Current Electricity

CURRENT
ELECTRICITY

Electric Current
INTRODUCTION
Unlike static electricity, in current electricity there is a continuous flow of electrons along
a path. This passage of electric current through a material is referred to as conduction or
simply electricity.
Time rate of flow of charge through a cross-sectional area

is called current. If Dq charge flows in time interval Dt then q
average current is given by
∆q
Iavg = Area of cross
∆t
section
Dq = Net charge flow through a cross-section in Dt time.
Instantaneous Current :
∆q dq
I lim
= =
∆t →0 ∆t dt
Direction of Current :
q q
+ velocity – velocity
I I
Direction of Current Direction of Current

y Unit: SI is ampere.
q 1Columb 1C
=
I = = = 1 amp.
t 1 sec sec
y It is a scalar quantity.
Example :
For a given figure (q = t2 + 1) find; q=t2+1
(1) Avg Current in first two second.
(2) Instantaneous Current at, t = 0, t = 1, t = 2 sec.
Solution :
(1) t = 0 t = 2 sec (2) q = t2+1
q = 02 + 1 q = (2)2 + 1 dq
= i = 2t + 0
Electric Current
qi = 1 C qf = 5 C dt
∆q 5 − 1 4 i = 2t ;
Iavg= = = = 2 amp i (t = 0) = 0 amp
∆t 2 2
i (t = 1) = 2 amp
i (t = 2) = 4 amp
2.
Example :
(a) Find I; t = 0, t = 1 sec
(b) Avg current for first 2 second. i=t2+1
Current through area of cross-section.
Solution :
(a) I = t2 + 1 ⇒ I(0) = 02 + 1 = 1 amp ⇒ I(1) = 12 + 1 = 2 amp.
∆q charg e flow in first 2 sec
(b) avg current Iavg = =
∆t Time
2
∆q =∫ i. dt
0
2 2
t3 8 8 + 6 14
∫ (t + 1) .dt + ( t )0
2
∆=
q 2
= = +2= = coulomb
0 3 0
3 3 3
∆q 14 7 7
I=
avg = = amp ⇒ Iavg = amp V0
∆t 3 × 2 3 3
Example :
Find average current in the loop. q
2πR
T=
v0
Solution :
Observe to due charge flow in T sec.
T = time period
∆q q q q× v R
Iavg= = = Iavg = amp
∆T T 2πR 2πR
v0
Example :
Find equivalent average current of ring.
∆q ∆q q
I=
avg = = = q× f
∆t T T
Iavg= q × f + + + + +
+ + +
1 1 ω R
=
f = = + +
T 2π 2π +
+ +
ω + + + + +
ω
Iavg= q × Total charge on
2π
ring = q
Example :
One billion electrons pass from A to B in a conductor in 1 ms. What is the
Electric Current
direction and magnitude of current.

Solution :
Ne 109 × 1.6 × 10−19
=i = = 1.6 × 10−7 amp ⇒ i = 0.16 mA.
t 10−3
The current flows from B to A.
3.
Behaviour of Conductor
in Absence of Applied
Electric Field
In absence of applied potential difference electrons have random motion.
The average displacement and average velocity is zero.
There is no flow of current due to thermal motion of free electrons in a

conductor.
The free electrons present in a conductor gain energy from temperature of

surrounding and move randomly in the conductor.
The speed gained by virtue of temperature is called as thermal speed and

the motion is known as thermal motion of an electron.
1 3
2
mvrms = kT
2 2
3KT
So, thermal speed Vrms = where m is mass of electron.
m
At room temperature T = 300 K, Vrms  105 m / sec .
Two important definition :

