Strength of Materials

STRENGTH
MODULE 01
 Holy Angel University
School of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering
Structural Engineering

Lecture 01

Internal Loadings and Stress

Introduction
This route is an introduction to internal loadings and is
also a thorough discussion on stress.

Content This route focuses on

 Introduction: Internal Loadings
 Stress

Objectives After this route, the student should be able to

 Determine the equilibrium of a deformable body
 Analyze and solve internal forces; stresses

Related These are supplemental content necessary for this route

 The Efficient Engineer. (2020, February 11). An
Introduction to Stress and Strain. YouTube.
Readings https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aQf6Q8t1FQE
 3.1 axial strain. (n.d.). Index. https://www.ah-
engr.com/som/3_stress/text_3-1.htm

References Chakraborti, M. (2018). Strength of materials (SI Units). New Delhi: S.K. Kataria &
Sons

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress

Chapter I: Introduction: Internal Loadings

Mechanics of materials is branch of mechanics that studies the internal effects of stress and strain in a
solid body that is subjected to an external loading. Stress is associated with the strength of the material
from which the body is made, while strain is a measure of deformation of the body. In addition to this,
mechanics of materials includes the study of body’s stability when a body such as a column is subjected
to compressive loading.

A thorough understanding of the fundamentals of this subject is of vital importance because many of
the formulas and rules of design cited in engineering codes are based upon the principles of this
subject.

Equilibrium of a Deformable Body

Since statics has an important role in both the development and application of mechanics of materials,
it is very important to have a good grasp of its fundamentals.

External Loads. A body is subjected to only two types of external loads; namely, (1) surface forces
caused by the direct contact of one body with the surface of another, or (2) body forces which are
developed when one body exerts a force on another body without direct physical contact between the
bodies.

Support Reactions. The surface forces that develop at the supports or points of contact between bodies
are called reactions.

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
Equilibrium of a body requires both a balance of forces, to
prevent the body from translating or having accelerated motion
along a straight or curved path, and a balance of moments, to
prevent the body from rotating.

Often in engineering practice the loading on a body can be

represented as a system of coplanar forces. If this is the case,
and the forces lie in the x–y plane, then the conditions for
equilibrium of the body can be specified with only three scalar
equilibrium equations.

Internal Forces Developed in a Structural Member

In mechanics of materials, statics is primarily used to determine the resultant loadings that act within a
body. In order to obtain the internal loadings acting on a specific region within the body, it is necessary
to pass an imaginary section or “cut” through the region where the internal loadings are to be
determined. The two parts of the body are then separated, and a free-body diagram of one of the
parts is drawn.

There are four different types of resultant loadings can then be defined as follows:
(1) Normal force, N. This force acts perpendicular to the
area. It is developed whenever the external loads tend to
push or pull on the two segments of the body.
(2) Shear force, V. The shear force lies in the plane of the
area and it is developed when the external loads tend to
cause the two segments of the body to slide over one
another.
(3) Torsional moment or torque, T. This effect is developed
when the external loads tend to twist one segment of the
body with respect to the other about an axis perpendicular
to the area.
(4) Bending moment, M. The bending moment is caused by
the external loads that tend to bend the body about an axis
lying within the plane of the area.

If the body is subjected to a coplanar system of forces, then

only normal-force, shear-force, and bending-moment
components will exist at the section.

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
To design a structural or mechanical member it is necessary to know the loading acting within the
member in order to be sure the material can resist this loading. Internal loadings can be determined by
using the method of sections.

The force component 𝑁𝐵 that acts perpendicular to the

cross section, is termed the normal force. The force
component 𝑉𝐵 that is tangent to the cross section is
called the shear force. The couple moment is referred to
as the bending moment.

The force components prevent the relative translation

between the two segments, and the couple moment
prevents the relative rotation. According to Newton’s
third law, these loadings must act in opposite directions
on each segment, as shown.

They can be determined by applying the equations of

equilibrium to the free-body diagram of either segment.

Sign Convention. Engineers generally use a sign convention

to report the three internal loadings 𝑁, 𝑉, and 𝑀.

The normal force is said to be positive if it creates tension, a

positive shear force will cause the beam segment on which it
acts to rotate clockwise, and a positive bending moment will
tend to bend the segment on which it acts in a concave
upward manner.

Loadings that are opposite to these are considered negative.

Procedure for Analysis and Sample Problems

Support Reactions.
 Before the member is sectioned, it may first be necessary to determine its support reactions, so that
the equilibrium equations can be used to solve for the internal loadings only after the member is
sectioned.

