THERMODYNAMICS-I : Conservation of Mass and Energy chapter II - 1 of 16

C O N S E R V A T I O N     O F
M A S S     A N D     E N E R G Y

Substance are composed of molecules, the total mass is the sum of the individual masses of all the molecules. Mass does not
change with position, nor is it affected by pressure, temperature or motion (unless the velocity approaches the speed of light – Einstein’s
theory of relativity). If a solid is heated until it burns, the mass appears to change, as the pile of ash left is much less than the original
substance. What is happening here is that much of solid matter is converted to gas, but the total mass does not change.

Conservation of Mass

The law of conservation of mass states that “mass

cannot be created nor destroyed.” The total mass is a But the mass in region III at time t and the mass in region I at
constant. As with all laws, this is a deduction of time t +Δt is zero.
experimental evidence; it can be demonstrated, but not mIIIt+∆t − mIt + mIIt +∆t − mIIt + m It +∆t −mIt = 0
proved, to be true.
dividing the whole equation by Δt and taking the limit as Δt
approaches zero,
mIIIt +∆t − mIt m − mIIt m −m
lim + lim IIt + ∆t + lim It + ∆t It = 0
∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t
dmIII dmII dmI
+ − =0
dt dt dt

The negative sign is due to the fact that m It + ∆t − mIt is

decreasing, or negative term physically. As Δt approaches
zero, the change in mass of region I and III represent the
mass entering and leaving the control volume, respectively.
For a steady, one dimensional flow, where the fluid
• dm • dmCV • •
mout + CV − min = 0 ⇒ = min − mout
enters at state i and leaves at state o, dt dt
 • •

mCV = ∫  m in − m out  dt

At some time t a given mass will occupy the control CV

volume. This will be a mass of fixed identity. After a time Δt,

some of the mass in the control volume has moved across It is also possible express the conservation of mass, in
the control surface. This is represented as the system terms of area, velocity and density, all measurable quantity.
boundary at time t+Δt, The control surface boundary and dm CV d  
the system boundary are coincident at time t.
m CV = ∫ ρ dV
CV
⇒
dt
=  ∫ ρ dV 
dt CV 
•

The regions of space that the mass occupied at time t m = ∫ ρ ν n dA

and t + Δt may be visualized as three regions, I, II, II.
Since the system mass is constant with time, we may write The mass on the control volume may now be written as
mIt + mIIt = mIIt + ∆t + mIIIt + ∆t d
mIIt+∆t − mIIt + mIIIt+∆t − mIt = 0
∫ ρ dV = ∫A ρ ν n dAin −∫A ρ ν n dAout
dt CV
(UNSTEADY FLOW SYSTEM)

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THERMODYNAMICS-I : Conservation of Mass and Energy chapter II - 2 of 16

For a steady flow, the change in mass within the forms of energy: “one form of energy may be converted into
control volume is zero; thus the mass flow rates in and out another.”
are identical:

∫ ρν
A
n dAin = ∫ ρ ν n dAout
A
From Physics, the mechanical energy is expressed as,
dE = F dx
(STEADY FLOW SYSTEM)

Classification, Forms and Types of Energy

For a steady, one dimensional flow, where the fluid CLASSIFICATION FORM TYPE
enters at state i and leaves at state o, Potential
Stored
Aiν i Aoν o energy
Mechanical Energy
= or Aiν i ρ i = Aoν o ρ o Kinetic energy Stored
vi vo Work Flow / Transition
(STEADY AND ONE DIMENSIONAL FLOW SYSTEM) Sensible heat Flow / Transition
Heat
Latent heat Flow / Transition
From fluid mechanics the three dimensional, unsteady- Chemical energy Molecular bond Stored
Molecular
flow continuity equation of a fluid is: Internal energy Stored
motion
∂ ∂ ∂  ∂ρ
−  ( ρu ) + ( ρv ) + ( ρw )  = Electrical Current flow Flow / Transition
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂t Nuclear Energy Atomic bond Stored

Relativistic mass:
STORED ENERGY
m
mrel = Stored energy is a property, whereas transferred energy is
1− v ( c) 2
not. This means that whenever heat flows or work is done, the
amount transferred depends on the method or process of
where c is the speed of light, 299,792,458 m/s
transfer as well as the end state. On the other hand, stored
energy has a value that is independent of the process.
Conservation of Energy
1. POTENTIAL ENERGY (PE)
Gravitational potential energy is the energy possessed by
Energy may be defined as the capacity to do work or
a mass due to the force of attraction of earth when the mass is
to cause heat to flow. In system term, energy may be
located at some height above any arbitrary datum. PE = f (z)
defined as that property of a system that changes by an
amount equal to the work or heat transferred across the mg o z
PE =
system boundary. The total amount of energy that a system gc
contains cannot be determined. We are accustomed mg o mg o
d ( PE ) =
2

therefore to measuring energy above some arbitrary datum. gc

dz ⇒ ∆PE =
gc ∫
1
dz
Energy is a scalar quantity with no direction relative to the
mg o
frame of reference. It can exist in different form, in principle, ∆PE = ( z 2 − z1 )
gc
all form of energy are mutually convertible. There is a
transfer or flow of energy when a change in form takes
Potential energy is often relatively small magnitude compared
place.
with other energy forms, and can be neglected. However, it is a form of
energy that stores very well and does not degrade with time.
First Law of Thermodynamics
2. KINETIC ENERGY (KE)
The law of conservation of energy states that “energy
Kinetic energy is energy due to motion or velocity of the
can neither be created nor destroyed.” It is a law based
object (mass). KE = f (ν)
on physical observation and is not subject to mathematical
mν 2
proof. Historically, the first law of thermodynamics stated KE =
2gc
that work and heat are mutually convertible, but the
tendency now is to broaden the statement to include all

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THERMODYNAMICS-I : Conservation of Mass and Energy chapter II - 3 of 16

ma m  dν  m the energy it takes to convert water to steam by overcoming the

d ( KE ) = dz =  dz = (ν ) dν
gc g c  dt  gc attractive force of the liquid molecules.
m 2
∆KE =
gc ∫ ν dν
1

∆KE =
m
2gc
(
ν 22 − ν 12 )