(1) Mean free path l : The average distance travelled by an electron between
two successive collision is know as mean free path. (λ  10Ao )
Total dis tance travelled by free electron
λ=
Behaviour of Conductor in Absence of Applied Electric Field
number of collision
(2) Relaxation Time : The time taken by an electron between two successive
collision is called as relaxation time (t). (t  10−14 sec)
total time taken
relaxation time : τ =
number of collision
Behaviour of conductor in presence of applied electric field :
v Produced electric field
(1) Electric field developed in conductor E =
l due to battery
(2) Force on electron : Conductor
    +
F = qE ⇒ F = −eE –
(3) Acceleration of electron :

  e–
 F  eE
a= ⇒ a= −
m m l
Free
electron
+ –
V
4.
Drift Velocity
Drift velocity is defined as the velocity with which the free electron gets
drifted towards the positive terminal
 under
 the effect of applied electric field.
y Path of electron in absence of E field (E = 0) :
In absence of applied potential difference electron have random motion.
The average displacement is zero.
e–
e–
Collision with
atoms ions and e–s

y Path of electron in presence of E field :
collision
e–
l
-ve charge drifted in
the opposite direction
of electric field
– +
V
In addition to its thermal velocity due to acceleration given by applied
electric field, the electron acquires a velocity component in a direction
opposite to the direction of the electric field. The gain in velocity due to the
applied field is very small and is lost in the next collision.
Mean free path

Drift Velocity
Thermal velocity
5.
  
v 1 = u1 + aτ1 …(1)

Where a = acceleration of electron
τ = Relaxation time
Similar for other electrons :
  
v 2 = u2 + aτ2 …(2)
  
v 3 = u3 + aτ3 …(3)
  
vn = un + aτn …(n)
The average velocity of all the free electrons in the conductor is equal to

the drift velocity v d of the free electrons.
          
 v 1 + v 2 + v 3 ..........vn u1 + aτ1 + u2 + aτ2 + aτ2 + .....un + aτn
= vd =
n n
   
 u1 + u2 + u3 + ...un   τ1 + τ2 + τ3 + ...τn 
=   + a 
 n   n 
Since average thermal speed = 0
   
u1 + u2 + u3 + ...un
So, =0
n
τ + τ2 + τ3 + ...τn
and 1 = t = average relaxation time.
n
 
So, v d = aτ

 −eE
= vd ( τ)
me
Where;

v d = Drift velocity of electron

E = Electric field applied
me = Mass of electron
τ = Average relaxation time
Note : (1) The order of drift velocity is 10–4 m/sec
(2) Drift speed of electron.
eE
=
vd ( τ)
me
Drift Velocity
6.
Relation Between Current
& Drift Velocity
Let the number of free electrons per unit volume in a conductor is = n.
A = area of cross section conductor
– +
Vd +
– e–
Vd
– e–
I +
– Vd
Vd
+
x = vd.dt
+
–
V
No of charge particle confined in Dx distance = number of electron per unit

volume × volume.
= n × (A × Dx) …(1)
(Dx) = vd × dt …(2)
“Total charge flowing in dt time = (e–) × no of charge particle
= e– × (n × A × vd × dt)
Total charge (dq) = neAvd × dt
dq d
So, Electric current=i =
dt dt
(ne− Avddt ) i = neAv d
Where, i = electric current
Relation Between Current & Drift Velocity

n = number of charge particle per unit volume
e = electric charge
A = Area of cross section
vd = drift velocity
Example :
A current of 1.34 A exits in a copper wire of cross section 1.0 mm2. Assume
each copper atom contribute one free electron calculate the drift speed
of the free electron in the wire. The density of copper is 8990 kg/m3 and
atomic mass = 63.50.
7.
Solution :
Mass of 1 m3 volume of the copper is = 8990 kg = 8990 × 103g
8990 × 103
Number of mole in 1 m3 = = 1.4 × 105
63.5
Since each mole contains 6 × 1023 atoms therefore number of atoms in 1 m3.
n = 1.4 × 105 × (6 × 1023) = (8.4 × 1028)
 I = neAvd
I 1.34
∴ vd = = = 10–4 m/sec
neA 8.4 × 10 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 10−6
28
v d = 0.1 mm / sec
Relation Between Current & Drift Velocity
8.
Current Density
Current density, a vector, at a point have magnitude equal to current per

unit normal area at that point and direction is along the direction of the
current at that point.
 di  
J= ˆ ⇒ I = ∫ J.ds
n
ds
n̂ = unit vector in the direction of current.
 i
J=
A ⊥r
(nˆ )
A ⊥r = magnitude of area which is perpendicular to current direction.
y
I
x
I
   
