Introduction Industrial Power Systems

Introduction to Industrial Power Systems
Technical literature supporting this section:
IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for Industrial Plants (IEEE Red
Book), IEEE 141, IEEE Press, 1993.
IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial
Power Systems (IEEE Buff Book), IEEE 242, IEEE Press, 2001.
IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
(IEEE Green Book), IEEE 142, IEEE Press, 2007.
IEEE Recommended Practice for Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Analysis (IEEE
Brown Book), IEEE 399, IEEE Press, 1997.
IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power Systems in Commercial Buildings, (IEEE Gray
Book), IEEE 241, IEEE Press, 1990.
IEEE Recommended Practice for the Design of Reliable Industrial and Commercial Power
Systems (IEEE Gold Book), IEEE 493, IEEE Press, 2007.
Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace, NFPS Std. 70E, 2009.
IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems, IEEE
1547, IEEE Press, 2003.
Khan, S., Industrial Power Systems. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2008.
Beeman, D., Industrial Power Systems Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1955.
PROT405_IntroductionIndustrialPower_r4 1
The operations and production of an industrial plant depend on a safe and reliable power system.
Human safety is extremely important and should never be compromised. Electrical codes prescribe
minimum installation practices, such as working space, clearance from live parts, minimum
protection against overcurrent, etc. Some major electrical codes applicable in North America are the
National Electrical Code (NEC), the Canadian Electrical Code (CEC), and the National Electrical
Safety Code (NESC). Electrical equipment minimum quality standards are prescribed in the
standards and guides of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the National
Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), Underwriters Laboratories (UL), and the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). UL maintains a continuing service in testing and
certifying the products of electrical manufacturers.
The capacity and reliability of the utility power supply must meet the plant power requirements.
Dedicated lines are more reliable than shared lines. Transmission lines have higher capacity and
reliability than medium-voltage distribution lines.
Plant power distribution system reliability must be considered during the planning and conceptual
design stage. The IEEE Gold Book provides guidelines for the design of reliable power systems.
The design of an industrial power distribution system should be simple and facilitate operation and
maintenance, thus increasing safety.
Voltage regulation must be considered in the design stage and automatically controlled during
operation.
The cost of an electric power system is small compared with the total cost. All the other
considerations shown on this slide, as well as a provision for future expansion, should be given
priority.
This one-line diagram shows a simplified medium-voltage power system for a typical industrial
installation. The installation is commonly indoors and insulated cables are used. In some cases, the
industrial system might have onsite overhead lines.
Some industrial systems have internal power plants synchronized with a utility supply system. In
other systems, the plant works independently of the utility. In some cases, a normal emergency
scheme is adopted.
The automatic circuit breakers are represented by squares. The following notation is used for the
different elements of the power system:
• G1, G2: Generators (owned by the industrial system company)
• T1, T2: Main transformers (may be owned by the industrial system company)
• Tx, Ty: Internal transformers
• M: High-voltage motor
• MC: High-voltage motor controller
• m: Low-voltage motor
• C: Capacitor bank
• CC: Controller
In addition to these components, the industrial power system has medium- and low-voltage cables
and overhead lines, as well as other elements.
An industrial system is composed of a main substation, a primary distribution system, a secondary