Like potential energy, kinetic energy may not be of great

significance in thermodynamics unless there is a large mass-
flow rate or velocity change in the system (such as in jet
engines and rockets) and it can often be neglected. Unlike
potential energy, however kinetic energy does not store very
well since the frictional losses that usually occur with motion
degrade it.
Modes of storing internal energy in a
3. INTERNAL ENERGY (U) diatomic molecule
The sum of the internal kinetic energy and internal
potential energy is called the internal energy, which is  ∂u 
CV =  
energy stored within a body or substance by virtue of the  ∂T  V
activity and configuration of its molecules and of the
vibration of the atoms within the molecules.
The specific heat at constant volume (CV) is equal to the
Internal Kinetic Energy (for diatomic molecules)
partial derivative of the specific internal energy with respect to
the absolute temperature at constant volume process. In
(a) Translational kinetic energy – this is associated with the
general, the internal energy of the fluid is expressed as,
translational motion of the molecules.
(b) Vibration energy – the back-and-forth movement of the   ∂P  
du = CV dT + T   − P  dV
atom in the molecules, toward and away from one another   ∂T V 
(c) Rotational energy – a pair of atoms are visualized as
rotating around their center of mass, and this is the “first” For ideal gas (with equation of state : PV = mRT)
kind of rotational energy. The atom may rotate around their
center of mass, and this is the “second” kind of rotational du = CV dT
energy. As the number of atom in the molecules increases,
du = ∆u = ∫ CV dT = CV ( T2 − T1 )
2 T2
the complexity of the rotational energy increases. ∫ 1 T1

The molecular kinetic energy of monatomic molecules is

almost wholly due to the translational motion of the molecules;
first, because the vibration of atoms within the molecules
relative to one another is impossible since there is only one
atom, and second, because the kinetic energy of rotation is
negligible since the mass of the molecule (atom) is
concentrated so close to the axis of spin (that is, the moment of
inertia of the molecules with respect to the axis of rotation is
negligible).
Internal Potential Energy
This is the internal energy due to the relative position
of its molecules and the attraction of these molecules for
one another. This force is quite large, as can be realized by
∆u = CV ( T2 − T1 )
∆U = mCV ( T2 − T1 )
States of Matter
Matter may exist in any one of the three states, namely as
solid, liquid or gas. These states are known as phase and a
change in state is known as phase change. Liquids and gases
are known as fluids. The states of matter in terms of the
molecular model are:

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THERMODYNAMICS-I : Conservation of Mass and Energy chapter II - 4 of 16

SOLIDS LIQUIDS GASES

Solids have rigidity because the
molecules are close together and
interlocked so that they remain in the
same relative position to one another.
In a solid, the molecules can rotate
and vibrate but there is no translation,
so the molecules still remain the same
spatial orientation relative to one
another.
Liquids are intermediate between solids and gases, the
molecules are free to move and are closer together than in a
gas yet they are not tightly packed as in a solid. The molecules
are said to be cohesive (stick together) but are still capable of
motion relative to each other. This enables liquids to flow
because when liquid flows, the molecules slide over each
other. In a liquid translation occurs, and the molecules may
move relative to one another but they do not move away from
each other, that is, they remain cohesive.
In gases the molecules are far apart
and the forces between them are
negligible so that the molecules move
independently of one another (except in a
collision). The gases acquire all the
different modes of molecular movement
and storing internal energy, the reason for
the gases to have the highest internal
energy and solids the least.

Phase Change where: CE - is the chemical energy liberated or

As energy (in the form of heat) is given to the
system, the molecules of a solid become more energetic
and are eventually able to break the bonds that bind them
firmly together. When this occurs, the solid starts to
become liquid. Further energy input enables the
molecules to break completely free of each other and form
a gas.
needed, usually heat
EC - energy content such as heating value of
fuel
M - mass of the system
Energy is released if the reaction is exothermic, or
absorbed if the reaction is endothermic. For example
under normal condition, water is stable. However, if energy
is added, say by electrolysis, the water molecules
dissociate into hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen and
oxygen are themselves stable but may readily be
recombined by combustion into water again. During
combustion process, the same energy is released as was
originally required to separate the molecules.

2 H 2 O + energy → 2 H 2 + O2
( ELECTROLYSIS )

The path may be reversed if energy is transferred 2 H 2 + O2 → 2 H 2O + energy

out of the substance so that the internal energy of the ( COMBUSTION )
molecules decreases.
In general, chemical energy is expressed in term of
4. CHEMICAL ENERGY Gibb’s function
A chemical reaction occurs when the molecules of a g = h − TO s
substance dissociate or combine with other molecules to
form new substances. The regrouping of the atoms The Gibb’s function of all elements is zero at
involves energy known as chemical energy. reference conditions (25°C and 1 atm)
GProduct − GReactant =
CE = mEC ( H Product − H Reactant ) − TO ( SProduct − SReactant )

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THERMODYNAMICS-I : Conservation of Mass and Energy chapter II - 5 of 16

The maximum work that can be obtain is, and angular displacement is used rather than linear
Wmax = GProduct − GReactant distance. That is
θ2

5. NUCLEAR ENERGY
W = ∫θ 1
T dθ

Nuclear energy (sometimes called atomic energy)

results from a change in the nucleus of the atom caused
by nuclear reaction. Nuclear reactions may be exothermic
or endothermic. Exothermic reactions, which liberate
energy, may be of two types:

Fission is where the nucleus breaks down into a

number of smaller nuclei.
Fusion is where small nuclei combine to form a
large nucleus.

In all nuclear reactions, the combined law of

conservation of matter/energy applies, so that

[ matter + energy] BEFORE = [ matter + energy ] AFTER

“The work done on a non-flow system is the area under the
PV (Pressure - volume) curve.”
where the equivalence between matter and energy is
expressed by the Einstein equation:
(a) Compressed fluid (work of non-flow system)
L2
E = m c2 WNF = ∫ L1
F dL
but AdL = dV
Because the speed of light is so large a huge amount of V2

energy is released by the conversion of all small amount of mass

WNF = ∫
V1
PdV
into energy. For example, the fusion reaction of hydrogen in the (b) Surface Film
sun liberates about four million times the energy that would be A2
W = − ∫ σ dA
obtained from combustion of the same amount of hydrogen! A1

(c) Stretched Wire

FLOW / TRANSITION ENERGY L2
W = − ∫ F dL
L1

These are energies in motion and are not dependent (d) Electrical
2
upon the flow of the mass. W = ∫ V dc
1

(e) Shaft
1. WORK (W) θ2 θ2
The work of a force may be defined as the W = ∫θ
1
T dθ = ∫θ
1
Fr dθ
displacement ds of a body (considered as a particle)
multiplied by the component of the force in the direction of 2. FLOW WORK (Wf)
the displacement. Like kinetic energy, work may be linear This is the work by the fluid to overcome the normal
or rotational. Linear work is the product of a constant force stress, that is, pressure, at the boundary. The energy
along its line of action. Mathematically: transmitted across the system boundary as a result of a
pumping process occurring outside the system, causing the
S2
W = ∫
S1
F ds fluid to enter the system. Thus there is a flow-work term
entering and leaving the system boundary.
w flow = P v
The equation for rotational work is equivalent to equation
for linear work except that torque is used instead of force

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THERMODYNAMICS-I : Conservation of Mass and Energy chapter II - 6 of 16

