TET421 & EET408

Chapter 1
Introduction to Power System Analysis

Nor Hanisah Baharudin

School of Electrical System Engineering

Lecture by
Zetty Nurazlinda Zakaria

Announcements

For lectures 1 please be reading Chapter 3

Tutorial#1 3.28, 3.41, 3.42, 3.45, 3.46, 3.49;

In the News: GM Volt

• Last week GM unveiled the production version
of their pluggable hybrid electric (PHEB) car,
the Volt. GM said the volt will use a 16 kWh
lithium-ion battery pack to give the car an all
electric range of about 40 miles.
• PHEBs could have
a major positive
impact on the
power grid by
adding lots of new
nighttime load.
2

1
 The knowledge that students can
obtain from this topic are:
1. Explain the major problem in electric power
system such as load flow, optimal power flow,
symmetrical fault, unsymmetrical fault and
stability.
2. To representation the components on electric
power system
3. Design the single-line diagram, impedance
diagram and admittance diagram of the electric
power system
4. Calculate the per-unit of the electric power system
components
3

Power System Components

Transmission
Generation & Sub Distribution Loads
Transmission

• Prime • HV transmission • Distribution • Industrial

mover lines substations • Residential
• Generator • Switching stations • Step-down
• Step-up • Circuit breakers transformers
transformer • Transformers
Generator Transformer CB TL Bus bar Load

Y Y-Y ∆-Y
SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM
4

Electric Power
Generation,
Transmission &
Distribution

3 main/core business of TNB :-

Generation

Transmission

Distribution

Energy delivered to customers
are managed by :-

Transmission Division (Grid)

Power Generation

Transmission System

Distribution Division

Distribution System

2
Power System Notation
• Power system components are usually shown as
‘Single Line Diagram’:
Generator Transformer CB TL Bus bar Load

Y Y-Y ∆-Y

Generators Transmission line Arrows are

shown as shown as a single used to show
circles line loads

Notation - Power
• Power: Instantaneous consumption of energy
• Power Units:
▫ Watts = voltage x current for dc (W)

kW – 1 x 103 Watt

MW – 1 x 106 Watt

GW – 1 x 109 Watt
• Power generation capacity connected to the
Malaysian National Grid is 19,023 MW, with a
maximum demand of 13,340 MW.

Notation - Power
• Energy: Integration of power over time; energy is
what people really want from a power system
• Energy Units

Joule = 1 Watt-second (J)

kWh – Kilowatthour (3.6 x 106 J)

Btu – 1055 J;

1 MBtu=0.292 MWh

• U.S. electric energy consumption is about 3600

billion kWh (about 13,333 kWh per person, which
means on average we each use 1.5 kW of power
continuously)

• Malaysia electric energy consumption is about 93.8

billion kWh (about 3,303 kWh per person) 8

3
Power System Examples
• Electric utility: can range from quite small, such as an
island, to one covering half the continent there are four
major interconnected ac power systems in North
American, each operating at 60 Hzac; 50 Hz is used in
some other countries.

• Airplanes and Spaceships: reduction in weight is

primary consideration; frequency is 400 Hz.

• Ships and submarines

• Automobiles: dc with 12 volts standard

• Battery operated portable systems

9

Utility Restructuring
• Driven by significant regional variations in
electric rates
• Goal of competition is to reduce rates through
the introduction of competition
• Eventual goal is to allow consumers to choose
their electricity supplier
• Restructure by bidding

10

THE MODERN POWER SYSTEMS

• The power system of to day is a complex
interconnected network.

• The advantages of interconnection system are

1. We need a few machines to draw peak load, only

2. A few machines be operated at no load be up
against the sudden load.
3. The power can supplied from the other company
which is lower cost.
4. Possibly, buy the power energy is costless than self
generated.
11

4
 • But, the problems are:

1. The short circuit current will be greater in the

power system, and with the result that the circuit
breaker ratings must be increased.

2. The influence of short circuit may be flow to part

of interconnected system, so the protecting relays
must be excellent in point of interconnected.