distribution system, and in-plant generation. The system may also include emergency power sources.
Electric utilities supply power at transmission or subtransmision voltages. Power is stepped down in
the plant main substation to medium voltage for primary distribution to different plant facilities or
load centers, and it is stepped down again to low voltage for secondary distribution.
The primary distribution system distributes power from the main substation and in-plant generation
units to the primary load centers (step-down transformers and medium-voltage motors). Typical
primary distribution voltages in North America are 4.16 kV (medium-size plants with load up to
15 MVA), 13.8 kV (medium- and large-size plants with load above 20 MVA), and 34.5 kV (large
plants with distant loads).
The secondary distribution system distributes power from the primary load centers to secondary load
centers, low-voltage switchgear, and utilization equipment such as motor control centers, motors,
heating, and lighting.
In-plant generation is used when steam is available at a suitable pressure and temperature, power is
not available from an electric utility, or power from the utility company is unreliable or the cost is
very high.
Emergency power sources (diesel-engine-driven generators) are used when a loss of service can
significantly affect process and/or equipment. These units start automatically about 20 seconds after a
loss of power. Emergency units are started periodically to ensure that they are in proper operating
condition.
The figure shows the one-line diagram of a radial industrial power system. Radial systems have a low
cost and are simple to operate, expand, and protect. However, radial systems have lower reliability
than looped systems. Equipment must be shut down for maintenance in radial systems.
The figure shows a looped industrial power system. The system includes several synchronized
sources. The two utility sources are interconnected; there are two internal generators also
synchronized to the rest of the system, and there are two more internal interconnections.
Looped systems are considerably more reliable than radial systems. In addition, the service quality,
measured in terms of the temporary interruption duration, is higher, because most faults can be
cleared automatically and quickly by isolating a minimum portion of the network and allowing
service continuity for most system devices. Equipment can be isolated for maintenance or repair
without service interruption. Looped systems have higher initial cost than radial systems. Protection
of looped systems is more complex than the protection of radial systems.
The main goals of system grounding are to provide personnel safety, minimize equipment voltage
and thermal stresses, reduce communications system interference, and give assistance in rapid
detection and elimination of ground faults.
With the exception of voltage stress, operating a system as ungrounded or resonant grounded restricts
ground fault current magnitudes and achieves most of the goals listed above. The drawback of these
grounding methods is that they also create fault detection (protection) sensitivity problems. We can
create a system grounding that reduces voltage stress at the cost of large fault current magnitudes.
However, in such a system the faulted circuit must be de-energized immediately to avoid thermal
stress, communications channel interference, and human safety hazards. The disadvantage is that
service must be interrupted even for temporary faults.
The following is a brief description of the grounding methods typically used in medium-voltage
distribution circuits.
The neutral grounding impedance limits the ground fault current.
The figure shows the typical three-phase model used to analyze power systems neutral grounding
systems. A simple source (it might be a generator or the secondary side of a transformer) with a
neutral point, N, is connected to the system earthing ground electrode through an impedance ZE. The
value of this impedance determines the type of neutral grounding scheme.
To study the behavior of the system, we determine the source currents and voltages for a close-in
single-phase-to-ground fault. We consider a fault resistance (RF) for the most general case and, in the
case of high-impedance-grounded systems, we must consider the influence of the system capacitance.
In the model shown, all the system capacitances around the source are concentrated in a simple set of
three single-phase capacitances.
When one of the phase conductors shorts to ground, all grounded elements have impressed across them the
system phase-to-ground voltages. These voltages cause capacitive currents to flow through the phase-to-
ground capacitances as shown in the figure. The voltages applied to two of the capacitances are the phase-to-
phase voltages VAB and VAC. These voltage produce currents ĪGB and ĪGC. For bolted faults, the voltage through
the faulted phase capacitance, and therefore the current, is zero. The voltage across the grounding device
impedance, ZE, causes current ĪGN to flow through this device.
The phase-to-ground voltages are:
VA  0; VB  VBA ; VC  VCA
Thus, the residual voltage is:
VRES  VA  VB  VC  VBA  VCA
In most cases, ZE is much larger than the generator (or transformer) impedance; therefore,
VRES  3 • E • e  j150  3 • E • e  j 210  3 • E

Thus, the total fault current is:
I FAULT  I GN  I GC  I GB  E / Z E  VAC /   jX C    VAB /   jX C    E / Z E  3 • E / (  jX C )
Notice that the residual current at the source terminals is ĪA + ĪB + ĪC = ĪGN.
Depending on the relative magnitude of ZE with respect to the magnitude of the reactive capacitances XC,
current ĪGN may be larger or smaller than the capacitive currents. In some grounding systems, the magnitude of
ĪGN is comparable to that of ĪGB and ĪGC. In other grounding systems, ZE is so small that the capacitive currents
are negligible.
The figure shows the variation of the A-phase fault current as a function of the grounding resistor
resistance RE in a 5 MVA, 4.16 kV, 60 Hz generator, with a total phase-to-ground capacitance
(including connection cables) of 0.5 F.
In this case,
 