δ W flow = P A dx and Adx = vdm system is always from the higher to the lower
temperature”. This is one of the statements of the second
δ W flow = P v dm law of thermodynamics.
• • •
W flow = mPv = PV (a) Sensible Heat - if the heat flow does cause
change in temperature without a change in phase.
The net flow work is the difference between the flow Q = m C ∆T ⇒ Q = m ∫ C dT
work entering and leaving the system
q = C ∆T ⇒ δ q = C δT
• • •
 •
∆W flow = P2 V2 − P1 V1 = ∆ P V 
  where : C - is the specific heat, ( kJ / kg-K )

3. HEAT (Q) (b) Latent Heat - no temperature change involved

Heat is a form of energy that occurs only as a flow during a phase change so the equation for latent heat does
(or transfer) of energy as a result of temperature not include temperature term.
difference. This transfer of energy occurs by conduction,
by convection and by radiation. “The direction of heat Q = mL
flow in a substance or across a single boundary of a

Conversion of water from ice to steam at 1 atm

British Thermal Units (1Btu) – is the amount of heat In general, if the process is reversible, heat is the area
needed by a 1 lbm of water to raise its temperature 1F° under the TS (Temperature – entropy ) curve.
(1R°) at 14.7 psia.

Btu Btu
C Pwater = 1 =1
lb − F ° lb − R°
Kilocalorie (1 kcal) – is the amount of heat needed by
1kgm of water to raise its temperature 1 C° (1 K°) at 1 atm.

kCal kCal
C Pwater = 1 =1
kg − C ° kg − K °

Properties of H2O at atmospheric condition (1 atm)

kJ Btu kCal
LFwater = 335 = 144 = 80
kg lb kg
kJ BTU kCal δ Q = T dS = m T ds
LVwater = 2257 = 970.3 = 540
kg lb kg δ q = T ds
C Psteam = 0.45 C Pwater
C Pice = 0.5 C Pwater Sign Convention for Heat and Work

+Q : heat is added to the system (endothermic)

-Q : heat is rejected by the system (exothermic)

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THERMODYNAMICS-I : Conservation of Mass and Energy chapter II - 7 of 16

+W : work is done by the system (work exits the system) σ -Stefan-Boltzman constant (5.669x10-8 W/m2-K)
-W : work is done to the system (work enters the system)
Modes of Heat Transfer Combined Energy Equation or Enthalpy (H)

1. Conduction is the heat transfer within a medium. In The sum of two energy properties u and Pv is called
solids, particularly metals, conduction is due to (a) the drift enthalpy. Note that u and Pv should have compatible units. At
of free electrons and (b) phonon vibration. At low times there may be a temptation to associate enthalpy with
temperature, phonon vibration, the vibration of crystalline heat or work, but enthalpy is a property having no function
structure, is the primary mechanism for conduction, and at physically other than being the sum of U and PV. The enthalpy
higher temperatures electron drift is the primary mechanism. for ideal gas equation of state is,
Regardless of the mechanism, energy is transferred from ∆h = ∆u + ∆( Pv )
one atom or molecule to another, resulting in a flow of ∆H = ∆ U + ∆( PV )
energy within the medium.
 ∂h 
CP =  
Conduction heat transfer follows Fourier’s Law, which  ∂T  P
states that “the conductive heat flow, is a product of the   ∂v  
thermal conductivity of the material, k, the area normal to dh = C P dT + v − T    dP
  ∂T  P 
the heat flow, , and the temperature gradient, dT/dx,
across the area. ”
For ideal gas (with equation of state : PV = mRT)
• dT
Q = −k A du = CV dT
dx
du = ∆u = ∫ CV dT = CV ( T2 − T1 )
2 T2
∫
1 T1
2. Convection is the heat transfer between a solid surface
and a moving fluid. At the solid-fluid interface heat is ∆u = CV ( T2 − T1 )
transferred by conduction, energy transfer resulting from ∆U = mCV ( T2 − T1 )
molecular collisions between the solid and fluid molecules.
These collision cause a temperature change in the fluid, a
density variation is produced, and bulk fluid motion occur.
COROLARIES OF THE FIRST LAW OF 
THERMODYNAMICS
The empirical expression that describes this motion is
Newton’s Law of Cooling
•
First Corollary of the First Law.
Q = h A ( TS − T∞ ) The first corollary of the first law of thermodynamics is the
application of the conservation of energy to a closed system.
Final Energy – Initial Energy = Energy added to the system
where : h is the coefficient for convective heat transfer
TS solid surface temperature
Too fluid temperature far from the surface E2 − E1 = Q + (−W )

3. Radiation is the flow of thermal energy, via
electromagnetic waves, between two bodies separated by a
distance. Electromagnetic waves, which are a function of
body-surface temperature, transfer heat and thus constitute
thermal radiation. The expression for radioactive heat
transfer from a surface is given by the expression
where heat has been added (+Q) and work has been done to
the system (-W)
( PE2 + KE2 + U 2 ) − ( PE1 + KE1 + U1 ) = Q + (−W )
the work described in this system is the work non-flow
Q = ∆PE + ∆KE + ∆U + WNF

( )
•
Q = ε σA T14 − T24 since additional mass is not allowed to enter and leave the
system ΔPE = ΔKE = 0,
where: ε -surface emissivity ( 0 for black body, 1 for white Q = ∆U + WNF
body and between 0 – 1 for gray body ) δQ = dU + δWNF

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THERMODYNAMICS-I : Conservation of Mass and Energy chapter II - 8 of 16

(NFEE)

Second Corollary of the First Law.

The second corollary of the first law of thermodynamics

is the application of the conservation of energy to the open
system.

The figure shows that steady flow work

can be found at the area behind the PV curve.

ENTROPY (S) 

It is possible to consider entropy from a probabilistic

viewpoint, which leads to viewing it as a measure of disorder or
chaos. Entropy increases for any spontaneous process, since
it goes from a state of lower probability to one of higher
E2 − E1 = Q + (−W ) probability.
( PE 2 + KE2 + U 2 + W f 2 ) − ( PE1 + KE1 + U1 + W f 1 ) = Q + (−W )
Entropy is a difficult concept to understand, mainly
the work described in this system is the work steady flow because the human body cannot sense it. Basically, entropy is
( PE2 + KE 2 + H 2 ) − ( PE1 + KE1 + H 1 ) = Q − WSF the quantity of heat divided by absolute temperature; hence the
higher the temperature at which heat occurs, the lower the
Q = ∆ PE + ∆ KE + ∆ H + WSF
entropy. What really occurs when heat energy is “used” is that
(SFEE)
the entropy increases and heat energy becomes less useful
if ΔPE = ΔKE is negligible (the lower the entropy, the more useful the energy).

