source (when the wave is totally absorbed)
c

2I0
And R.P.  (when the wave is totally reflected)
c
33
 Physics Short Notes

1 1
(9). I  (for a point source) and I (for a line source)
t2 r
For a plane source intensity is independent of r.

22. RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

(1). The distance between the pole and centre of curvature of the mirror called radius of curvature
R
f
2

1 1 1
(2). Mirror equation   (u is Object distance, v is Image distance and f Focal length)
v u f

size of image image distance v

(3). Linear magnification m   
size of object Object distance u

2 1 2  1
(4). In case of lens  
v u R

(R= Radius of curvature , 1 and 2 are refractive indices of medium)

1 1 1
(5). Relationship between u, v and focal length f is   in case lens.
v u f
(6). Longitudinal magnification = (Lateral magnification)2

(7) Equivalent lens

1 1 1 1 1 1 d
(i) Lens in contact   (ii) Lens at a distance d,   
F f1 f2 F f1 f2 f1f2

(8). Reciprocal of focal length is called as power of lens.

1 100
P 
f(in metres) f(in cm)

34
 Physics Short Notes

1 2
(9). For achromatic combination of two lens  0
f1 f2

 A  m 
sin  
(10). Refractive index of material of prism    2  (m ) Minimum deviation angle
A
sin  
2
(11). For small-angled prism d  (  1)A

(where A= Angle of prism and B= Deviation angle)

(12). Dispersive power of prism for two colors (blue and red)

   R    v  R 
 v  
 d    1 
(13). For simple microscope,

D
(a) Magnification m  1  (Where D= Least distance of distinct vision. and f= Focal length)
f

D
(b) M  for image to form at infinity
f
(14). For compound microscope.

vO  ve 
Magnification of objective MO  and Magnification of eye piece Me   1  
uO  fe 


vo  D 
(a) m  mome  1   for least distance of distinct vision.
ue  fe 

L D
(b) m   for image to form at infinite.
fo fe

fo
(15). Magnifying power of telescope m  and length of telescope  L  fe  fo
fe

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 Physics Short Notes

23. WAVE OPTICS

sin i 2 v1 1
(1).    S ell s la
sin t 1 v 2 2

max ( 1   2 )2
(2). Ratio of maximum to minimum intensity 
min ( 1  2 )2

D
(3). (a) Fringe width   (b) Condition of maxima   2n where n  0, 1, 2..
d
(c) Condition of minima   (2n  1) where n  0, 1, 2..


(d) Intensity of any point of screen I  40 cos
2
2

2
Where   x is phase difference and x is path difference


v v 
. Dopple s effe t fo light   radial  
v c 

2 sin 
(5). Resolving power of microscope 
1.22 

1.22 f
(6). Radius of central bright spot in diffraction pattern r0 
2a

a2
(7). Fresnel distance Z f  (8) Malus law   0 cos2 


9 B e ste s la tan iB  

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 Physics Short Notes

24. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

1
. Ei stei s photoele t i ell e uatio , mv 2  hf  hf0
2 max

Where f,f0 are frequencies of incident radiation.

hc
(2). Work function and threshold frequency or threshold wavelength, 0  hf0 
0

hc E h
(3). Energy of photon, E  hf  (4). Momentum of photon, P  
 c 

h
(5). De Broglie wavelength of a material particle,  
mv
(6). De Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated through a potential V volt,
o
12.27 1.227
 A nm
V V

h
(7). de Broglie wavelength of a particle in terms of temperature (T),  
3mkT

h
(8). de Broglie wavelength in terms of energy of a particle (E),  
2mE

37
 Physics Short Notes

25. ATOMS
Rutherford’s Model

e2
Distance of closest approach r0  where E is the energy of  -particle at a large distance.
4 0E

Bohr’s Model of hydroge ato

0h2n2
Postulates: (i) Radius of nth orbit, rn 
me2

nh  me 4  1 13.6
(ii) Orbital speed, Vn  (iii) Energy of nth orbit, En      2 eV
2mrn  82h2  n2 n
 0 

(iv) TE   KE (v) PE  2TE

1 1 1 me 4
‘ d e g s o sta t R 2  2 and R
  n1 n2  820h3c

26. NUCLEI

(1). Nuclear radius (R) is given by R  R0A1/3 Here R0  1.2  1015m .

(2). Density of all nuclei is constant.

(3). Total binding energy  [Z mp  (A  Z)mn  M]c J

2

(4). Av. BE/nucleon = Total B.E/A

dN
(5). Radioactivity decay law  N  N  N0et
dt

0.6931 1
(6). Half life T1/2  (7). Average or mean life is Tav   1.44 T1/2 .
 

38
 Physics Short Notes

27. SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

 Intrinsic semiconductors : ne  nh  ni

Extrinsic semiconductors: nenh  ni2

 Transistors : e  b  c  E  b  c
 Common emitter amplifier :
c    c
(i)   ; ac   c  . (ii) Trans-conductance gm 
b  
 b  vdE Vi
Rout
(iii) AC voltage gain  ac  (iv) Power gain = voltage gain  Current gain
Rin
 Logic Gates
For input X and Y , output Z be given by Z XY
OR gate Z  XY AND gate ZX
NOR gate Z  (X  Y) NAND gate Z  (XY)
NOT gate Z  X or Z  Y
when either X or Y is present.

28. COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

(1). The maximum line of sight distance dM between the two antennas having height hT and hR , above

the earth, is given by dM  2RhT  2RhR

Am
(2). Modulation index   where Am and Ac are the amplitudes of modulating signal and carrier
Ae
wave.

 2 
(3). In amplitude modulation P1  P2 1  
 2 

(4). Maximum frequency can be reflected from ionosphere fmax  9(Nmax )1/2

1
(5). Maximum modulated frequency can be detected by diode detector fm 
2R

39