X C  1 / 2 •  • 60 • 0.5 •106  5, 305 ohms
Notice from the figure that when
Z E  RE  X C / 3  1, 768 ohms
I FAULT  1.92 A
Exercise: Calculate the required resistance (in ohms) to limit the fault current to 200 A.
Solution: 12 ohms
An isolated neutral system has no intentional connection to ground: the system is connected to
ground through the line-to-ground capacitances. Single-line-to-ground faults shift the system neutral
voltage but leave the phase-to-phase voltage triangle intact. Hence, these systems can remain
operational during sustained, low-current faults. The system must have a phase-to-phase insulation
level and all loads are connected phase to phase.
The fault current for isolated neutral systems has a magnitude equal to the capacitive current
produced by connecting one of the phases to ground. For underground medium-voltage systems,
these currents are about 5 to 15 amperes, depending on system voltage and characteristics.
Zero-sequence line-to-ground capacitance and fault resistance are the major factors limiting the
ground fault current magnitude in ungrounded systems. The low fault current values require sensitive
fault detection devices. Self-extinction of ground faults at the fault current natural zero crossing in
overhead ungrounded lines is possible for low values of ground fault current. At higher magnitudes
of fault current, faults are less likely to self-extinguish because of the high transient recovery voltage.
Later, we discuss how a resonant-grounded system damps this recovery voltage rise, thereby
increasing the likelihood of causing the ground fault to self-extinguish.
Effective grounding complies with (X0 / X1)  3 and (R0 / X1)  1, where X0 and R0 are the zero-sequence
reactance and resistance, and X1 is the positive-sequence reactance of the power system. In practice,
effectively grounded systems have all or most of power system neutrals directly connected to earth (or ground)
without any intentional impedance between the neutral and earth.
There are two different practical implementations of effective grounding in medium-voltage distribution
systems: single-point grounding and multipoint grounding. In single-point grounded systems there may be only
three wires with all loads connected phase to phase, or there may be four wires with an isolated neutral and all
loads connected phase to neutral. In the latter application, the load unbalance current returns through the
neutral, while the ground fault current returns through the earth to the substation neutral. In multigrounded
systems with four wires and phase-to-neutral loads, the system is grounded at the substation, at every
transformer location along the circuit, and every 1,000 feet or so if there is no transformer ground. Some
single-phase branch loads may be connected to a line and earth without running a neutral conductor. In these
systems, both load unbalance and ground fault currents divide between the neutral conductor and earth.
Detecting high-resistance ground faults on these systems is difficult because the protective relay measures the
high-resistance ground fault current combined with the unbalance current.
Ground faults on these systems may produce high-magnitude currents (higher than 60 percent of the three-
phase fault current) that require tripping the entire circuit and interrupting load to many customers. About
80 percent of ground faults occurring on overhead distribution lines are transient. For these systems, automatic
multishot reclosing is widely used. The resulting interruption/restoration cycle can represent a problem to
customers with large rotating loads or those with loads intolerant of voltage sags and swells.
Effective grounding reduces the risk of overvoltages during ground faults. These faults do not shift the system
neutral. Thus, the system does not require as high a voltage insulation level as does an isolated neutral system.
Transmission systems are typically effectively grounded throughout the world. Unigrounded distribution
systems are common in Great Britain. Multigrounded distribution systems are common in North America,
Australia, and some Latin American countries.
In this method, the system is grounded through a low-impedance resistor or reactor with the objective
of reducing equipment thermal stress. The ground fault current magnitude (in the order of hundreds
of amperes) is suitable for relaying purposes. Resistance grounding is preferred, because it allows
more reduction of the ground fault current than reactance grounding without risk of transitory
overvoltages. For reactance grounding, the ground fault current must be above 25 percent of the
three-phase fault current. Resistance grounding allows values below 25 percent without overvoltage
problems.
Many of the distributed networks in France are low-resistance grounded. In rural distribution
networks, the ground fault current is limited to 150 to 300 A primary, and in the urban networks
(which have higher capacitive currents), the resistor is selected to limit the ground fault current to a
maximum of 1,000 A. Many medium-voltage industrial power systems also have low-resistance
grounding, with typical ground fault currents in the range of 100 to 1,000 A.
In this method, the system is grounded through a high-impedance resistor with impedance equal to or
slightly less than the total system reactive capacitance to ground to limit transient overvoltages to
safe values during ground faults. The high-resistance grounding method limits transient overvoltages
to less than 2.5 times the peak value of the nominal phase-to-ground voltage. Ground fault current is
typically below 15 A. The grounding resistor may be connected in the neutral of a power or
grounding transformer, generator or generator grounding bus, or across the broken delta of phase-to-
ground-connected distribution transformers.
As with isolated neutral systems, ground faults on these systems shift the system neutral voltage
without modifying the phase-to-phase voltage triangle. This grounding method permits the utility to
continue operating the system during sustained ground faults and requires sensitive fault detection
devices.
Typical fields of application for high-resistance grounding include generators connected in a