Free-Body Diagram.
 Keep all distributed loadings, couple moments, and forces acting on the member in their exact
locations, then pass an imaginary section through the member, perpendicular to its axis at the point
where the internal loadings are to be determined.

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
 After the section is made, draw a free-body diagram of the segment that has the least number of
loads on it, and indicate the components of the internal force and couple moment resultants at the
cross section acting in their positive directions to the established sign convention.

Equations of Equilibrium.
 Moments should be summed at the section. This way the normal and shear forces at the section
are eliminated, and we can obtain a direct solution for the moment.
 If the solution of the equilibrium equations yields a negative scalar, the sense of the quantity is
opposite to that shown on the free-body diagram.

PROBLEM #1: Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section at C of the machine
shaft shown. The shaft is supported by journal bearings at A and B, which only exert vertical forces on
the shaft.

SOLUTION: First, we have to find the support reactions. Let us draw the free-body diagram of the
figure. Note that we have labeled the reactions this way because of their location and orientation.

Ay By

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
Let us now solve for the reactions. Take note of the distances, the units, and the conversions used.

∑MA = 0 (cw+)
(800 N/m)(0.15 m)(0.275 m) + (225 N)(0.5 m) – (By)(0.4 m) = 0
By = 363.75 N

∑Fy = 0 (+)
Ay + By – (800 N/m)(0.15 m) – 225 N = 0
Ay = -18.75 N () NOTE: We may also reflect this in our future FBDs. When changing the direction of
forces in the FBD, we discard the negative sign already in our computations.

Next is to cut a section through point C, the required point for this problem. Then, we are going to
draw the section to the left of C, since it has a smaller number of forces as compared to the right side.

Mc

Cx

Ay By Ay Cy

We can now solve for the internal forces at point C.

∑Fx = 0 (+)
Cx = 0

∑Fy = 0 (+)
-Ay – (800 N/m)(0.05 m) + Cy = 0
Cy = -58.75 N ()

∑MC = 0 (cw+)
-(800 N/m)(0.05 m)(0.025 m) – (18.75 N)(0.25 m) – Mc = 0
Mc = -5.69 N-m (ccw)

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
PROBLEM #2: Determine the internal normal force, shear force, and bending moment acting on the
cross section at C of the cantilevered beam shown.

SOLUTION: Again, we draw the FBD of the figure and get the support reactions.

MA

Ax
Ay

∑Fx = 0 (+)
Ax = 0

∑Fy = 0 (+)
Ay – (0.5)(270 N/m)(9 m) = 0
Ay = 1215 N

∑MC = 0 (cw+)
-MA + (0.5)(270 N/m)(9 m)(3m) = 0
MA = 3645 N-m

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
Then, cut a section through C, and select the right side because it only has the triangular load.

MA MC y

Ax Cx
Ay Cy

First, we have to get the height y by means of similar triangles. Then, we can proceed with the

270 𝑦
= ; 𝑦 = 180 𝑁/𝑚
9 6

∑Fx = 0 (+)
Cx = 0

∑Fy = 0 (+)
Cy – (0.5)(180 N/m)(6 m) = 0
Cy = 540 N

∑MC = 0 (cw+)
– (0.5)(180 N/m)(6 m)(2 m) – Mc = 0
Mc = -1080 N-m (ccw)

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
Chapter II: Stress

Refer to the figures on the right about the internal forces in a structural member, shown below.

In the next figure below, we are analyzing a differential element of this section. We will consider the
material to be continuous, that is, to consist of a continuum or uniform distribution of matter having no
voids. The bar is prismatic since all cross sections are the same throughout its length. Also, the material
must be cohesive, meaning that all portions of it are connected together, without having breaks, cracks,
or separations. Homogeneous material has the same physical and mechanical properties throughout its
volume, and isotropic material has these same properties in all directions. This section is now the key to
the discovery of the principle of stress.

The stress applied to a material is the force per unit area applied to the material. Thus, in formula form,
STRESS = FORCE / AREA.

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
Since SI metric units are used in this discussion, with 𝑃 expressed in newtons (N) and 𝐴 in square
meters (m2), the stress 𝜎 will be expressed in N/m2. This unit is called a pascal (Pa). However, one finds
that the pascal is an exceedingly small quantity and that, in practice, multiples of this unit must be used,
namely, the kilopascal (kPa), the megapascal (MPa), and the gigapascal (GPa).