3. The frequency must be same for all parts of the

system

4. All synchronous generator on the system must be

synchronize
12

THE PROBLEMS IN POWER SYSTEM

1. Load flow
2. Short-Circuit
3. Stability
Generator Transformer CB TL Bus bar Load

Y Y-Y ∆-Y

6 lectures 5 lectures
•Fault Calculation •Power Flow Solution

2 lectures
• Stability 13

Single Line Diagram vs Impedance Diagram

Generator 1
Transformer 1 Transformer 2
Generator 3

Generator 2

Load B
1 a) Single Line Diagram for an Electrical Power System
Load A T1 Trsm T2

XT1 RTrsm XTrsm XT2

Load A

Load B

Xg1 Xg2 Xg3

E1g E2g E3g

1 b) Impedance Diagram for an Electrical Power System 14

5
 System Modeling
• Systems are represented on per-phase basis

– A single phase representation is used for a balanced system.

– System is modeled as one phase of a Y-connected network.

– Symmetrical components are used for unbalanced systems.

– Unbalanced systems may be caused by: generation, network

components, loads or unusual operating conditions i.e faults.

– The per-unit system of measurements is used to simplify

calculations
15

Review of basic network component models

1. Generator model
▫ Thevenin model – induces AC voltage, E behind
the synchronous reactance, Xd

2. Transformer model

16

• For power flow calculation and fault analysis,

transformer can be represented by its PU
leakage reactance only (transformer phase shift,
resistance and magnetizing reactance are
neglected)

17

6
 3. Load models

Constant Constant Constant

Impedance current power
The load has a
The load has a constant real, P
constant current and reactive, Q,
Load is made up magnitude, I and power
of R, L, C a constant power component
elements factor, independent of
connected to a independent of nodal voltage or
network node the nodal current
and the ground voltage. Also injection. Also
(or neutral point considered as a considered as a
of the system) current injection negative power
in to the network injection into the
network.

- Motor model (dynamic load)

18

The per unit system

Per unit system are extensively used to simplify the mathematical
representation over a wide range of different physical problems. Some of the
advantages, as follows:

1. A simple inspection of per-unit parameters immediately reveals

much more about the basic nature of a machine than may be
observed from the ordinary parameters.

2. The numerical range of per-unit parameters is small, of the order of

unity and less. This is valuable for solution by analogue or digital
computers, manual calculations are also simplified.

3. In single and poly-phase analysis, the turns ratios of transformers

(and the manner of internal connection in the poly phase case) are
removed from the analysis.

4. The circuit law are valid in per-unit systems, and the power and
voltages equations are simplified since the factor of √3 and 3 are
eliminated in the per-unit system
19

Per Unit Calculations

A key problem in analyzing power systems is the
large number of transformers.
– It would be very difficult to continually have to refer
impedances to the different sides of the transformers

This problem is avoided by a normalization of all
variables.

This normalization is known as per unit analysis.

20

7
• Almost all power system analysis are performed
in per-units

• Based on per-phase, wye-connected, three phase

system. Let,
– 3 phase power base, S3ø “common power base is
100 MVA”
– Line-to-line voltage base, VLL “voltage base is
usually selected from the equipment rated
voltage”

21

22

• The impedance base for equipment is derived

from its rated power and the rated voltages.

• When modeling an equipment in a system, the

per-unit impedance must be converted from one
(old) base to another (new) base so that the
equipment and the system are on a common
base

23

8
Per Unit Conversion Procedure, 1φ
1. Pick a 1φ VA base for the entire system, SB
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage
level, VB. Voltage bases are related by
transformer turns ratios. Voltages are line to
neutral.
3. Calculate the impedance base, ZB= (VB)2/SB
4. Calculate the current base, IB = VB/ZB
5. Convert actual values to per unit
Note, per unit conversion on affects magnitudes, not
the angles. Also, per unit quantities no longer have
units (i.e., a voltage is 1.0 p.u., not 1 p.u. volts)
24

Per Unit Solution Procedure

1. Convert to per unit (p.u.) (many problems are
already in per unit)
2. Solve
3. Convert back to actual as necessary

25

Per Unit Example

Solve for the current, load voltage and load power
in the circuit shown below using per unit analysis
with an SB of 100 MVA, and voltage bases of
8 kV, 80 kV and 16 kV.