generator-transformer unit and medium-voltage industrial plant distribution networks.
In this method, the system is grounded through a high-impedance reactor, ideally tuned to the overall system
phase-to-ground capacitance. The variable impedance reactor is called a Petersen coil after its inventor. It is
also known as an arc-suppression coil or a ground fault neutralizer. The coil is typically connected to the
neutral of the distribution transformer or a zig-zag grounding transformer. Systems with this type of grounding
are referred to as resonant-grounded or compensated systems. When the coil reactance matches the system
capacitive reactance, the system is fully compensated or at 100 percent tuning. If the coil reactance is greater
than the system capacitive reactance, the system is overcompensated. If the coil reactance is smaller than the
system capacitive reactance, the system is undercompensated.
Older installations use a low-cost, fixed-value reactor. In these systems, the tuning condition (under- or
overcompensated) changes with the configuration of the distribution network. Tap-changing reactors permit
manual or automatic control of the tuning conditions. Modern installations include a moving-core (plunger)
reactor equipped with a control system to provide almost 100 percent tuning for all system operating
conditions. These plunger systems also provide a smooth means of system tuning.
Resonant grounding a system can reduce the ground fault current to approximately 3 to 10 percent of that for
an ungrounded system. The low fault current values require sensitive fault detection devices. For 100 percent
tuning, the active coil losses, system harmonics, and system active leakage current determine the fault current
magnitude. Residual current compensation methods inject a current through the reactor to the system during
the fault, reducing the fault current almost to zero.
Because ground faults in compensated systems do not affect the phase-to-phase voltage triangle, it is possible
to continue operating the system in the faulted condition. The system must have a phase-to-phase insulation
level and all loads must be connected phase to phase.
Resonant grounding provides self-extinction of the arc in overhead lines for roughly 80 percent of temporary
ground faults. Considering that approximately 80 percent of ground faults are temporary faults, we conclude
that more than 60 percent of ground faults in overhead lines clear without the breaker tripping. Ground faults
represent more than 50 percent of all faults in overhead lines.
The arc self-extinction action depends not only on the fault current magnitude, but also on the transient
recovery voltage rate after successful arc extinction at the current zero-crossing. In compensated systems, this
voltage recovery time is much slower than in ungrounded systems.
Low-impedance grounding uses either a resistor or an inductor connected between the generator
neutral and ground. For resistance grounding, fault current is usually no higher than 150 percent of
generator rated current. This limit is related to the required power rating of the resistor. High power
ratings translate to high cost. For reactance grounding, fault current is normally between 25 percent
and 100 percent of three-phase fault current. Low-impedance grounding is typical in small generators
that supply their load without a transformer and is also used in generators that are connected in
parallel and share a step-up transformer.
The main disadvantage of generator low-impedance grounding is that the high ground fault current
can cause significant stator core lamination damage, which increases the cost of the generator repair.
For internal faults, the fault current continues flowing from the generator winding to the stator core
even after the machine main breaker is open because the machine field remains magnetized and the
rotor spins for several seconds. The voltage induced in the stator winding sustains the fault current
for a relatively long time until the induced voltage decreases to zero.
The grounding resistor must be specified to withstand this current for the time needed for the
machine to dampen all voltages to zero.
There are essentially two ways to accelerate the fast reduction of the remaining fault current:
1. Install a breaker in the neutral grounding resistor to be tripped for ground faults at the same
time as the main breaker
2. Use special demagnetizing circuits to force the flux to decay to zero in a very short time
The power rating and insulation requirements of the grounding resistor may make the low-resistance
grounding method relatively expensive. An additional breaker further increases the cost.
In an effectively grounded system, the ground fault current is not intentionally limited. This system is
not used in large generators, but it is used in very small generators (under 2 MW) and in some low-
voltage applications.
The risk for a generator stator-core damage during an internal phase-to-ground fault is significantly
increased compared to low-resistance and low-reactance grounding. For this reason, this grounding
method is rarely used.
The current for a single-phase-to-ground fault is solely limited by the source internal impedances and
the fault resistance. For bolted ground faults:
I FAULT  3 • E /  Z G1  Z G 2  Z G 0 
In certain situations, the single-phase-to-ground fault current can exceed the three-phase fault current
magnitude, depending on generator design.
High-resistance grounding is common in generators connected to the system through a dedicated

step-up transformer (generator-transformer unit arrangement). As shown on the slide, this method
uses a distribution transformer connected between the generator neutral and ground, and a resistor
connected to the transformer secondary. The resistance value as seen from the primary N2RG is
typically equal to or slightly less than one-third the per-phase capacitive reactance to ground XC of
the generator and other equipment connected to the generator terminals. Typically, the high
resistance limits ground fault currents to 15 A or less.
Generally, the primary voltage rating of the distribution transformer is 1.5 times the rated phase-to-
neutral voltage of the generator. The kVA rating of the distribution transformer depends upon
whether the user alarms or trips when a ground fault is detected.
A sensitive overvoltage relay, tuned to the fundamental frequency, is connected to the transformer
secondary to provide stator ground fault protection for about 90 percent of the winding. This means
that ground faults in the 10 percent of the winding near the neutral will not be detected. However,
other protection techniques allow detection of these faults.
Resonant grounding is another alternative for generators connected to the system through a dedicated
step-up transformer. Resonant grounding uses a tunable reactor connected to the distribution
transformer secondary. The reactor impedance is adjusted to one-third the per-phase capacitive
reactance to ground. For ground faults, the system is in resonance and the fault current is typically
below 1 A. Generator resonant grounding is much less used than high-resistance grounding.
The figure illustrates the secondary resistor sizing to limit transient overvoltages. The resistance
value as seen from the primary N2RE is typically equal to or slightly less than one-third of the per-
phase capacitive reactance to ground XC of the generator and other equipment connected to the
generator terminals. Typically, the high resistance limits the ground fault currents to 15 A or less,
which significantly reduces damage to the stator core laminations for ground faults.
With:
Z E  RE  X C / 3
I FAULT  I A  E / RE  3 • E /   jX C    3 • E / X C  • 1  j   3 2 E / X C • e j 45