Q = ∆ H + WSF
Entropy can also be expressed as a function
δ Q = dH + δ WSF s = f (T,P) and s = f (T,v)

Combining the NFEE and SFEE, The general equation for the change of entropy is
δ Q = δ H + δWSF = δ U + δ WNF expressed as
∆H = ∆ U + ∆ ( PV ) dT  ∂v  dT  ∂P 
ds = C P − dP and ds = CV + dv
T  ∂ T  P T  ∂T  V
( δU + δ ( PV ) ) + δWSF = δU + δWNF
δU + PδV + VδP + δWSF = δU + δWNF for ideal gas equation of state,
PδV + VδP + δWSF = δWNF δQ δq
δS=∫ or ds = ∫
V2 T T
but WNF = ∫V1
PdV
ds = ∫ C
dT
T
PδV + VδP + δ WSF = Pδ V
T2 V T P
δ WSF = −Vδ P ∆ S = mCV ln + mR ln 2 = mC P ln 2 − mR ln 2
T1 V1 T1 P1
P2
WSF = − ∫ V dP T2 V T P
P1 ∆ s = CV ln + R ln 2 = C P ln 2 − R ln 2
T1 V1 T1 P1

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THERMODYNAMICS-I : Conservation of Mass and Energy chapter II - 9 of 16

Specific Heat (C) (2) As T approaches zero, CP approaches CV.

Specific heat of a substance is defined as the amount
(3) For all known substances, ( ∂P ∂v ) T < 0 , and ( ∂v ∂T ) P > 0 ,
2
of heat required to change the temperature of unit mass
through one degree. In dimension form, hence C P ≥ CV .

C=
( Q, heat ) Very often it is possible to consider solids and liquids as
( m, mass ) x ( ∆T , change of temperature ) incompressible substances. When this is the case the
δq δQ difference between the specific heat is zero and
C= =
δ T mδ T
C P = CV = C .
Constant Volume Specific Heat
 ∂U   ∂u  In accordance with the kinetic molecular theory of gases,
CV =  =
 ∂T V  ∂T  v which you studied in physics, the specific heats of gases in
absence of vibration of atoms have the following values:
Constant Pressure Specific Heat
 ∂H   ∂h  Monatomic 3 5
CP =  = CV = R CP = R k = 1.667
 ∂T  P  ∂T  P gases 2 2
Specific Heat Ratio 5 7
Diatomic CV = R CP = R k = 1.4
CP 2 2
k= , C P ≥ CV Polyatomic
CV CV = 3R CP = 4R k = 1.333
gases
Specific Heat Difference SHD = C P − CV

SIGNIFICANT ENERGY_CONVERSION MECHANISM

In general the specific heat difference of the gas is
Conversion process Conversion Mechanism
expressed as mechanical → heat friction (mechanical or fluid)
2
  ∂v    ∂P  heat → mechanical heat engine
C P − CV = − T       heat → electrical MHD (magneto-hydrodynamics)
  ∂T  P   ∂v  T mechanical → electrical electric generator
Mechanical → fluid power pump, compressor, fan
turbine, fluid motor, wind vane, wave
the simplified relation for ideal gas equation of state is fluid power → mechanical
vane
C P − CV = R electrical → heat induction or resistance heater
electrical → mechanical electric motor (rotary or linear)
Electrolysis, or charging storage
Electrical → chemical
where R is the gas constant, kJ/kg-K or Btu/lb- battery
R Solar → heat solar collector or absorber
R= solar → electrical Solar cell (photo-voltaic cell)
MW
solar → chemical photosynthesis or photolysis
chemical → heat combustion and food digestion
 kJ ft − lb f  fuel cell, or discharging storage
Universal gas constant,  8.31451 , 1545  Chemical → electrical
 kgmol − K lbmol − R  battery
R=
 kg lb  nuclear → heat Nuclear reactor
Molecular weight ,  , 
 kgmol lbmol 
Conversion
1 BTU = 1.055 kJ = 778.16 Ft –lbf
Three conclusions follow form applying 1 CHU = 1.8 BTU (CHU is Calorie heat unit)
experimental observations to the equation of specific heat 1 kCal = 4.187 kJ
difference. 1 PS = 0.736 kW (PS is metric horsepower)
1 HP = 0.746 kW = 33,000 ft-lbf/min = 550 ft-lbf/sec
(1) Since ( ∂v ∂T ) P is very small for liquids and solids, the 1 HP = 2545 BTU/HR = 42.4 BTU/min
1kW = 3413 BTU/HR
specific heat difference is essentially zero; only one specific heat
for liquid or solid is usually tabulated with designation of constant
pressure or constant volume. SAMPLE PROBLEMS

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THERMODYNAMICS-I : Conservation of Mass and Energy chapter II - 10 of 16

2.1 Two gaseous streams enters a combining tube and (a) change in kinetic energy
leave as a single mixture. These data apply at the entrance
∆KE =
m
2g c
( ν 22 −ν 12 )
sections: For one gas, A1 = 75 in2, v1 = 500 fps, v1 = 10 ft3/lb;
for the other gas, A2 = 50 in2, ρ2 = 0.120 lb/ft3 and a mass 2 2

flow rate of 60,000 pounds per hour. At the exit, v 3 = 350 ∆KE =
3,000lbm
( 60 2
− 15 2 )
mi 2  5280 ft   1hr 
   
 lb − ft  hr 2  1mi   3600 s 
fps, v3 = 7 ft3/lb. Find (a) the velocity at section 2 (b) the flow 2 32.174 2m
 s − lb f 
rate, area at the exit section. 
Solution :. ∆KE = 338,472.06 ft − lb f
(b) unbalance force
ma m  ν f − ν o 
F= =  
g c g c  t 


 
  ( 60 − 15) mi
 3,000lbm  hr  5280 ft  1hr 
F =    
lb − ft 10 s  1mi  3600s 
 32.174 2m 
 s − lb f 
 
F = 615.404 lb f
(c) work done of the unbalance force
 ma  ν 22 − ν 12 
(a) velocity at section 2 W = ∫ F ds = Fs =    =
m
(
ν 22 − ν 12 )
•
 g c  2a  2g c
• m2
m 2 = A2ν 2 ρ 2 ⇒ ν2 =
A2 ρ 2 W = ∆KE = 338,472.06 ft − lb f
 lb  (d) answers on (a) and (c) will not change
 60,000 
 hr   hr  144in 2  ma m ν f − ν o 
ν2 =    = 400 fps F= =  
 lb   3600s  ft   
2
50in 2  0.12 3  gc gc  t 
 ft 
 