A = A, J =
I ˆ
A
i ()
I = J.ds


= J A cos θ
Important point
  I  I JA cos θ
=
(i) J =   (n
ˆ)
I I
 A ⊥r 
= J =
A cos θ A ⊥r
n̂ = unit vector along direction of current.
 
(ii) I = ∫ J.ds

Note : Current density J is a vector quantity. It’s direction is same as that

of E. It’s SI unit is ampere /m2 and dimension [L–2A].
Example :

The current density at a point is= J ( 2 × 104 ) ˆj Jm−2 . find the rate of charge
 

flow through a cross sectional area = s (2iˆ + 3ˆj) cm2 .
Solution :
 
The rate of flow of charge = current = I = J.ds

⇒ I = J.s = (2 × 104) ˆj.(2iˆ + 3ˆj) × 10 A ⇒ I = 6 A.
−4
Example :
Current Density
A potential difference applied to the end of a wire made up of an allow

drives a current through it. The current density varies as J = (3 + 2r), where
r is the distance of the point from the axis. It R be the radius of the wire,
then the total current through any cross section of the wire.
9.
Solution :
 
dI =J.ds =( 3 + 2r ) (2πrdr ) cos 0o
=(2π ) ( 3r + 2r2 ) dr
R
R
 3r2 2 3  r
I = ∫ ( 2π ) ( 3r + 2r ) dr =
2
2π  + r  R ‘dr’
0  2 3 0
 3R2 2R3 
I=
2π  +  units
 2 3 
Relation between current density and area

Area = A1
Area = A2
I I
Surface-2
Surface-1
Since current is same at surface 1 and surface 2.

I1 = I2
J1A1 = J2A2 
Also, we can find relation between E fixed at these two surfaces area. By
ohm’s
 law (vector form),
J = σE [will be discussed later in this chapter]
  A
J2 = J1 1
A2
Since A2 < A1
 
J2 > J1
 
σE2 > σE1
 
E2 > E1
Where,
Current Density
E2 = Electric field at surface S2

E1 = Electric field at surface S1
10.
Mobility
The mobility m of a charge carrier is defined as the drift velocity per unit
electric field.
vd vd
=
µ = .
E E
m2
Unit : .
volt. sec
Example :
Consider a conductor of length 40 cm where a potential difference of
10V is maintained between the ends of conductor. Find out the mobility of
the electrons provided the drift velocity of the electrons is 5 × 10–4 ms–1
Solution :
Given L = 40 cm, V = 10V, Vd = 5 × 10–4 ms–1
To find the electrons mobility, we need the value of the electric field which
can be obtained using the following formula.
V 10
E= ⇒= E = 25V/m
L 0.4
Also the formula used for electron mobility.
Vd 5 × 10−4 1
µ
= = × 10−5
E 25 5
0.2 × 10−6 =
= 2 × 10−7 m2 V −1s−1
Mobility
11.
Ohm’s Law
Statement of ohm’s Law :

If the physical conditions of the conductor (length, temperature, mechanical
strain etc.) remain same, then the current flow flowing through the
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its two
ends e.g., I ∝ v ⇒ v = IR
v
Graph :