Generally, the primary voltage rating of the distribution transformer is 1.5 times the rated phase-to-
neutral voltage of the generator. The kVA rating of the distribution transformer depends on whether
the user chooses to alarm or trip when a ground fault is detected.
When more than one generator is directly connected to the medium-voltage system and several
feeders are connected to the same bus, high-impedance grounding should not be used unless an
additional grounding system is provided, as will be shown later.
If the two generators in the figure were high-impedance grounded, a ground fault on one of the
feeders would produce a small current that could be detected by the sensitive generator protection but
that could not be detected by the feeder ground fault relays (unless the feeder relays also have
sensitive ground overcurrent elements). The result would be a nonselective trip of the generators.
For this reason, when the industrial system grounding is provided only by generators directly
connected to the medium-voltage system, these generators typically have low-resistance grounding.
As a result, the generators are exposed to significant stator core damage for ground faults.
One of the most frequently used transformer connections in industrial systems is the delta-wye
connection. The upper figure shows the most common case in industrial systems: the delta winding is
on the high-voltage side, and the wye winding is on the low-voltage side.
The one-line diagrams show two ways of representing a delta-wye transformer.
In industrial power systems, the transformer is typically low-resistance grounded. Other grounding
methods are rarely used in industrial power system transformers.
As with generator neutral grounding, the main goal of a grounding resistor is to limit the ground fault
current to reduce the damage to the transformer and the rest of the system. The resistance should
allow a large enough fault current for the protective devices to detect ground faults.
These criteria result in low values of resistance, and the system capacitances may be neglected in
practical analysis and calculations.
The left-side figure shows an industrial system fed by a utility through a delta-wye transformer that
experiences a close-in ground fault on a radial feeder. The transformer wye winding is low-resistance
grounded. The analysis presented here is for an A-phase-to-ground fault and does not consider the
load current.
The right-side figure shows the symmetrical components network for this fault. No zero-sequence
current circulates in the delta side (3Ī0 = ĪA + ĪB + ĪC = ĪA + 0 – ĪA = 0).
The sequence fault currents are:
I1  I 2  I 0  E /  Z S1  Z S 2  3ZT  3RE 
And the fault current is:
I FAULT  I A  3I 0  3E /  Z S1  Z S 2  3ZT  3RE 
If the fault is located close to the transformer and RE is considered much larger than the system and
transformer impedances, the fault current is:
ĪFAULT ≈ Ē / RE
From this formula, the design value of RE can be found given the value of the required fault current.
The figure shows the currents in the transformer windings during the ground fault on the wye side.
The fault current is reflected on the delta side in one of the windings, resulting in equal magnitude
currents flowing in Phases A and C.
The low-voltage-side current is:
I A  3I 0  E / RE
On the high-voltage side ĪB = 0, and
 
I A   I B   NAN / N AC  • I A  kVLV /  3 • kVHV  • E / RE
Many industrial facilities have their own generators and also receive power from a utility system. In
some installations, the generators are not synchronized with the utility system. Operating the
generators synchronized with the utility system (as shown in the figure) increases power supply
reliability.
When the generators are connected to the utility system, generally the neutral grounding resistances
of the transformer neutral and the generator neutral are different. The figure on the right side shows
the sequence network for a bolted ground fault at the bus. Assuming that the neutral grounding
device resistances are much larger than the other system impedances:
I 0  I 0T  I 0G  E / 3Z E  E / 3Z GE
And the total fault current is:
I FAULT  I A  3I 0  E / Z E  E / Z GE
The figure shows the three-phase representation of the fault described on the previous slide. The two
components of the fault current, the transformer and generator contributions, can be calculated as
follows:
ITR  E / Z E
I GEN  E / Z GE
The total fault current is approximately:
I FAULT  ITR  I GEN  E / Z E  E / Z GE
In this equation, the magnitudes of the grounding impedances ZE and ZGE determine the transformer
and generator fault current contributions. To avoid the stator core damage that can occur during
ground faults in low-resistance-grounded generators, the generator neutral can be grounded through
high resistance and the transformer neutral through low impedance.
In this way, the current magnitude required to make the protective devices sensitive enough for these
kinds of faults is obtained by properly selecting the magnitude of ZE, taking into account all the
possible source connection arrangements.
Solution:
E = 13,800/3 = 7,967.43 V
Transformer contribution:
ĪTR = ĪA= 398.37 A (ĪB = ĪC = 0)
Generator contribution:
ĪGEN = ĪAG = 398.37 A (ĪBG = ĪCG = 0)
Total fault current:
ĪFAULT = 796.34 A = ĪTOTAL
The current on Phase B at the high-voltage side is zero. The currents in Phases A and C are:
ĪA = –ĪB = (NAN / NAC) • ĪA = (KVLV / [ 3 • KVHV]) • ĪA = (13.8 / [ 3 • 115]) • 398.37 A =