  ( 60 − 15) mi
 3,000lbm  hr  5280 ft  1hr 
(b) flow rate, area at the exit F=     
lb − ft 60s  1mi  3600s 
 ft   32.174 2m 
75in 2  500   s − lb f 
• Aν  s   ft 2  lb  
m1 = 1 1 =   = 26.0417
v1 ft 3
 144in 2  s F = 10.26 lb f
10
lb
mass in = mass out 2.3 Work is done by a substance in a reversible non-flow
• • •lb  hr  lb manner in accordance with PV=100, where P is in psia and V
m 3 = m 2 + m 1 = 60,000   + 26.0417
hr  3600s  s
is in cubic feet. Evaluate the work done on or by the substance
• lb as the pressure increases from 10 psia to 100 psia.
m 3 = 42.70833
s Solution :
lb  ft 3  WNF = ∫ PdV
• 42.70833 7 
• A3ν 3 m 3 v3 s  lb   144in 2 
m3 = ⇒ A3 = =   100 100
v3 ν3 ft  ft
2
 but V = ⇒ dV = − 2 dP
350 P P
s
, psia ( ft 3 )
 100  100 psia dP
A3 = 123in 2 W NF = ∫ ( P )  − 2 dP = − 100 ∫
 P  10 psia P
W NF = − 100 ln P ] 10 psia , psia ( ft 3 )
100 psia
2.2 A mass of 3,000 lb is accelerated uniformly along a
horizontal plane from 15 mph to 60 mph in 10 sec. Find (a)
3  144in 
2
 100  lb
the change In kinetic energy, (b) the unbalanced force W NF = −100 ln  2 , ft  2

 10  in  ft 
required, (c) the work done by the unbalanced force during
WNF = −33,157.225 ft − lb f
this interval (d) if the time interval is 1 min instead of 10 sec,
solve part (a), (b), (c) and compare answers.
Solution :

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THERMODYNAMICS-I : Conservation of Mass and Energy chapter II - 11 of 16

2.4 During a particular process involving 1 lb m of fluid, the produce the same power output by combustion (assuming the
enthalpy decreases by 75 BTU, the initial volume of 10 ft 3 is same efficiency)
halved, and the pressure remains constant at 50 psia.
Determine the change of internal energy. Solution:
Solution:
Required U 238 per annum
∆H = ∆ U + ∆( PV ) = ∆U + P∆V + V∆P CE mEC Power T ( Power )
= = ⇒ mU 235 =
 lb f  144in 2
 1BTU  T T η ηE C
− 75 BTU = ∆U + 50 2 (10 − 5) ft 3    + 0
 
 778.16 ft − lb f
2
 in  ft 
 24hr  3600 s  MJ 
∆ U = − 121.263BTU 365days  1000 
 1day  1hr  s 
mU 235 = = 876 kg U 235
 MJ 
2.5 A cast-iron saucepan of mass 1.4 kg is filled with 5 L of 0.4 90 x10 6 
 kg 
water at 15°C, placed on an electric hotplate, and brought
876 kgU 235
up to boiling point. What is the cost of energy used if mU 238 = = 1,233.80 kgU 238
0.71
electricity costs 10 cents per kW-Hr and the hotplate has an
efficiency of 70%. (CP of cast iron is 0.42 kJ/kg-C°)
equivalent mass of black coal (assuming same efficiency)
Solution :
CE = ( mE C ) for Uranium = ( mEC ) for black coal

Heat needed by the water and cast iron saucepan

 MJ 
Q = Qci + Qw = mci C Pci ∆Tci + mwC Pw ∆Tw 876kg  90 x10 6 
( mEC ) for Uranium  kg 
m BC = =
( EC ) BC 30
MJ
assume ∆Tci = ∆Tw kg
 kJ 
Q = 1.4kg  0.42 (100 − 15) C ° mBC = 2.628 x109 kg
 kg − C ° 
 kg  kJ 
+ 0.005m 3 1000 3  4.187 (100 − 15) C °
 m  kg − C °  2.7 A fluid at 100 psia, with a specific volume of 4ft3/lb and a
velocity of 600 ft/s, enters a device. Heat loss from the device
Q = 1829.455 kJ by radiation is 10 BTU/lb. The work done by the fluid is 200
BTU/lb. The fluid exits at 20 psia, 15 ft 3/lb and 1100 ft/s.
 hr 
Q = 1829.455 kJ   = 0.50818 kW − Hr Determine the change in specific internal energy.
 3600 s 
Solution:
Heat needed by water and cast iron including the losses
Q Q 0.50818
η = OUT ⇒ Q IN = OUT =
Q IN η 0 .7
η = 0.72597 kW − Hr

Electricity Cost
 cents 
Cost = ( 2.68947 kW − Hr ) 10  = 7.3 cents
 kW − Hr 

Energy in = Energy out

2.6 A nuclear power station has a power output of 1000
PE1 + KE1 + U 1 + W f 1 = PE 2 + KE 2 + U 2 + W f 2 + Q + WSF
MW. Nuclear fission of 1 kg of U 235 releases 90x106 MJ. U
235
is about 0.71% of natural uranium U 238. The power
operates at full capacity for a year and has an efficiency of since no elevation is given, PE1 = PE 2
40%. Determine (a) how much natural uranium is required KE1 + U 1 + W f 1 = KE 2 + U 2 + W f 2 + Q + WSF
per annum (b) if the combustion energy content of black
coal is 30 MJ/kg, how much coal would be required to Energy expressed in a per unit mass basis (specific)

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THERMODYNAMICS-I : Conservation of Mass and Energy chapter II - 12 of 16

ke1 + u1 + w f 1 = ke2 + u 2 + w f 2 + q + wSF F1 F2 P1 A P2 A

a= = ⇒ =
but
∆ u = u 2 − u1 = ( ke1 − ke2 ) + ( w f 1 − w f 2 ) − q − wSF x1 x 2 V1 V2
A A

∆u =
(ν 1
2
−ν 2
2
)
+ ( P1v1 − P2 v2 ) − q − wSF
P1 P2
= and P2 = P1
V2
2g c V1 V2 V1

( 600 ) ft 1  V2   P1
( )
2

 P1 V2 − P1V1 
2 2
2
− 1100 2 W NF = = V2 − V1
∆u = s  BT `U 2 
 2  V1   2V1
 lb − ft   778.16 ft − lb 
2 32.174 2m  f  kN
 
s − lb f  500

W NF = (
m 2 0.60 2 − 0.15 2 m 6 ) = 562.5 kJ
lb f  ft 3   144in 2  
+ [100( 4 ) − 20(15) ]  
BTU 