Original Circuit
26

9
Per Unit Example, cont’d
8kV 2
Z BLeft = = 0.64Ω
100 MVA
80kV 2
Z BMiddle = = 64Ω
100MVA
16kV 2
Z BRight = = 2.56Ω
100MVA

Same circuit, with

values expressed
in per unit.
27

Per Unit Example, cont’d

1.0∠0°
I = = 0.22∠ − 30.8° p.u. (not amps)
3.91 + j 2.327
VL = 1.0∠0° − 0.22∠ − 30.8° × 2.327∠90°
= 0.859∠ − 30.8° p.u.
2
VL
S L = VL I L* = = 0.189 p.u.
Z
SG = 1.0∠0° × 0.22∠30.8° = 0.22∠30.8° p.u.
28

Per Unit Example, cont’d

To convert back to actual values just multiply the
per unit values by their per unit base

V LActual = 0.859∠ − 30.8° × 16 kV = 13.7∠ − 30.8° kV

S LActual = 0.189∠0° × 100 MVA = 18.9∠0° MVA
SGActual = 0.22∠30.8° × 100 MVA = 22.0∠30.8° MVA
100 MVA
I Middle
B = = 1250 Amps
80 kV
Actual
I Middle = 0.22∠ − 30.8° ×1250 Amps = 275∠ − 30.8° Α
29

10
Three Phase Per Unit
Procedure is very similar to 1φ except we use a 3φ
VA base, and use line to line voltage bases
1. Pick a 3φ VA base for the entire system, S B3φ
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage
level, VB. Voltages are line to line.
3. Calculate the impedance base

VB2, LL ( 3 VB , LN ) 2 VB2,LN
ZB = = =
S B3φ 3S1Bφ S 1Bφ
Exactly the same impedance bases as with single phase!
30

Three Phase Per Unit, cont'd

4. Calculate the current base, IB
S B3φ 3 S 1Bφ S 1Bφ
I3Bφ = = = = I1Bφ
3 VB , LL 3 3 VB , LN VB , LN
Exactly the same current bases as with single phase!

5. Convert actual values to per unit

31

Three Phase Per Unit Example

Solve for the current, load voltage and load power
in the previous circuit, assuming a 3φ power base of
300 MVA, and line to line voltage bases of 13.8 kV,
138 kV and 27.6 kV (square root of 3 larger than the 1φ
example voltages). Also assume the generator is Y-
connected so its line to line voltage is 13.8 kV.
Convert to per unit
as before. Note the
system is exactly the
same!

32

11
3φ Per Unit Example, cont'd
1.0∠0°
I = = 0.22∠ − 30.8° p.u. (not amps)
3.91 + j 2.327
VL = 1.0∠0° − 0.22∠ − 30.8° × 2.327∠90°
= 0.859∠ − 30.8° p.u.
2
VL
S L = VL I L* = = 0.189 p.u.
Z
SG = 1.0∠0° × 0.22∠30.8° = 0.22∠30.8° p.u.

Again, analysis is exactly the same!

33

3φ Per Unit Example, cont'd

Differences appear when we convert back to actual values
V LActual = 0.859∠ − 30.8° × 27.6 kV = 23.8∠ − 30.8° kV
S LActual = 0.189∠0°× 300 MVA = 56.7∠0° MVA
SGActual = 0.22∠30.8° × 300 MVA = 66.0∠30.8° MVA
300 MVA
I Middle
B = = 1250 Amps (same current!)
3 138 kV
Middle = 0.22∠ − 30.8° × 1250 Amps = 275∠ − 30.8° Α
I Actual

34

Example
Given a 100-V sinusoidal source in series with a 3-Ω resistor, a
8-Ω inductor and a 4-Ω capacitor. Solve the problem in per-unit
on base of Vbase = 100V and Sbase = 500VA. Calculate the
complex power delivered to each of the four elements in the
circuit in per-unit

Solution: S base 500

I base = = = 5A
V base 100
V base 100
Z base = = = 20 Ω
I base 5
2
V base (100) 2
Z base = = = 20 Ω
S base 500
35

12
 We convert the circuit values to per-unit :-

0
V 100 0 0
V pu = = = 1 0 = 1+ j0
V base 100
R 3
R pu = = = 0 . 15
Z base 20
XL 8
X Lpu = = = 0 . 40
Z base 20
XC 4
X Cpu = = = 0 . 20
Z base 20