27.6 A
If the generator neutral were ungrounded, the transformer fault current would be the same, but the
generator contribution would be negligible, and the fault current would be:
ĪFAULT = 398.37 A
In this case, the generator would be better protected against stator core damage.
The figure shows the fault current flow without considering load.
If the sources feeding the industrial system do not have an available neutral point, the system is
ungrounded, which creates risk of overvoltage and low fault currents (difficult to detect by relays) for
ground faults. Sometimes the generator neutral is left ungrounded deliberately, for example, to
minimize the ground fault current and reduce the risk of stator core damage.
To avoid these problems, the system should include a grounding transformer that provides the low-
impedance path for the ground fault current to flow. Grounding transformers are a relatively
economical and simple way to provide the missing system grounding.
The most commonly used grounding transformers are of two types:
• Wye-delta grounding transformer
• Zig-zag grounding transformer
Wye-delta grounding transformers are mostly used in 5 kV insulation class systems. Zig-zag
transformers are more economical for 15 kV and higher insulation class systems.
A wye-delta grounding transformer has the system-side winding connected in wye, with the neutral
grounded through an impedance, ZE. This impedance is, in most applications, a medium-voltage
resistor, similar to the one is used in low-resistance neutral grounding of generators. The secondary-
side winding generally is the low-voltage side of the transformer and is connected in delta with no
load. The delta connection is sometimes made through a limiting resistor, RST. The resulting
configuration forces the three currents through the delta-connected windings to be equal.
The figure shows the wye-delta grounding transformer behavior for two conditions:
a) The application of balanced voltages (positive or negative sequence): It is not possible, with
a perfectly balanced source, to produce equal currents in the three secondary windings of the
transformer. Thus, except for negligible magnetization current, the transformer behaves like
an open circuit; in other words, the current in the three phases is zero.
b) The application of in-phase voltages (pure zero sequence): In this case, as the zero-sequence
currents in the three phases are equal, there is current flowing in the three phases. The figure
shows the expected current flow. These currents are mainly limited by the grounding
impedance ZE and the secondary resistor RST, and also by the transformer impedance.
The figure shows an application example of a grounding wye-delta transformer. A fault on one of the
feeders can be analyzed by using the symmetrical components method. The sequence network for the
ground fault depicted in the figure shows that the grounding transformer positive- and negative-
sequence impedances are just an open circuit. On the other hand, the zero-sequence network includes
the transformer short-circuit impedance, the grounding impedance, and the secondary resistor
resistance. The sequence currents are as follows:
I1  I 2  I 0  E /  Z G1  Z G 2  ZT  3Z E  RST / 3
The fault current is limited to the following value:
I FAULT  I A  3I 0  3E /  Z G1  Z G 2  ZT  3Z E  RST / 3
Impedance ZE is generally resistive and its magnitude, combined with the secondary resistance RST, is
chosen to obtain a fault current on the order of the few amperes to hundreds of amperes (high- and
low-resistance grounding). Therefore, the ZE magnitude is typically much larger than the source
impedance magnitude. If the grounding transformer is a distribution transformer, its impedance may
be negligible with respect to ZE and RST. The fault current for a low-impedance grounding scheme
becomes:
I FAULT  3E / (3Z E  RST / 3)

In high-impedance-grounded systems, the system phase-to-ground capacitances must be considered
to calculate the value of 3ZE + RST / 3 for a given ground fault current. The zero-sequence network is
modified by connecting the total capacitive reactance per phase, –jXC, in parallel with the three
impedances, ZT + 3ZE + RST / 3.
The figure shows the three-phase representation of the fault described on the previous slide. The
effect of the load of adjacent feeders is not considered.
Since the delta winding is the low-voltage side, the secondary current Ī0S may be high. When the
grounding transformer is effectively grounded (ZE = RST = 0), the current is limited by the source and
grounding transformer impedances. Using the expressions described in the previous slide:
I FAULT  I A  3 • I 0  3 • E /  Z G1  Z G 2  ZT 
The secondary current within the delta winding of the grounding transformer is:
I 0 S  N1 / N 2 • 3 • E /  Z G1  Z G 2  ZT  
The designer must verify that this current does not damage the grounding transformer if applied
during the time required for the protection to clear the fault. This design is not recommended unless
the designer can be sure the grounding transformer will not be damaged during ground faults.
Another solution consists of setting the expensive ZE to zero and controlling the current with RST. In
this case, care must be taken that RST can withstand the secondary current, too.
We will use 13.8 kV and 10 MVA as base values. The sequence network is shown on the next slide. The effect
of capacitances is negligible in Cases 1 and 2. The three-phase short-circuit level allows us to calculate the
positive- and negative-sequence impedance of the source. We can obtain it as follows:
13.82
Z base   19 
10

Z G1  Z G 2  j 13,800 /  3 • 8, 000    j0.996 
0.996
Z G1  Z G 2  j  j 0.052 pu
19
Grounding transformer impedance on the power base:
ZT  j 0.02 •10, 000 / (3 • 50)  j1.333 pu
Case 1: RE = RST = 0  (see the sequence networks shown on the next slide)
I 0  E /  Z G1  Z G 2  ZT  3RE  RST / 3  E /  Z G1  Z G 2  ZT   0.72 pu

I FAULT  I A  3• I 0  2.16 pu
10, 000
I base   418.4 A
3 13.8 
I FAULT  2.16  418.4   903.7 A
Current in the grounding transformer high-voltage windings:
IAG = IBG = ICG = I0 = 0.72 pu = 301.2 A
Current in the low-voltage windings:
I = 301.2 • 8,000 / 120 = 20,139.6 A