(
2 0.15m 3 )
in 2  lbm   ft 2   778.16 ft − lb f 

BTU BTU (b) the force of the spring is directly proportional to the square
− 10 − 200
lbm lbm root of the displacement
BTU F F
∆ u = − 208 .47 F∞ x ⇒ F =a x ⇒ a= 1 = 2
lbm x1 x2
where a is the proportionality constant
2.8 A piston cylinder contains air at a pressure of 500kPa.
The piston movement is resisted by a spring and The volume at a given instant can be expressed as V = A x ,
atmospheric pressure of 100Kpa. The air moves the piston since A is constant for a cylindrical object.
and the volume changes from 0.15m3 to 0.60m3. Determine V = A x ⇒ dV = A dx
the work when (a) the force of the spring is directly
F = PA
proportional to the displacement; (b) the force of the spring
F
 ( Adx )
2 2 2
is directly proportional to the square root of the W NF = ∫ = ∫ a x dx = a∫ x dx
1
 A 1 1

displacement.
2
Solution:
( )
ax
3  2
3 3 3
WNF =  = ax 2 2 − ax1 2
3  2
(a) the force of the spring is directly proportional to the 2 1
displacement WNF =
2
3
[(
ax 2 x2 − ax1 x1 = ) ( )] 2
3
( F2 x2 − F1 x1 )
F F
F∞x ⇒ F =ax ⇒ a = 1 = 2
2
( P2 A)  V2  − ( P1 A)  V1  =
x1 x2 2
WNF = [ P2V2 − P1V1 ]
where a is the proportionality constant 3   A  A  3
The volume at a given instant can be expressed as F1 F2 P1 A P2 A
a= = ⇒ =
V = A x , since A is constant for a cylindrical object. but x1 x2 V1 V2
A A
P1 P2 V2
The non flow work of a compressed fluid is = and P2 = P1
V1 V2 V1
V2
WNF = ∫ PdV

V = A x ⇒ dV = A dx
V1
W NF =
2 
 P1
3 
V2 

V1 

V 2 − P1V1 

=
2 P1
3 V1
(V 2
3
2 − V1
3
2 )

and F = PA
 kN 
2 2 500 2 
F ax 2 
 ( Adx ) 
2 2 2 m  
W NF = ∫ = ∫ axdx = a ∫ xdx =  0.60 2 − 0.15 2  m 2
3 3 9
 W NF = = 350 kJ
 A 2 1  2  
1 1 1 3
3 0.15 m 
 
W NF =
1
2
( 2 2
ax 2 − ax1 = ) 1
2
( F2 x2 − F1 x1 )
2.9 During a reversible change of state by a system, the
1 V   V  1
W NF = ( P2 A)  2  − ( P1 A)  1  = [ P2V2 − P1V1 ] entropy and temperature vary according to S = 0.75 + 0.0005
2  A  A  2 T, BTU/°R. How much heat was required to increase the
temperature of the system from 40°F to 540°F
Solution :

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THERMODYNAMICS-I : Conservation of Mass and Energy chapter II - 13 of 16

S = 0.75 + 0.0005 T ⇒ dS = 0.0005 dT

δQ (03) The mass of an elevator system without counterweight is
δ S=∫ ⇒ dQ = TdS
T 6,000 lb. Determine its upward uniform velocity and kinetic
dQ = T ( 0.0005 dT ) = 0.0005 T dT energy when the driving motor is developing 15 HP. Consider
T1 = 40 + 460 = 500 R and T2 = 540 + 460 = 1000 R all losses as being negligible and let the local gravity
T2 T2 acceleration be g = 31.95 fps2. (1.383 fps, 178.7 ft-lb)
Q = 0.0005 ∫ TdT = 0.00025 T 2
T1 T1

Q = 0.00025 (1000 − 500 2 2

) = 187.5 BTU (04) In an industrial process, a mixer transfers energy at a
rate of 5 kW into 500 L of liquid, which has a specific heat
capacity of 3.4 kJ/kg and a density of 0.90. Determine the
2.10 A certain system whose mass is 10 lb undergoes a
increase in temperature of the liquid per minute during mixing
process wherein its temperature changes from 100°F to
if : (a) there is no heat loss from the mixing tank (b) the heat
200°F. Assuming the specific heat of the system to be a
loss from the tank is 40% of the input energy. (a. 0.1863 °C,
function of the temperature only, determine the heat
b. 0.1118°C)
absorbed during this process if the specific heat-Fahrenheit-
temperature relation is (a) C = 0.3 + 20/(t+150) (b) 0.1 e 0.01 t
(05) Determine the work done by a 1 lb fluid system as it
, BTU/lb-°F
expands slowly with in a piston-cylinder arrangement from an
Solution :
δQ
initial pressure and volume of 80 psia and 1 ft3, respectively, to
  20
(a) C = m δ T ⇒ dQ = mCdT = m 0.3 + t + 150 dt a final volume of 4 ft3 in accordance with the following defining
 
equations: (a) P = C (b) PV = C (c) PV1.4=C (d) P = - 20V + 10,
 20  t2 20 
dQ = m 0.3 +  dt = m ∫  0.3 + dt psia for V ft3. (e) PV2 =C. (a. 44.5, b. 20.56, c. 15.7, d. 27.8, e.
 t + 150  t1
 t + 150 
11.1 BTU)
dQ = m[ 0.3t + 20 ln( t + 150) ] t12
t

  200 + 150   (06) How high would a mass have to be lifted in order to
Q = 10 0.3( 200 − 100) + 20 ln   = 367.294 BTU
  100 + 150   expend the same amount of energy as be required to heat an
(b) equal mass of water through 1 C° (Think about the answer; it
dQ = mCdT = m( 0.1 e 0.01t ) dt gives insight as to why a small amount of energy can perform a
200 great deal of mechanical work.) (426.957m)
dQ = 10( 0.1) ∫ e 0.01t dt =
1 0.01t
0.01
e =
1
0.01
(
e 2 − e1 )
100
(07) A 14 grams aluminum beer contains 375 mL of beer. How
Q = 467.077 BTU
much ice at 0°C will have to melt in order to cool 24 full cans
from 25°C to 2°C? The specific heats of beer and aluminum
are 4.0 and 0.88 kJ/kg-C°, respectively, and the relative density
EXERCISES of the beer is 0.985. (2.45kg)

(01) A fluid moves in a steady flow manner between two
sections in a flow line. At section 1: A 1=1 ft2, v1=1000 fpm,
v1=4 ft3/lb. At section 2: A2=2 ft2, ρ2=0.20 lb/ft3. Calculate (a)
the flow rate (lb/hr) and (b) velocity at section 2. (a.15,000
lb/hr, b. 10.42 fps)
(02) Two gaseous streams containing the same fluid enters
a mixing chamber and leaves as a single stream. For the
first gas the entrance conditions are A1=500 cm2, v1=130
m/s, ρ1=1.60 kg/m3. For the second gas the entrance
conditions are A2=400 cm2, m2=8.84 kg/s, v2=0.502 m3/kg.
The exit stream conditions is v3=130 m/s and v3=0.437
m3/kg. Determine (a) the total mass flow leaving the
chamber; (b) the velocity of the gas.
(08) In an ice making plant, ice at - 5°C is produced from water
at 20 °C. What is the refrigeration capacity (heat removal
capacity) of the plant per hour if the plant can produce 6000 kg
of ice in 8 hour shift. (321.9 MJ/hr)
(09) During the execution of a reversible non-flow process
the work is -148.1 BTU. If V 1 = 30 ft3. and the pressure
varies as P= - 3V+100 psia, where V is ft 3, find V2. (approx. 10
psia)
(10) The energy content of black coal (by combustion) is about
30 MJ/kg. How much black coal would need to be burnt to
release the same amount of energy as the conversion of a 1 kg
mass of this coal into energy? (3.0x1012 kg)

