Course: FLUID MECH 313

Module 1:

BASIC CONCEPTS AND PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Description

Describe, the basic properties of fluids quote applicable units and determine how these properties
inter-relate to one another in fluid applications.

Objectives

 To understand the basic laws, principles, and properties of fluids and units
 To calculate one property given another (eg calculate mass given dimensions and relative density)
 Describe the difference between real and ideal gases and liquids
 Calculate the property changes to perfect gases using the gas laws or the characteristic gas equation.

Duration

Start:
End:

Contents

I. INTRODUCTION

Fluid Mechanics is the science that deals with behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics) and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries. Both liquids and gases and
is based on the same fundamental principles that are employed in mechanics of solid.

II. BRANCHES OF FLUID MECHANICS

 Fluid Statics is the study of the mechanics of fluids at rest.

 Kinematics deals with velocities and streamlines without considering forces or energy.
 Fluid Dynamics deals with the relations between velocities and accelerations and forces exerted by or
upon fluids in motion.

III. FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Definition of fluids

 A fluid is a substance in which the constituent molecules are free to move relative to each other. The
fluids sub-divide further into liquids and gases.
  Fluid can be either liquid or gas and is a substance that can flow, cannot withstand shearing stress, and
conforms to container. The molecules of a fluid are not arranged in particular manner but are free to
move.

 Fluids are actually either liquids or gases. Fluids in fact are materials that flow and have no definite
shape of their own.

Distinction between a Liquid and a Gas

Liquid: A state of matter in which the molecules are relatively free to change their positions with respect
to each other but restricted by cohesive forces so as to maintain a relatively fixed volume.

Gas: A state of matter in which the molecules are practically unrestricted by cohesive forces. A gas
has neither definite shape nor volume.

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

 WEIGHT DENSITY

The weight density (originally known as the specific weight) of a fluid is its weight per unit volume

γ = W/V

Where:

γ = specific weight, N/m3, lb/ft3

W = weight, N , lb.
V = volume, m3 ft3

 MASS
Mass is the quantitative measure of the amount of matter in a given body.

m = W/g or W = mg

Where:
m = mass, kg, slugs
W = weight, N, lb.
g = acceleration due to gravity
= 9.81m/s2, 32.2 ft/s2
  DENSITY

The density ρ of a substance of uniform composition is its mass per unit volume:

ρ = m/V

Where:

ρ = density, kg/m3, slugs/ft3

m = mass, kg, slugs
V = volume, m3, ft3

Or ρ = m/V

𝑊/𝑔
ρ= but γ = W/V
𝑉

So
𝛾
ρ=
𝑔

γ= ρg

 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The specific gravity also known as (relative density) of a fluid is the mass density or specific weight of the
fluid compared to the mass density or specific weight of some other standard substance (i.e water @ 40C or
15.6 0C for fluids).

𝛾𝑓 𝜌𝑓
𝑆. 𝐺. = =
𝛾𝑠 𝜌𝑠

Where:
𝜌𝑓 = density of any fluid or substance
𝜌𝑠 = density of standard substance
𝛾𝑓 = specific wt. of any fluid or substance
𝛾𝑠 = specific wt. of standard substance
Note:
The standard values of the density and specific weight of water at 4oC for Physics
o
and 15.6 C for engineers the following:
ρ water = 1000 kg/ m3 , 1.94 slugs/ ft3
γ water = 9810 N/m3
= 62.4 lb./ft3
 Specific gravity S.G.

S.G. water = 1.00 S.G. ocean = 1.03

S.G. oil = 0.8 S.G. mercury = 13.6

 SPECIFIC VOLUME

The specific volume of a fluid is its volume per unit mass, and is the reciprocal of the mass
density. Being a of kg/m3 gives the specific volume units of m3/kg.

𝑉 1
υ= =
𝑚 𝜌

EXAMPLE

If a 20 litre volume of certain fluid has a mass of 25 kilograms, determine the fluid’s mass density,
weight density, relative density and specific volume.

Solution:

𝑚 25 𝑘𝑔 𝒌𝒈
a.) 𝜌𝑓 = = = 1250
𝑉 .02 𝑚3 𝒎𝟑

𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝐍
b.) 𝛾𝑓 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔 = 1250 × 9.81 = 𝟏𝟐, 𝟐𝟔𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 Note: kg.m/s2
𝑚3 𝑠2 𝐦𝟑
=N

𝜌𝑓
c.) 𝑆. 𝐺. =
𝜌𝑤
 𝑘𝑔
1250 3
= 𝑚
𝑘𝑔 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
1000 3
𝑚

or

𝛾𝑓
𝑆. 𝐺. =
𝛾𝑤

𝑁
12,262.25
𝑚3
= 𝑁 = 1.25
9810
𝑚3

𝑉 1 1 𝒎𝟑
d.) υf = = = 𝒌𝒈 = 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
𝑚 𝜌𝑓 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝟑 𝒌𝒈
𝒎

EXAMPLE

The specific gravity of certain oil is 0.81. Calculate its (a) specific weight in lb/ft3 and KN/m3 and (b)
mass density in slugs/ft3 and kg/m3.