When U.S. customary units are used, the force 𝑃 is usually expressed in pounds (lb) or kilopounds (kip),
and the cross-sectional area 𝐴 in square inches (in2). The stress 𝜎 will then be expressed in pounds per
square inch (psi) or kilopounds per square inch (ksi).

We actually have different types of stresses shown below. These types of stresses correspond to a
specific type of internal loading. In this route, our focus will be on axial or normal (tension /
compression), shear, and bearing stresses.

Concepts Related to Stress

Let us study some concepts that we will encounter in our analysis and solving of stress.

 Ultimate Load - the largest force which may be applied to the specimen is reached before breaking
or before it begins to carry less load. It is denoted by Pu. If the applied load is centric, we may
divide the ultimate load by the original cross-sectional area of the rod to obtain the ultimate normal
stress of the material used. We will also use this assumption in the entirety of this topic.

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
 Allowable Load and Allowable Stress; Factor of Safety. – The maximum load that a structural
member or a machine component will be allowed to carry under normal conditions of utilization is
considerably smaller than the ultimate load. This smaller load is referred to as the allowable load
and, sometimes, as the working load or design load. Thus, only a fraction of the ultimate-load
capacity of the member is utilized when the allowable load is applied. The remaining portion of the
load-carrying capacity of the member is kept in reserve to assure its safe performance. The ratio of
the ultimate load to the allowable load is used to define the factor of safety.

 Margin of Safety – In some fields of engineering, notably aeronautical engineering, the margin of
safety is used in place of the factor of safety. The margin of safety is defined as the factor of safety
minus one; that is, M.S.= F.S.- 1.00.

Axial or Normal Stress

Axial or normal stress (N), is stress acting perpendicular to the plane on which it acts. Axial stress can
either elongate (tension) or shorten (compression) the material

We should also note that, in formula, 𝜎N is obtained by dividing the magnitude 𝑃 of the resultant of the
internal forces (normal force 𝑁, in internal loadings) distributed over the cross section by the area 𝐴 of
the cross section; it represents, therefore, the average value of the stress over the cross section.

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
PROBLEM #3: The bar ABC consists of 2 cylindrical segments with different lengths and cross-sectional
areas. Axial loads are applied as shown. Calculate the normal stress in each segment.

SOLUTION: First, we have to solve for the internal forces on this member. Remember that stress makes
use of internal forces. Let us divide the figure into two segments as shown above. The sections are
shown below. Note that by inspection, the section has zero shear and moment internal forces.

ABx BCx

At Section A, At Section B,
∑Fx = 0 (+) ∑Fx = 0 (+)
-4000 + ABx = 0 -4000 + 9000 + BCx = 0
ABx = 4000 lb BCx = -5000 lb ()

As we can see here, Ax is pointing away from the section, and thus, this force is acting in tension.
Meanwhile, Bx is pointing towards the section, and thus, the force is acting in compression.

We can now solve for the normal stresses on each section using the formula.

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
σN = P / A
for segment AB, for segment BC,
σN(AB) = 4000 lb / 1.2 in2 σN(BC) = 5000 lb / 1.8 in2
σN(AB) = 3333.33 lb / in2 σN(BC) = 2777.78 lb / in2
σN(AB) = 3333.33 psi (tension) σN(BC) = 2777.78 psi (compression)

PROBLEM #4: The figure below shows a two-member truss supporting a block of weight W. The cross-
sectional areas of the members are 800 mm2 for AB and 400 mm2 for AC. Determine the maximum
safe value of W if the working stresses are 110 MPa for AB and 120 MPa for AC.

SOLUTION: This is an investigation problem, wherein we have to find the value of W that will satisfy the
conditions of the problem. For this problem, first we have to draw the FBD, and then find for the values
of the tension in cables AB and AC in terms of W.

FAB FBC

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
∑Fx = 0 (+)
-FABcos40° + FBCcos60º = 0
FBCcos60º = FABcos40°
FBC = FABcos40° / cos60° = 1.5321FAB

∑Fy = 0 (+)
FABsin40° + FBCsin60º - W = 0
FABsin40° + 1.5321FABsin60º = W
1.9696FAB = W
FAB = 0.5077W
FBC = 1.5321FAB = 0.7779W

Now, we substitute these values into the formulas for stress. We are getting two values of W.

σN = P / A
for member AB, for member AC,
110 MPa = 0.5077W / 800 mm2 120 MPa = 0.7779W / 400 mm2
W = 173330.71 N W = 61704.59 N

There may be indeed two values of W, but 61704.59 N is the only correct answer. This is because if we
choose 173330.71 N as the answer, member AC will fail because it will exceed its working load and
eventually, its working stress. Meanwhile, if we choose 61704.59 N as the correct answer, we do not
have to worry about failure in member AB because it has a higher working load, and eventually, its
working stress will also be satisfied.