MIT-School of Mechanical Engineering ΜΑ∆Β

THERMODYNAMICS-I : Conservation of Mass and Energy
(11) The flow work of 5 cu. ft. of fluid passing a boundary to
a system is 80,000 ft-lb. Determine the pressure at this
point.
(12) A reversible non-flow process occurs from which the
100
work is 9.4 BTU. If the pressure varies as P = −V +
2
V
psia (where V is in cu. ft.), and P1=46 psia, find P2 and V2. (9
psia)
(13) The work and the heat per degree change of
temperature for a system executing a non-flow process are
given by dW/dt = 75 watt-sec/ºF and dQ/dt = 12 cal/ ºF,
respectively. Determine the change of internal energy for
the system as its temperature increases from 150 ºF to 250
ºF.
(14) The internal energy of a certain closed system is given
by U = A + BPV. Show that if it undergoes a reversible non-
flow process with Q = 0, the relation between P and V is
PVk=C, where C is some constant and k=(B+1)/B.
(15) A fluid system undergoes a non-flow frictionless
process from V1=4.5 ft3 to V2=1.5 ft3 in accordance with the
defining relation P=(60 / V)+30 psia, where V is ft3. During
this process the system rejects 20 BTU of heat. Determine
the change of enthalpy.
(16) Five pounds per second of fluid enter a steady flow
system with P1=100 psia, ρ1=0.2 lb/cu.ft., v1=100 fps, u1=800
BTU/lb. and leave with P2 = 20 psia, ρ2=0.05 lb/cu.ft, v2=500
fps, and u2=780 BTU/lb. During passage through the open
system, each pound rejects 10 BTU of heat. Find the work
in horsepower. (168 HP)
(17) A closed gaseous system undergoes a reversible
process during which 25 BTU are rejected, the volume
changes from 5 to 2 ft 3 and the pressure remains constant
at 50 psia. Find the change of internal energy.
(18) A fluid enters a steady flow system with an initial
pressure of 690 kPa, density of 3.2 kg/m3 and internal
energy of 2000 kJ/kg. It leaves at 172 kPa, ρ = 0.64 kg/m 3
and u = 1950 kJ/kg. The heat loss and work done to the
system are 18.6kJ/kg and 32.725kJ/kg, respectively.
Determine the initial and exit velocity if the exit velocity is 40
m/s more than twice the initial velocity. ( 60 and 160 m/s)
MIT-School of Mechanical Engineering
chapter II - 14 of 16
(19) Air and fuel enters a furnace used for home heating. The
air has an enthalpy of 302 kJ/kg and fuel an enthalpy of
43,027kJ/kg. The gases leaving the furnace have an enthalpy
of 616kJ/kg. There is 17 kg air/ kgfuel. Water circulates through
the furnace wall receiving heat. The house requires 17.6 kW of
heat. What is the fuel consumption per day? (21 kg/day)
(20) An elastic sphere of 0.5 m diameter contains a gas at 115
kPa. Heating of the sphere causes it to increase to 0.62m and
during this process the pressure is proportional to the sphere
diameter. Determine the work done by the gas. (7.7 kJ)
(21) Five people must be lifted in an elevator a distance of 100
m. The work is found to be 341.2 kJ, and the gravitational
acceleration is 9.75 m/s2. Determine the average mass per
person? (70 kg)
(22) The current used by a device of a constant voltage of
120V varies with the time according to i=6e- t/60, where i is in
amperes and t is in seconds. Calculate the work for the first
minute. (27.3 kJ)
(23) A 4 mm diameter steel wire with young’s modulus (E) of
material equal to 2.067x108 kPa, has a length of 4m and is
gradually subjected to an axial force of 5,000 N. Determine the
work done.
(24) A soap bubble with a 15 cm radius is formed by
blowing through a 2.5 cm diameter wire loop. Assume that all
the soap goes into making the bubble. The surface tension of
the film is 0.02 N/m. Find the total surface work required to
make the bubble. (-0.0056J)
(25) The specific heat at constant pressure of Octane is
described by the equation CP = 0.290 + 3.97X10 – 3 T, where CP
is in kJ/kg-K and T is in K scale. What is the change in enthalpy
if the temperature changes from 80ºC to 200ºC. (231.5532
kJ/kg)
(26) One half kilogram of a gas is held in a rigid tank. An
external motor does 50kJ/kg of work on the gas by means of an
impeller while the stored energy of the gas increases from
120kJ/kg to 160kJ/kg. Determine the heat transfer in BTU.
(27) A semi-elastic spherical ball is dropped from a height of
30m above the ground. Determine the change in the
temperature of the ball after the 21st bounced if the coefficient
of restitution is 0.8 and the specific heat of the ball is 1.2kJ/kg-
ΜΑ∆Β
THERMODYNAMICS-I : Conservation of Mass and Energy chapter II - 15 of 16

K. The amount of energy absorbed by the floor and difference of 10.8 F° between the surfaces. During the 5 hours
transferred to the surroundings is 20% of the energy change test period, the heat transmitted is 200 kJ. (kW/m-C°).
in the ball.
(36) Two container of unknown volume are filled with water at
(28) A closed system containing a gas expands slowly in a 70°C and 20°C, respectively. When half of the volume on each
piston-cylinder from 650 kPa and 0.12 m 3 to a final volume container was mixed together with 0.5kg of ice at -4°C the
of 0.55 m3. Determine the work done if the pressure
resulting temperature of the mixture is 10°C. And, when the
distribution is determined to be P = - 350V + 625, where V is
remaining volumes of water are mixed to the first mixture with
in m3 and P in kPa.
0.5 kg of steam at 100°C the temperature of the mixture is
increased to 90°C. Determine, approximately, the volume of the
(29) A piston-cylinder contains gas initially at 3500 kPa with
two containers in liters.
a volume of 0.03 m3. The gas is compressed during a
process where PV1.25=C to a pressure of 8500 kPa. The
(37) The internal energy and enthalpy of a gas is 436
heat transfer from the gas is 2.5kJ. Determine the change in
kJ/kg and 614 kJ/kg, respectively. Determine the
internal energy, neglecting changes in kinetic and potential
pressure of the gas if the density is 0.98 kg/m 3. (25.31
energies.
psia)
(30) A gas expands in a piston device from 0.010 to
(38) A fluid enters a steady flow system with P 1=95 psia,
0.030m3, the processing being described by P=aV-1+b,
ρ1=0.23 lb/ft3., u1=807 BTU/lb. and leave with P2 = 30 psia,
where P is in bar and V is in m3. If a=0.060 bar–m3 and the
ρ2=0.06 lb/ft3, and u2=763 BTU/lb. During passage through the
measured work done by the gas on the piston face is 0.106
open system, each pound rejects 15 BTU of heat. Find the
bar-m3, evaluate b..
work in BTU/lb if the total potential and kinetic energy is
decreased by 1500 ft-lbf/lb. ( 14.84 BTU / lb )
(31) A gas is compressed in a cylinder so that the pressure
rises linearly from 100 to 600 kPa (abs.) while the volume
(39) The specific heat of a certain ideal gas at constant volume
falls from 0.06 to 0.02 m3. Calculate the work done.
is described by the relation CV = 0.190 - 0.098 T - 1 + 6.37x10 –
7
T 2 where CV is in kJ/kg-K and T is in K scale. What is the
(32) In a steady-flow system, the mass-flow rate is 12
change of enthalpy of the gas if the temperature changes from
kg/min and the net heat flow is 85 kW into the system. The
97ºC to 317ºC. Also determine the change in the enthalpy of
gain in specific enthalpy of the working substance is
the gas in kJ/kg if the system change in flow energy is - 14.61
200kJ/kg. Neglecting potential energy and kinetic energy
kJ/kg. ( 74.61 kJ/kg, 60 kJ/kg )
changes, calculate the power output from the system.