36

This circuit shows all values in per unit

37

SRpu = I2R = (4)2 (0.15) = 2.4 + j 0

SLpu = jI 2 X L = j(4)2 (0.4) = 0 + j6.4

2 2
SCpu = - jI XC = - j(4)(0.2) = 0 - j3.2

S pu = S Rpu + S Lpu + SCpu = 2.4 + j6.4 − j3.2

= 2.4 + j3.2 = 4.0 53 .1°

38

13
Example Change of Base
The reactance of the generator designated X” is
given as 0.25 per-unit based on the generator
nameplate rating of 18 kV, 500 MVA. The base for
calculation is 20 kV, 100 MVA. Find X” on the
new base.
Solution:

Note: Resistance and reactance of a device in percent or

per-unit are usually available from the manufacturer
39

Per Unit Change of Base Example

•A 54 MVA transformer has a leakage reactance or
3.69%. What is the reactance on a 100 MVA base?

100
X e = 0.0369 × = 0.0683 p.u.
54

40

Transformer Reactance

Transformer reactance is often specified as a
percentage, say 10%. This is a per unit value
(divide by 100) on the power base of the
transformer.

Example: A 350 MVA, 230/20 kV transformer
has leakage reactance of 10%. What is p.u. value
on 100 MVA base? What is value in ohms (230
kV)? 100
X e = 0.10 × = 0.0286 p.u.
350
230 2
0.0286 × = 15.1 Ω
100 41

14
 PER-UNIT IMPEDANCES IN SINGLE
PHASE TRANSFORMER CIRCUIT.
For transformer:

• The ohmic values of resistance and reactance

depend on whether they are measured on the
high- or low-voltage side of the transformer.

• The per-unit values of impedance of a

transformer is the same regardless of whether
it is determined from ohmic values referred to
the high-voltage or low-voltage sides of the
transformer.
42

Example
A single-phase transformer is rated 110/440 V, 2.5 kVA.
Leakage reactance measured from the low-voltage side
is 0.06 Ω. Determine leakage reactance in per-unit.
Solution:

43

If leakage reactance had been measured on the

high-voltage side, the value would be

Conclusion: The p.u impedance of a transformer is the same

regardless of HV or LV side.

44

15
So, a great advantage in making per-unit computations
is realized by the proper selection of different bases for
circuits connected to each other through a transformer.

• The voltage bases for the circuits connected through

the transformer must have the same ratio as the turns
ratio of the transformer windings.

• The base voltage only for the component in between

two transformers

45

Example
Three parts of a single-phase electric system are
designated A, B and C and are connected to each other
through transformers, as shown in Fig. The transformers
are rated as follows:
A-B: 10,000 kVA, 13.8/138 kV, leakage reactance 10%
B-C: 10,000 kVA, 138/69 kV, leakage reactance 8%
If the base in circuit b is chosen as 10,000 kVA, 138kV,
find the per-unit impedance of the 300 resistive load in
circuit C referred to circuit C, B, and A. Draw the
impedance diagram neglecting magnetizing circuit,
transformer resistances and line impedances.

46

Solution:
Base voltage for circuit A: 0.1x 138 = 13.8 kV
Base voltage for circuit C: 0.5 x 138 = 69 kV
Base impedance of circuit C:
1-10 2-1

A B C 300

A-B B-C
Fig 1. Circuit example.

47

16
• Per-unit impedance of load in circuit C:
300
= 0.63 p.u.
476

The per-unit impedance of the load referred to any part

of the system will be the same because:

• The selection of base in various parts of the system is

determined by the turns ratio of the transformers

• The base kilovoltamperes is the same in all parts of

the system
48

Base impedance of circuit B: 1382 x 1000 = 1900 Ω

10 , 000
Impedance of load referred to circuit B:
300 x 22 = 1200
Per-unit impedance of load referred to B:
1200 = 0.63 p.u
1900
Base impedance of circuit A:
13.82 x1000
= 19 Ω
10,000
49

Impedance of load referred to circuit A:

300 x 22 x 0.12 = 12

Per-unit impedance of load to referred to A:

12
= 0.63 p.u
19
Since chosen bases for kilovolts and kilovoltamperes
agree with the transformer ratings, the transformer
reactances in per-unit are 0.08 and 0.1, respectively.