Solution:

𝛾𝑓
a.) S. 𝐺. =
𝛾𝑤

𝛾𝑓 = S.G.× 𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑓 = S.G.× 𝛾𝑤
= 0.81× 62.4 lb/ft3 = 0.81× 9.81 KN/m3
= 50.544 lb/ft3 = 7.95 KN/m3

𝜌𝑓
b.) 𝑆. 𝐺. =
𝜌𝑤

𝜌𝑓 = 𝑆. 𝐺. × 𝜌𝑤 𝜌𝑓 = 𝑆. 𝐺. × 𝜌𝑤
= 0.81 × 1.94 slugs/ft3 = 0.81 × 1000 kg/m3
= 1.57 slugs/ft3 = 810 kg/m3
  IDEAL GAS OF PERFECT GAS LAW

Perfect Gases
There is a series of laws that apply to the performance of a gas under varying pressure and/or
temperature. A perfect gas is one that exactly conforms to the gas laws

 GAS LAWS
Boyle’s law

In a confined gas, if the absolute temperature of a given mass of gas is held constant, the volume of the
gas is inversely proportional to the absolute pressure.

𝐼 𝐶
V∞ or V=
𝑝 𝑝

Thus, pV = constant
𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2 = 𝑝3 𝑉3 = etc.

Where:
p is the absolute pressure (Pa abs)
V is the volume (m3)

Charles’ Law

(1) In a confined gas, if the absolute pressure of a given mass of gas is held constant, the volume is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

V ∞ T or V =CT

𝑉
=C
𝑇

𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

(2) In a confined gas, if the volume of a given mass of gas is held constant, the absolute pressure is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature
 P ∞T or p = CT

𝑃
=C
𝑇

𝑝1 𝑝2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

Where

p is the absolute pressure (Pa abs)

T is the absolute temperature (K)

Boyle’s and Charles’ Laws may be combined to form:

𝑝1𝑉1 𝑝2𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

𝑝𝑉
Since the ratio is a constant, its numerical value may be determined for any quantity of a perfect
𝑇

gas. So:
𝑝𝑉
= mass constant
𝑇

or
𝑝𝑉
= mR
𝑇

Or

pV= mRT

where

m is the mass of the gas in kilograms (kg)

R is the `gas constant’ in joules per kilogram kelvin (J/kg K)

1 𝑚
For unit mass note: υ = , ρ=
𝜌 𝑉
pV = mRT
 pv = RT
Where:
P = absolute pressure, N/m2, lb/ in2
V = volume, m3, ft3
v = specific volume, m3/kg, ft3/lb m
𝑓𝑡−𝑙𝑏𝑓
R= gas constant, J/kg K,
𝑙𝑏𝑚 −𝑅

𝑓𝑡−𝑙𝑏𝑓
The gas constant varies for each gas. For instance, the gas constant for air is typically 287 J/kg K, 53.34
𝑙𝑏𝑚 −𝑅

EXAMPLE

What is the specific weight of air at 500 Kpa absolute and 20 0C?

Solution:

1
pv = RT but, ρ=
𝑣

𝑝 1 𝛾
= ρ=
𝑅𝑇 𝑣 𝑔

𝑝
ρ=
𝑅𝑇

𝛾 𝑝
=
𝑔 𝑅𝑇

𝑔𝑝
𝛾=
𝑅𝑇

�9.81𝑚� 2 �×(500000𝑁� 2 )
𝑠 𝑚
γ= Note: J= Joule = N.m
�287𝐽�𝑘𝑔−𝐾 �×(20+273)𝐾

N=Newton= kg.m/s2
 γ = 58.33 N/m3
EXAMPLE

Air is kept at a pressure of 200 Kpa absolute and a temperature of 300C in 500 li. Container. What is the
mass of air?

Solution:

𝑚
ρ=
𝑉

m = V ρ → main eq.

Where:
 𝑝
ρ=
𝑅𝑇

200000𝑁� 2
𝑚
ρ=
�287𝐽�𝑘𝑔−𝐾�(30+273)𝐾

𝑘𝑔�
ρ = 2.3 𝑚3

So,

m=Vρ

1𝑚3 𝑘𝑔�
m = �500 𝑙𝑖 × � × �2.3
1000 𝑙𝑖 𝑚3 �

 m = 1.15kg.