. . . continued from previous page
Case 2: RE  20 , RST  0   RE  1.05 pu

I 0  E /  Z G1  Z G 2  ZT  3RE  RST / 3  E /  Z G1  Z G 2  ZT  3RE   0.3 pu
I FAULT  I A  3 • I 0  0.9 pu  376.6 A
Current in the grounding transformer high-voltage windings:
I AG  I BG  I CG  I 0  0.3 pu  125.5 A
Current in the low-voltage windings:
I   125.5 • 8,000 / 120  8,368 A
Case 3: RE = 0 , RST = 0.5 
If RST is reflected to the primary side, the resulting resistance per phase is
RST / 3 = (0.5 / 3) • (8,000 / 120)2 = 740.74 
In per unit:
740.74
RST / 3   39 pu
19
This is a large value and makes the system a high-impedance-grounded system, where ZG1 and ZG2 are
negligible. On the other hand, the capacitive reactance must be considered:
XC = 1 / (2 •  • 60 • 1.5 • 10-6)  = 1,768.38  = 93.07 pu
Current through the capacitance:
I 0  –I1  E / (–jX C )  j 0.0108 pu, and I 2  0
With this, the capacitive phase currents become:

I A CAP  I1  I 2  I 0  0
 
I B CAP  a 2 I1  aI 2  I 0  1 – a 2 • I 0  0.0187 • e j120 pu  7.8 • e j120 A
o o
I C CAP  aI1  a 2 I 2  I 0  1  a  • I 0  0.0187 • e j 60 pu  7.8 • e j 60 A

o o
Grounding transformer branch sequence currents:

 
I 0  E / (RST / 3  jX T )  0.0257 • e  j1.96 pu  10.25 • e  j1.96 A
This is also the current in each phase of the grounding transformer.
Current magnitude in the secondary side of the grounding transformer:
I0S = 10.75 • [8,000 / 120] A = 716.6 A
Current through the transformer grounding point:
I GN  3 • I 0  3 •10.75 • e  j1.96 A  32.25 • e  j1.96 A

 
Total fault current:

I FAULT  3 • I 0  I B CAP  I C CAP  32.25 • e  j1.96  7.8 • e j120  7.8 • e j 60 A
  
I FAULT  34.54 • e j 21.05 A


A zig-zag transformer is a three-phase transformer whose three-leg iron core and windings are built
as shown in the simplified scheme of the figure. The windings have a 1:1 turns ratio.
For 15 kV class systems and higher, zig-zag grounding transformers are smaller and less expensive
than wye-delta grounding transformers.
If balanced voltages (positive or negative sequence) are applied to the zig-zag transformer, no current
circulates through the windings, since the magnetomotive forces produced by two windings of the
same leg do not compensate. The only present current is the excitation current (considered close to
zero).
As in the case of the wye-delta transformer, the impedance presented by the zig-zag transformer to
balanced sources is practically equivalent to an open circuit.
When a zero-sequence source is applied to a zig-zag transformer, the magnetomotive forces in each
pair of windings are compensated, since all the currents are equal.
The current is limited by the transformer winding impedance and the neutral grounding impedance,
which is generally a resistor or a short circuit. In this case, the zig-zag transformer impedance must
be large enough to limit the fault current to the desired value.
The right-side figure shows the sequence network representation of the fault indicated in the left-side
system figure. The sequence currents are as follows:
I1  I 2  I 0  E /  Z G1  Z G 2  Z Z  3 • Z E 
The fault current is limited to the following value:
I FAULT  I A  3 • I 0  3 • E /  Z G1  Z G 2  Z Z  3 • Z E 
If impedance ZE is chosen to be zero (effective neutral grounding), the fault current will be as
follows:
I FAULT  I A  3 • I 0  3 • E /  Z G1  Z G 2  Z Z  , for Z E  0
This expression corresponds to a system with a zig-zag transformer whose impedance is chosen to be
large enough to limit the current required by the system design.
The figure shows the phase current distribution for the fault described on the previous slide. Notice
the similarity with the wye-delta grounding transformer.
In this case, the zig-zag transformer windings must be designed with enough thermal and mechanical
capacity to withstand the stresses produced during ground faults.
Using the equations derived previously and considering that ZG1 and ZG2 are much smaller than
15 ohms, the current in each phase of the grounding transformer is as follows:
 