50

17
 j0.1 j0.08

0.63+j0

Remember:

The kilovoltampere base should be the same in all parts

of the system, and the selection of the base kilovolts in
one part of the system determines the base kilovolts to
be assigned, according to the turns ratios of the
transformers, to the other parts of the system.
51

THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM IN THREE-PHASE

TRANSFORMERS
• The possible connection of the three phase
transformer is:

1. Y-Y
2. Y-∆
3. ∆-Y
4. ∆-∆

The theory is the same for a three-phase transformer

AS
for a three-phase bank of a single-phase transformer
52

Advantage of a three-phase transformer than three

single-phase transformers:

The three-phase unit has the advantage of requiringless

iron to form the core, and is therefore more economical
then three single- phase units and occupies less space.

Advantage of three single-phase transformers than a

three-phase transformer:

The three single-phase units have the advantage of

replacement of only one unit of the three-phase bank in
case of a failure rather than losing the whole three-phase
bank.
53

18
 Distribution Transformer

LTC
Radiators
W/Fans
115 – 35 kV distribution transformer
Source: Tom Ernst, Minnesota Power 54

230/115 kV Transformer
230 kV surge 115 kV surge
arrestors arrestors

Oil Cooler
Oil
Radiators
pump
W/Fans
Source: Tom Ernst, Minnesota Power 55

Three Phase Transformers

•There are 4 different ways to connect 3φ transformers
Y-Y ∆-∆∆

Usually 3φ transformers are constructed so all windings

share a common core
56

19
3φ Transformer Interconnections
∆-Y ∆
Y-∆

57

Voltage Calculations: Balanced Y-Y and

∆-Y transformers
Three single-phase two-winding transformers, each
rated 400 MVA, 13.8/199.2 kV, with leakage reactance
Xeq = 0.10 per-unit, are connected to form a three-
phase bank. Winding resistances and exciting current
are neglected. The high voltage windings are connected
in Y. A three phase load operating under balanced
positive-sequence conditions on the high-voltage side
absorbs 1000 MVA at 0.90 p.f. lagging, with
VAN= kV. Determine the voltage VAN at the low-
voltage bus if the low-voltage windings are connected
(a) in Y, (b) in ∆.
58

Solution:

a) Y-connected low-voltage windings

b) ∆-connected low-voltage windings

59

20
The per unit network is shown in Fig 1(a) and (b).
Use the transformer bank ratings as base
quantities, Sbase3ø = 1200 MVA, VbaseHLL = 345 kV
and IbaseH = 1200/(345 ) = 2.008 kA. The per
unit load voltage and load current are then

60

61

Example
Three transformers, each rated 25 MVA, 38.1/3.81
kV, are connected Y-∆ with a balanced load of
three 0.6 Ω, Y-connected resistors. Choose a base
of 75 MVA, 66 kV for the high-voltage side of the
transformer and specify the base for the low-
voltage side. Then, determine the load resistance
RL in ohms referred to the high-voltage side and
the per-unit value of this resistance on the chosen
base.
62

21
Solution

63

PER-UNIT IMPEDANCES OF THE

THREE-WINDING TRANSFORMERS
• Selection base:
• Sbase is selected for all three windings
• Voltage bases are selected in proportion to the
rated voltages of the windings

s Zs
p s
t
p
Zp
Zt
t
64
Schematic diagram Equivalent circuit

Note:

• Two-winding transformer have the same kilovoltampere

rating for both the primary and secondary windings,
BUT all three windings of a three-winding transformer
may have different kilovoltampere ratings.

• The impedance of each winding of a three winding

transformer may be given in percent or per-unit based
on the rating of its own winding, or tests may be made to
determine the impedances.

• In any case, all the per-unit impedances must be

expressed on the same kilovoltampere base

Three single-phase transformer ≠ Three phase transformer

Three-phase transformer ≠ Three-winding transformer

65

22
• Three impedances may be measured by the
standard short-circuit test, as follows:

1. Zps : leakage impedance measured in primary

with secondary short-circuited and tertiary
open

2. Zpt : leakage impedance measured in primary

with tertiary short-circuited and open
secondary

3. Zst : leakage impedance measured in

secondary with tertiary short-circuited and
primary open
66

• The impedances of each separate winding

Zps = Zp + Zs
Zpt = Zp + Zt
Zst = Zs + Zt
Where:

Zp, Zs, Zt= impedance of the primary, secondary,

tertiary windings respectively referred to the primary
circuit

Zps ,Zpt ,Zst are the measured impedance referred to the

primary circuit

67

68

23
Example #1(a)
The three phase ratings of a three winding transformer are:

Primary : Y-connected, 66 kV, 15 MVA

Secondary : Y-connected, 13.2 kV, 10 MVA
Tertiery : ∆-connected, 2.3 kV, 5 MVA

Neglecting resistance, the leakage impedance are

Zps = 7% on 15 MVA, 66 kV base

Zpt = 9% on 15 MVA, 66 kV base
Zst = 10% on 10 MVA, 13.2 kV base

Find the per unit impedances of the per phase equivalent circuit for
a base of 15 MVA, 66 kV in the primary circuit.

69

Solution
• With a base of 15 MVA, 66 kV, in the primary circuit, the proper
bases for the per unit impedances of the equivalent circuit are 15
MVA, 66 kV for primary-circuit quantities, 15 MVA, 13.2 kV for
secondary-circuit quantities, and 15 MVA, 2.3 kV for tertiary-circuit
quantities.

• Since Zps and Zpt are measured in the primary circuit, they are
already expressed on the proper base for the equivalent circuit. No
change of voltage base is required for Zst is made as follows:

70

• In per unit on the specified base

71

24
Example #1(b)
A constant voltage source (infinite bus) supplies a
purely resistive 5MW, 2.3kV three-phase load and a
7.5MVA, 13.2 kV synchronous motor having a
subtransient reactance of X” = 20%. The source is
connected to the primary of the three-winding
transformer described in Fig. The motor and the
resistive load are connected to the secondary and
tertiary of the transformer. Draw the impedance
diagram of the system and mark the per-unit
impedances for a base of 66kV, 15 MVA in the primary.
Neglect exciting current and all resistance except that
of the resistive load.
72

Solution
The constant-voltage source can be represented by
a generator having no internal impedance.

The resistance of the load is 1.0 pu on a base of 5

MVA, 2.3kV in the tertiary. Expressed on a 15
MVA, 2.3 kV base, the load resistance is:

The reactance of the motor on a base of 15 MVA,

13.2 kV is

73

Solution

Fig. : Impedance Diagram

74

25
Per unit computations
The following points should be kept in mind:

1. A base kilovolts and base kilovoltamperes is selected in one part

of the system. The base values for a three-phase system are
understood to be line-to-line kilovolts and three-phase
kilovoltamperes or megavoltamperes.

2. For other parts of the system, that is, on other side of

transformer, the base kilovolts for each part is determined
according to the line-to-line voltage ratios of transformers. The
base kilovoltamperes will be the same in all parts of the system. It
will be helpful to mark the base kilovolts of each partof the system
on one-line diagram.

3. Impedance information available for three-phase transformers

will usually be in per-unit or in percent on the base determined by
their own ratings. 75

4. For three single-phase transformers connected as

a three phase unit the three-phase ratings are
determined from the single-phase rating of each
individual transformer. Impedance in percent for
the three-phase unit is the same as that for each
individual transformer.

5. Per-unit impedance given on a base other than

that determined for the part of the system in which
the element is located must be changed to the
proper base.

76

Load Tap Changing Transformers

LTC transformers have tap ratios that can be
varied to regulate bus voltages

The typical range of variation is ±10% from the
nominal values, usually in 33 discrete steps
(0.0625% per step).

Because tap changing is a mechanical process,
LTC transformers usually have a 30 second
deadband to avoid repeated changes.

Unbalanced tap positions can cause "circulating
vars"
77

26
Phase Shifting Transformers

Phase shifting transformers are used to control
the phase angle across the transformer

Since power flow through the transformer
depends upon phase angle, this allows the
transformer to regulate the power flow through
the transformer

Phase shifters can be used to prevent
inadvertent "loop flow" and to prevent line
overloads.
78

ComED Control Center

79

ComED Phase Shifter Display

80

27
 Northern & Eastern Regional Control
Centre (NERCC)

81

Autotransformers

Autotransformers are transformers in which
the primary and secondary windings are
coupled magnetically and electrically.

This results in lower cost, and smaller size
and weight.

The key disadvantage is loss of electrical
isolation between the voltage levels. This can
be an important safety consideration when a
is large. For example in stepping down
7160/240 V we do not ever want 7160 on the
low side!

82

28