 The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate. For liquids, it
corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for example, syrup has a higher viscosity than water.

Viscosity can be conceptualized as quantifying the internal frictional force that arises between adjacent
layers of fluid that are in relative motion. For instance, when a fluid is forced through a tube, it flows more
quickly near the tube's axis than near its walls. In such a case, experiments show that some stress (such as
a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube) is needed to sustain the flow through the tube. This is
because a force is required to overcome the friction between the layers of the fluid which are in relative motion:
the strength of this force is proportional to the viscosity
 A more viscosity unit is the familiar range of SAE numbers used for vehicle lubricants. It should be realised that the
SAE numbers relate to a range of viscosities, rather than a precise viscosity value.

du

dy τ

 DYNAMIC VISCOSITY
The viscosity of a fluid is its ability to resist shearing forces when it is in motion. A perfect fluid has no
viscosity and incompressible The fluids for which the rate of deformation is proportional to the shear stress are
called Newtonian fluids and the linear relationship for a one-dimensional system.

𝒅𝑽
𝝉 = 𝝁𝒅
𝒅𝒚

𝑁
𝜏 𝑚2
𝜇𝑑 = 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑚
𝑠
/𝑚
𝑑𝑦

Where:

𝜇𝑑 = dynamic viscosity, N.s/m2, Pa-s

𝜏 = shearing stress, N/m2

 𝑑𝑉
= velocity gradient, m/s/m
𝑑𝑦

Because a pascal second (Pa s) is a large unit, the normal unit for absolute viscosity is a millipascal second
(mPa s), which itself is more popularly known as a centipoise (cP).

Example:

Absolute viscosity of water = 1.12 cP

Absolute viscosity of an oil = 273 cP

 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
Kinematic viscosity, which is basically the relationship of mass and time. It is the ratio of the
dynamic viscosity to its mass density.
𝜇𝑑
𝜇𝑘 =
𝜌

Where:
𝑚
𝜇𝑘 = kinematic viscosity,
𝑠2

𝜇𝑑 = dynamic viscosity, 𝑁𝑠�𝑚2

ρ = density, 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3

A more practical unit for kinematic viscosity is mm2/s, which has the name of centistoke (cSt).

Example:

kinematic viscosity of water = 1.12 cSt

kinematic viscosity of an oil = 279 cSt

NOTE:
for: dynamic Viscosity for: kinematic Viscosity

1 poise = 1 dyne-s/cm2 1 stoke = 1 cm2/s

= 0.10 Pa- s = 0.0001m2/s

1 poise = 100 centipoise

EXAMPLE

A plate 0.06mm distance from a fixed pane, fluid moves at 105 cm/sec. It requires a force of
2
2.2N/m to maintain the speed. Determine the viscosity.

V=105cm/s

F
.06mm τ=2.2N/m2

Solution:
𝒅𝑽
𝝉 = 𝝁𝒅
𝒅𝒚

𝝉
𝝁𝒅 = 𝒅𝑽
𝒅𝒚

Where:

dy = 0.06 mm =. 06 × 10−3 m.

dv = vf - vo

= 105 cm./s = 1.05m/s

𝛕 = 2.2 N/m2

Therefore:

𝟐.𝟐𝑵/𝒎𝟐
𝝁𝒅 = 𝟏.𝟎𝟓𝒎/𝒔
.𝟎𝟔×𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎

𝑵−𝑺
𝝁𝒅 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
𝒎𝟐
EXAMPLE

A plate having 103 x 103 cm is pulled with velocity of .07m/s over a fixed plate at a distance of
0.35mm. Find a.) shear force b.) force , c.) power to maintain the velocity if the fluid has μ = 1 poise.

V= .07m/s

F
.35mm τ

Solution:

𝒅𝑽
a.) 𝝉 = 𝝁𝒅
𝒅𝒚

τ=μ 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦
= .1 N-s/m2 �
.07𝑚/𝑠 2
.35×10−3 𝑚
� note:

μ = 1poise = .1 Pa-s= .1 N-s/m2

τ = 20 N/m 2

𝑭
b.) 𝛕=
𝑨
F=𝛕A 1

Where:

A= .103m × .103 m = 0.011m2

τ = 20 N/m2
from 1: F=𝛕A

F = 20 N/m2 × 0.011m2

F = 0.22 N

𝑊 𝐹𝑑
a.) P = FV note: P= = but v=d/t
𝑡 𝑡
P = .22 N × .07m/s P = FV
P= 0.015 N.m/s= watts

EXAMPLE

If the dynamic viscosity of water at 20oC is 1 × 10−3 𝑁. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ⁄𝑚2 , what is the kinematic viscosity in the
English System?