Shear Stress

Shear stress () is stress acting in the plane on which it acts. Shear stress tends to slide one segment of
the material relative to the other segment.

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
We should also note that, in formula, 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 is obtained by dividing the magnitude 𝑉 of the resultant of
the internal forces (shear force 𝑉, in internal loadings) distributed over the cross section by the area 𝐴
of the cross section; it represents, therefore, the average value of the stress over the cross section.
Notice that 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 is in the same direction as 𝑉, since the shear stress must create associated forces all
of which contribute to the internal resultant force 𝑉 at the section.

The loading case discussed here is an example of simple or direct shear, since the shear is caused by
the direct action of the applied external load 𝐹. This type of shear often occurs in various types of
simple connections that use bolts, pins, welding material, etc. In all these cases, however, application of
the average shear stress is only approximate.

We have different types of shear as illustrated below.

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
PROBLEM #5: When the force P reached 8 kN, the wooden specimen shown failed in shear along the
surface indicated by the dashed line. Determine the average shearing stress along that surface at the
time of failure.

SOLUTION:
This is just a simple direct substitution where the shear load is 8 kN or 8000 N, and the shear area is 90
mm x 15 mm.

τavg = V / AS = 8000 N / (90 mm x 15 mm) = 5.93 MPa

PROBLEM #6: The wooden members A and B are to be joined by plywood

splice plates that will be fully glued on the surfaces in contact. As part of
the design of the joint, and knowing that the clearance between the ends
of the members is to be 1/4 inch, determine the smallest allowable length 𝐿
if the average shearing stress in the glue is not to exceed 120 psi.

SOLUTION:
This is also just a simple direct substitution, but with a bit of a twist. The
shear load should be 5.8 kips or 5800 psi, but the shear area should be 4
in. x (L – ¼) in. This is because the ¼” dimension here is a clearance, and
therefore, no shear contact happens there.

τavg = V / AS
120 psi = 5800 lb / [(4 in.) x (L – ¼ in)]
L = 12.33 in.

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
Bearing Stress

Bearing stress (b) is defined as the normal stress that acts in the area of contact of two different
materials. Bearing stress tends to locally crush the material at the contact point.

For example, consider again the image on the right. In here, the
two plates 𝐴 and 𝐵 connected by a bolt CD. The bolt exerts on
plate 𝐴 a force 𝑃 equal and opposite to the force 𝐹 exerted by
the plate on the bolt. The force 𝑃 represents the resultant of
elementary forces distributed on the inside surface of a half
cylinder of diameter 𝑑 and of length 𝑡 equal to the thickness of
the plate. Notice that area of consideration is the vertical
projection of the lateral surface area of contact of the half of
cylinder.

PROBLEM #7: The lap joint shown in Figure is fastened by four ¾-in.-diameter rivets. Calculate the
maximum safe load P that can be applied if the shearing stress in the rivets is limited to 14 ksi and the
bearing stress in the plates is limited to 18 ksi. Assume the applied load is uniformly distributed among
the four rivets.

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
SOLUTION: We have to check the structure for both shear and bearing stresses. This is similar to
Problem #4, wherein we are choosing the smallest value of P that will satisfy the conditions of the
problem.

FOR THE SHEAR STRESS IN THE RIVETS: FOR THE BEARING STRESS IN THE PLATES:
τavg = V / AS σb = P / A b
14 ksi = P / [(4)(π/4)(0.75 in)2] 18 ksi = P / [(4)(7/8 in)(0.75 in)]
P = 24.74 k (governs) P = 47.25 k

PROBLEM #8: In the clevis shown in the figure, find the minimum bolt diameter and the minimum
thickness of each yoke that will support a load P = 14 kips without exceeding a shearing stress of 12 ksi
and a bearing stress of 20 ksi.

V=P/2 V=P/2

yoke

SOLUTION:
First, we can solve for the bolt diameter. As we can see here, the bolt is exposed to shear in two areas.
This is what we call double shear. The analysis of a bolt in double shear is shown above.

τavg = V / AS
12 ksi = 14 k / [(2)(π/4)(d)2]
d = 0.86 in.

Then, we can solve for the thickness of the yoke. As we can see in the illustration, we also have two
bearing areas in the figure.
σb = P / A b
20 ksi = 14 k / [(2)(0.86 in)(tyoke)]
tyoke = 0.41 in.