I
(0,0)
y Ohm’s law is not a universal law. The substance which obey ohm’s law are
known as ohmic substance.
v
⇒ slope of the graph : tan θ= = R= electrical resistance
I
y Unit : voltage /ampere ; also called ohm (W).
Example :
The current–voltage (I-V) graphs for a given metallic wire at two different
temperatures T1 and T2 are shown in the figure. It follows from the graphs that
V
T1
T2
I
(A) T1 > T2 (B) T1 < T2 (C) T1 = T2
(D) T
1 is greater or less than T2 depending on whether the resistance R of
the wire is greater or less than the ratio V/I.
Solution :
V
=
R = Slope of V-I curve
I
Slop of V-I curve at T1 > Stop of V-I curve at T2
R1 > R2
From Relation ; R = R0 (1 + aDT)
R = f(T), T increases ⇒ R increases, T1 > T2
Ohm’s Law
So, (A) is correct option.
12.
Example :
The Voltage-current graphs for two resistors of the same V
material and the same radius with lengths, L1 and L2 are B
shown in figure. If L1 > L2, state with reason which of A
these graphs represents voltage-current change for L1. V
I
IB IA
Solution :
As RA = V/IA and RB = V/IB’
IA RB
=
IB RA
From figure, as IA > IB’ RB > RA. Since, R ∝ L, graph B represents the voltage-
current change for L1.
Ohm’s law can be expressed in two forms.
(1) microscopic ohm’s law (vector form)
(2) macroscopic ohm’s law (scalar form)
Microscopic Ohm’s law (Vector form)

Statement: In many materials
 the current density is linearly dependent on
the external electric E -with their relation expressed as
 
J = σE
Where s = conductivity of material.
A=area of cross section
– +
Vd +
– e–
Vd
– e–
I +
– Vd
Vd
+
l
+
Ohm’s Law
–
V
13.
We know the relation : I = neAvd …(1)

 eEτ
Drift speed : v d = …(2)
me
From equation (1) and (2)

eEτ  ne2 τ  
I = neA
me
⇒ I= 
 me 
( )
 IEI A
I  ne2 τ    ne2 τ     ne2 τ  

= E ⇒ J= E ⇒ J= E
A  me   me   me 
For a given conductor : if physical condition of conductor is constant that is
(1) Length (l)
(2) Temperature (as temperature is constant n, t are also constant)
(3) Area of cross section (A)
ne2 τ  
Then, = cons tan t . So, J ∝ E
me
(current density) ∝ (electric field)
 
J = σE , this know as ohm’s law in vector from or know as microscopic
ohm’s law.
Where s = electrical conductivity of conductor.
ne2I
σ=
me
Ohm’s law in (scalar form)
 
J = σE
I I
= σE
A
I 1 l
= E
A ρ
1 v  A  + – I
I = × ×A, ⇒ I =   (v) V
ρ l ρ×l
1
σ=
ρ
r = electrical resistivity of material
m
ρ = 2e
Ohm’s Law
ne τ
14.
 v
E =
l
A
I =   (r )
 ρl 
 ρl 
V =   (I)
A
For a given conductor : Me = mass of electron
If temperature is constant, t and ‘n’ are also constant
Then, A = constant, l = constant, r = constant
l
then ρ = constant called electrical resistance of the material.
A
Where, V = IR , “ohm’s Law in scalar form”.
Where R is called resistance of the material.

ρl
R=
A
y where l = length of conductor along the direction of current.
y A = area of cross section perpendicular to current.
y R = Electrical resistance.
Example :
A certain electric conductor has a square cross section 2.0 mm on a side
and is 12 m long. The resistance between its ends is 0.072 W.
(a) What is the resistivity of the material?
(b) If the electric field magnitude in the conductor is 0.12 V/m, what is the
total current?
(c) If the material has 8 × 1028 free electron per cubic meter, find the average
drift velocity under the conditions of part (b).
Solution :
(a) A = (2 × 10–3)2 = 4 × 10–6 m2
l = 12 m, R = 0.072 W
RA 0.072 × 4 × 10−6
r= = = 2.4 × 10−8 Ωm .
l 12
v
(b) Electric field in the conductor = = 0.12 V/m
l
V = E × l ⇒ V = 0.12 × 12 = 1.44 volts
v 1.44
Ohm’s Law
i=
= = 20A
R 0.072
15.
(c) Let drift velocity = Vd
n = 8 × 1028 electron/m3
current = I = neAVd
i 20
=
Vd =
neA 1.6 × 10 × 8 × 1028 × 4 × 10−6
−19
Vd 3.9 × 10−4 m / sec