Solution:
𝜇𝑑
𝜇𝑘 = 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000 kg/m3
𝜌

1×10−3 𝑁.𝑠𝑒𝑐 ⁄𝑚2

=
1000 kg/m3

3.282 𝑓𝑡 2
= (1 × 10−6 m2/s)� �
𝑚2

 𝜇𝑘 = 1.08 × 10−6 𝑓𝑡 2 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐

 BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Is a measure of the resistance of fluid to compression. It is the ratio of the change in unit pressure to the
corresponding volume change per unit volume.
∆𝑃
𝐸= ∆𝑉
−
𝑉

Where: E = bulk modulus

 ∆𝑃 = change in pressure
∆𝑉 = change in volume (-) implies decrease
V = original volume

 COMPRESSIBILTY

Is the fractional change in volume per unit pressure. The compressibility is the reciprocal of bulk
modulus.
1
𝛽=
𝐸

EXAMPLE

A liquid is compressed in a container has a volume of 1 liter at a pressure of 1 Mpa and a volume
of 0.995 liter at a pressure of 2 Mpa. What is the bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid?

Solution:

∆𝑃
𝐸= ∆𝑉
−
𝑉

2−1 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
E = - (.995−1)⁄ =
1 𝑙𝑖⁄𝑙𝑖
 E = 200𝑀𝑝𝑎

EXAMPLE
A liquid which is compressed in a cylinder if it has a volume of 1000 cu.m at 2MPa and a
volume of 990 cu. m at 2.5 MPa.
a. Compute the bulk modulus of elasticity
b. Compute the percentage of volume decreased
c. Compute the coefficient of compressibility

Solution:
∆𝑃
a. 𝐸= ∆𝑉
−
𝑉
2.5−2 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
E = - (1000−990)⁄ =
1000 𝑚 3 ⁄𝑚 3
 E = 50𝑀𝑝𝑎
 b. Percentage of volume decreased
10
%= x 100
1000
% = 1%
d. Coefficient of compressibility

1
β=
𝐸

1
β= = 0.02 mm2/N
50

 CAPILLARITY
This property of the liquids is due to both cohesion and adhesion. If adhesion has a greater effect than
cohesion, the liquid will rise at a point where it comes in contact with another body. If cohesion is prevalent, the
liquid will be depressed.

4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ℎ=
𝛾𝑑
where:
h = capillarity rise or depression
𝜎 = surface tension in units of force per unit length
∅ = wetting angle
𝛾 = specific weight of liquid
d = diameter of tube
Note: 𝜃 < 900 for adhesion
𝜃 > 900 for cohesion

 COHESION
It is the attractive force between molecules of the same substance.
 ADHESION
It is the attractive force between molecules of different substance .
  MENISCUS
It is the curve surface of liquid in capillary tube.

Cohesion is the property of like molecules (of the same substance) to stick to each other due to mutual
attraction. Adhesion is the property of different molecules or surfaces to cling to each other. For example, solids
have high cohesive properties so they do not stick to the surfaces they come in contact. On the other hand, gases
have weak cohesion. Water has both cohesive and adhesive properties. Water molecules stick to each other to
form a sphere. This is the result of cohesive forces. When contained in a tube, the water molecules touching the
surface of the container are at a higher level (see Meniscus). This is due to the adhesive force between the water
molecules and the molecules of the container.

EXAMPLE

Find the depression h of the mercury in the glass capillary tube having diameter of 2 mm if the surface
tension is 0.514 N/m for 𝜃 = 400.

Solution:

4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ℎ= 1
𝛾𝑑

where:

γ=ρg 2
but,`
𝛾𝑆
𝑆. 𝐺. = 3
𝛾𝑊

γ= 𝑆. 𝐺.× 𝜌𝑊
γ= 13.6 × 9810𝑁/𝑚3
γ= 133,416 𝑁/𝑚3

from eq. 1

4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ℎ=
𝛾𝑑
4×0.514 N/m ×cos 400
= 𝑁
133,416 3 ×.002𝑚
𝑚

= 0.0059 m.
ℎ= 5.9 mm.
REFERENCES:

HYDRAULICS
by H. W. KING, C.O. WISELER, J.G WOODBURN FIFTH EDITION

FLUID MECHANICS WITH ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

BY R. L. DAUGHTERTY

POWER PLANT ENGINNERING

BY R.S. CAPOTE, J.A. MANDAWE

HYDRAULICS (REFERENCE . TEXT)

BY RUBEN DELA FUENTE, Ma, TRINIDAD E. DELA ROSA, PEDRO T. TEMPLO Jr.

FLUID MECHANICS and HYDRAULICS

BY DIT GILLASENIA