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
Stresses on Inclined Planes

Axial forces exerted on a two-force member were found to

cause normal stresses in that member, while transverse
forces exerted on bolts and pins were found to cause
shearing stresses in those connections. The reason such a
relation was observed between axial forces and normal
stresses on one hand, and transverse forces and shearing
stresses on the other, was because stresses were being
determined only on planes perpendicular to the axis of the
member or connection.

Axial forces cause both normal and shearing stresses on

planes which are not perpendicular to the axis of the
member.

Consider the two-force member which is subjected to axial forces. If we pass a section forming an
angle 𝜃 with a normal plane and draw the free-body diagram of the portion of member located to the
left of that section, we find from the equilibrium conditions of the free body that the distributed forces
acting on the section must be equivalent to the force.

Resolving 𝑃 into components 𝐹 and 𝑉, respectively normal and tangential to the section

The force 𝐹 represents the resultant of normal forces distributed over the section, and the force 𝑉 the
resultant of shearing forces. The average values of the corresponding normal and shearing stresses are
obtained by dividing, respectively, 𝐹 and 𝑉 by the area 𝐴𝜃 of the section

PROBLEM #9: The rectangular wood panel is formed by gluing together two boards along the 30-
degree seam as shown in the figure. Determine the largest axial force P that can be carried safely by
the panel if the working stress for the wood is 1120 psi, and the normal and shear stresses in the glue
are limited to 700 psi and 450 psi, respectively.

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Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
SOLUTION:
Using the formulas introduced on stresses on inclined planes, and
also the formula for normal stress (for the wood), we are going to
check for the value of P that will best satisfy the conditions of the
problem. Again, this is similar to the concepts used in the previous
examples.

FOR NORMAL STRESS IN THE GLUE:

σ = F / Aϴ
700 psi = Pcos30° / [(1 in)(4/cos30° in)]
P = 3733.33 lb (governs)

FOR SHEAR STRESS IN THE GLUE:

τ = V / Aϴ
450 psi = Psin30° / [(1 in)(4/cos30° in)]
P = 4156.92 lb

FOR NORMAL STRESS IN THE WOOD:

σN = P / AN
1120 psi = P / [(1 in)(4 in)]
P = 4480 lb

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 Lecture 1 – Internal Loadings and Stress
References: This part includes online references. This is to avoid plagiarism in the content of the
modules.
Chapter 1:
 The Efficient Engineer. (2020, February 11). An Introduction to Stress and Strain. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aQf6Q8t1FQE
 Chakraborti, M. (2018). Strength of materials (SI Units). New Delhi: S.K. Kataria & Sons
 R.C. Hibbeler, 2011. Mechanics of Materials (8th Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA:
Pearson Prentice Hall
 Pytel, A., & Kiusalaas, J. (2012). Mechanics of materials (2nd ed.). Cengage Learning.
 Beer, F. P., Johnston Jr., E. R., DeWolf, J. T., & Mazurek, D. F. (2015). Mechanics of Materials (7th ed.).
McGraw-Hill Education.

Chapter 2:
 The Efficient Engineer. (2020, February 11). An Introduction to Stress and Strain. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aQf6Q8t1FQE
 Chakraborti, M. (2018). Strength of materials (SI Units). New Delhi: S.K. Kataria & Sons
 R.C. Hibbeler, 2011. Mechanics of Materials (8th Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA:
Pearson Prentice Hall
 Pytel, A., & Kiusalaas, J. (2012). Mechanics of materials (2nd ed.). Cengage Learning.
 Beer, F. P., Johnston Jr., E. R., DeWolf, J. T., & Mazurek, D. F. (2015). Mechanics of Materials (7th ed.).
McGraw-Hill Education.
 3.1 axial strain. (n.d.). Index. https://www.ah-engr.com/som/3_stress/text_3-1.htm
 Earthquake glossary. (n.d.). USGS Earthquake Hazards Program.
https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=shear%20stress
 Mechanics eBook: Shear and bearing stress. (n.d.). eCourses. https://www.ecourses.ou.edu/cgi-
bin/eBook.cgi?doc=&topic=me&chap_sec=01.2&page=theory
 Solution to problem 126 bearing stress | Strength of materials review. (n.d.). MATHalino | Engineering
Mathematics. https://mathalino.com/reviewer/strength-materials/solution-problem-126-bearing-
stress
 Solution to problem 127 bearing stress | Strength of materials review. (n.d.). MATHalino | Engineering
Mathematics. https://mathalino.com/reviewer/strength-materials/solution-problem-127-bearing-
stress

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