(40) The enthalpy of an open system is given by

(33) During a steady flow process, the pressure of the
working substance drops from 200 to 20 psia, the speed P3
h =α +β .
increases from 200 to 1000 ft/s, the internal energy of the v
open system decreases 25 BTU/lb, and the specific volume Show that if it undergoes a reversible process with Q=0, the
increases from 1 to 8 Ft3/lb. No heat is transferred. 1
Determine the work per lb.  2
4
relation between P and v is; C = P 2 β P − 1 , where
 2 
 v 
(34) An unknown mass of a certain solid, initially at 60°C, is
heated at a uniform rate. After 4 minutes the solid reaches C, α, and β are constants.
its melting point of 80°C, and it remains at that temperature
(41) An elastic sphere of 0.25 m diameter contains a gas at 107
for 3 minutes of heating, the resulting liquid is at 100°C. If
kPa. Heating of the sphere causes it to increase to 0.73 m, and
the specific heat capacity of the substance in the solid state
during this process the pressure is proportional to the square of
is 2kJ/kg°C, find the heat of fusion of the substance and its
the surface area of the sphere and inversely proportional to its
specific heat capacity in the liquid state.
volume. Determine the work done by the gas. Also, determine
(35) Determine the thermal conductivity of a material that
uses a 2m2 test panel, 25mm thick with a temperature

MIT-School of Mechanical Engineering ΜΑ∆Β

THERMODYNAMICS-I : Conservation of Mass and Energy
the heat added to the system if the internal energy of the
system is increased by 27 kJ. (47.0739, 74.0739 kJ)
(42) Two streams of water enter a mixing chamber and exit
as one stream. The first stream is 2.0 lb/s at 120°F and the
second stream is 3.0 lb/s at 105°F. Determine the
temperature of the exit stream, if 55 7BTU/s of heat is
rejected by the system due to heat transfer. (Assume
atmospheric condition) (100°F)
(43) A gas in a piston cylinder assembly expands from
0.05m3 and 400 kPa to 0.20m3 and 150 kPa according to
a b
the relation P = V + 2 , where a and b are constant. (44)
V
Compute the reversible work done by the system and the
heat transfer rate, if the internal energy of the gas
decreases by 15kJ. (36.21kJ, 21.21)
(45) A 40cm x 65cm wall is to be constructed from material
which has an average thermal conductivity of 1.25 W/m-C°.
The two sides of the wall are maintained at 110°C and
60°C, respectively. Determine the required thickness of the
wall in mm, if the heat transfer rate is 0.70 kW. (23.2)
(46) A gas expands in reversible non flow system according
to the PV relation P=aV3+bV+c, where P is in kPa, V in
m3.and a, b, and c are constants.
(a) Derive the formula of the work done by the gas
using a, b, c, V1 and V2. (Wnf = 0.25a(V24-V14)+0.50b(V12-
V22)+c(V2-V1))
(b) Determine the value of c if the work done by the
gas is 35 kJ from an initial volume of 0.20m3 to 0.45m3 and
the values of a and b are 16.7 and -76.80, respectively.
(164.3019)
(47) A steady flow system receives 1 kg/s of a substance
with u1=1000kJ/kg, P1=500kPa, v1=1.2m3/kg, and v1=50m/s.
There is a heat loss of 1000kJ/kg, and the fluid exits at
v2=150m/s, v2=0.8m3/kg, P2=100kPa and h2=1000 kJ/kg.
Determine the power and the exit specific internal energy.
(490kw, 920kJ/kg)
MIT-School of Mechanical Engineering
chapter II - 16 of 16
(48) The torque of an engine is found to be T=200sin(πω/2000)
J, when ω varies between 500 and 1000RPM and (πω/2000)
is in degrees. Determine the power at these two RPM’s (5.17
kW, 17.99 kW)
(49) Determine the work required to accelerate a 1000 kg car
from 10 to 80 km/hr on a hill where the elevation increases by
35m. (-586kJ)
(50) Determine the time to accelerate a 1000 kg automobile
from rest to 80 km/hr if it has an engine rated at 90kW. (2.74s)
(51) An electric water heater consists of a 4cm diameter pipe
containing a resistance electric heater. Cold water enters the
pipe at 10˚C with an enthalpy of 42 kJ/kg and leaves at 50˚C
with an enthalpy of 209 kJ/kg. The water flow rate is
20liters/min, and its density is 1000kg/m3. Determine the rating
of electric resistance in kW and the velocity of water in the pipe.
(55.6kW, 0.265m/s)
(52) An industrial furnace has a 10cm thick, 15m2 brick wall.
The brick have a thermal conductivity of 0.2W/m-K and have a
uniform and steady temperature on one surface of 1000˚K and
on the other of 1300˚K. Determine the heat transfer through the
wall.
(53) A surface of 5ft2 with an emissivity of 0.85 emits thermal
radiation. Find the radiant heat emitted for surface temperature
of 77˚, 277˚, 577˚F. (8424Btu/hr)
(54) Determine the time to accelerate a 1ton automobile from
rest to 60mph if it has an engine rated at 60hp. (7.29s)
(55) Refrigerant flows through a 6ft, 0.5 in diameter tube and
evaporates at a constant temperature of 0˚F. The tube’s
surface temperature is constant at 10˚F, and the unit
convective coefficient is 350 Btu/hr-ft2-F. Determine the rate of
convective heat transfer from the refrigerant to the tube
surface.
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