I1  I 2  I 0  E /  Z G1  Z G 2  Z Z   13,800 / 3 / 15  531.15 A
The total fault current:
ĪFAULT  3 • Ī0 = 1,593.5 A
In some industrial systems, several methods of neutral grounding may be combined. This happens
mostly in systems that have experienced changes over time. The neutral grounding scheme in the
system shown in the figure can be adapted depending on the position of the tie breakers CB1 and
CB2.
The normal operation is with Breaker CB1 open and Breaker CB2 closed. Both generators operate
with ungrounded neutral. A ground fault downstream will find a return path through TR1 neutral
grounding impedance. In this case, the fault current does not circulate through the generators,
eliminating the risk of stator core damage.
Without any interconnections downstream, if Breaker CB2 is open, the bus located at the right side
would be isolated from the rest of the system. Only Generator 1 has a neutral grounding impedance
available, which must connected to selectively detect and clear a downstream ground fault.
Different grounding schemes will provide the appropriate system grounding for different operating
conditions. You should analyze all possible system topologies.
Generator Grounding: Generators are better protected against stator core damage when their neutral
is high-impedance grounded or ungrounded. Low-resistance grounding is necessary for generators
directly connected to distribution networks (when no other grounded sources are available). In this
case, some neutral disconnection scheme (or demagnetizing control) is required to reduce the stator
core damage caused by ground fault currents that keep circulating because of the remaining field and
rotation after the generator breaker opens.
Multiple Sources: Multiple interconnected sources can be used to manipulate the distribution of
ground fault currents. For example, in a system with utility transformers and synchronized
generators, one or more transformer neutrals can have low-impedance grounding, and the generators
can have high-impedance grounding or can be ungrounded. In this scheme, the generators are well
protected and the system grounding is mainly provided by the low-impedance-grounded
transformers.
Grounding Devices: Regardless of the type of neutral grounding scheme used, the grounding device
thermal capacity must be specified to avoid damage during faults. When the device is subject to high
voltage, the designer must also specify the insulation characteristics.
Grounding Transformers: Grounding transformers (wye-delta or zig-zag transformers) offer an

alternative for system grounding without the need of exposing generators, whose neutral thus may be
high-impedance grounded or ungrounded. Grounding transformers are also useful when no neutral
point is available in the original sources of the system.

Introduction Industrial Power Systems

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Introduction Industrial Power Systems

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Introduction to Industrial Power Systems

Technical literature supporting this section:

• G1, G2: Generators (owned by the industrial system company)

• Tx, Ty: Internal transformers

• MC: High-voltage motor controller

An industrial system is composed of a main substation, a primary distribution system, a secondary

The neutral grounding impedance limits the ground fault current.

The phase-to-ground voltages are:

Thus, the residual voltage is:

VRES  VA  VB  VC  VBA  VCA

VRES  3 • E • e  j150  3 • E • e  j 210  3 • E

I FAULT  I GN  I GC  I GB  E / Z E  VAC /   jX C    VAB /   jX C    E / Z E  3 • E / (  jX C )

Notice that the residual current at the source terminals is ĪA + ĪB + ĪC = ĪGN.

Notice from the figure that when

Typical fields of application for high-resistance grounding include generators connected in a

High-resistance grounding is common in generators connected to the system through a dedicated

The one-line diagrams show two ways of representing a delta-wye transformer.

The sequence fault currents are:

And the fault current is:

I FAULT  I A  3I 0  3E /  Z S1  Z S 2  3ZT  3RE 

The low-voltage-side current is:

On the high-voltage side ĪB = 0, and

And the total fault current is:

I FAULT  ITR  I GEN  E / Z E  E / Z GE

ĪTR = ĪA= 398.37 A (ĪB = ĪC = 0)

ĪGEN = ĪAG = 398.37 A (ĪBG = ĪCG = 0)

Total fault current:

ĪFAULT = 796.34 A = ĪTOTAL

ĪA = –ĪB = (NAN / NAC) • ĪA = (KVLV / [ 3 • KVHV]) • ĪA = (13.8 / [ 3 • 115]) • 398.37 A =

The most commonly used grounding transformers are of two types:

• Wye-delta grounding transformer

• Zig-zag grounding transformer

The fault current is limited to the following value:

I FAULT  3E / (3Z E  RST / 3)

ZT  j 0.02 •10, 000 / (3 • 50)  j1.333 pu

I 0  E /  Z G1  Z G 2  ZT  3RE  RST / 3  E /  Z G1  Z G 2  ZT   0.72 pu

Current in the grounding transformer high-voltage windings:

IAG = IBG = ICG = I0 = 0.72 pu = 301.2 A

Current in the low-voltage windings:

I = 301.2 • 8,000 / 120 = 20,139.6 A

. . . continued from previous page

Case 2: RE  20 , RST  0   RE  1.05 pu

Case 3: RE = 0 , RST = 0.5 

RST / 3 = (0.5 / 3) • (8,000 / 120)2 = 740.74 

XC = 1 / (2 •  • 60 • 1.5 • 10-6)  = 1,768.38  = 93.07 pu

Current through the capacitance:

I 0  –I1  E / (–jX C )  j 0.0108 pu, and I 2  0

With this, the capacitive phase currents become:

I C CAP  aI1  a 2 I 2  I 0  1  a  • I 0  0.0187 • e j 60 pu  7.8 • e j 60 A

Grounding transformer branch sequence currents:

This is also the current in each phase of the grounding transformer.

Current magnitude in the secondary side of the grounding transformer:

I0S = 10.75 • [8,000 / 120] A = 716.6 A

Current through the transformer grounding point:

I GN  3 • I 0  3 •10.75 • e  j1.96 A  32.25 • e  j1.96 A

Total fault current:

I FAULT  34.54 • e j 21.05 A

The fault current is limited to the following value:

The total fault current:

Grounding Transformers: Grounding transformers (wye-delta or zig-zag transformers) offer an

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