=
Example :
A cylindrical wire has length l and are of cross section
l
A. The conductivity of wire material changes with
l
distance from left end as σ = σ0 , where s0 is a
x
constant. Calculate electric field inside the conductor x
as a function of x, when a battery of emf V is connected
across its ends.
Solution:
Let us calculate the resistance of the cylindrical conductor.
Here, we can consider the cylinder to be made of a number of elemental
discs. Resistance of one such elemental disc (shown in figure) will be
dx xdx
= =
dR
σA Aσ0l
Hence, total resistance of the cylindrical wire
l l
1 1  x2  l dx
R ∫=
= dr ∫0 =
xdx  = 
Alσ0 Alσ0  2  0 2Aσ0
i i
V 2VAσ0
Current through the wire, =
I =
R l
I 2Vσ0 dR
Current density, =
j =
A l
Using ohm’s law in microscopic form,
j 2Vσ0 x 2V
E = = = x
σ l σ0l l 2
Limitation of Ohm’s Law :

Although ohm’s law has been found valid over a large class of multiple
there do exist material and devices used in electric circuits where the
proportionality of V and I does not hold.
Ohm’s Law
16.
(a) The solid line is the voltage v versus current I for a good conductors.
V
I
(0,0)
(b) V-I curve for a solid (For non-ohmic resistance)

I
(mA)
V
(0.7)
Current Non-linear
I region Negative
(mA)
resistance region
V
(0,0)
Variation of Current Vs voltage for GaAs.

The relation between V and I is not unique i.e., there is more than one value
of V for the same current I for example V-I curve for GaAs. Such material is
called non-ohmic material or non-ohmic devices. V = IR is not hold for such
Ohm’s Law
class of material and device.
17.
Resistance
The resistance of a conductor is the A=area of = resistivity

opposition which the conductor offers cross section of material
to the flow of charge. When a potential
difference is applied across a conductor, i i
free electrons get accelerated and
collide with position ions and their
motion is thus l
opposed. The opposition offered by the ions is called resistance of the
conductor.
Resistance is the property of a conductor by virtue of which if oppose the

flow of current in it.

R= ρ
A
Where,  = length of conductor along the direction of current.
A = Area of cross section of the material, perpendicular to the direction of
current.
r = resistivity of the material.
Example :
Find the resistance in the following cases :
I = resistivity of
material
c c I
b b
a a
Case (a) Case (b)
Solution :
l c l a
(a) R = ρ × ⇒ R = ρ× (b) R = ρ × ⇒ R = ρ×
A a ×b A (b × c )
Resistance
18.
Example :
A conductor with rectangular cross- C F
section has dimensions (a ´ 2a ´ 4a) as
shown in figure. Resistance across AB is 2a
x, across CD is y and across EF is z. Then A 4a a B
E D
(A) x = y = z (B) x > y > z (C) y > z > x (D) x > z > y
Solution :
ρl 4(a) 2ρ ρ(a) ρ
R= , x=
ρ = , y = then x > z > y
A (a) (2a) a (4a) (2a) 8a
ρ(2a) ρ
=z = \ (D) is correct option.
(4a) (a) 2a
Example :
A 3000 km long cable consists of seven copper wires, each of diameter 0.73
mm, bundled together and surrounded by an insulting sheath. Calculate the
resistance of the cable. Use 3 × 10–6 W cm for the resistivity of the copper.
Solution :
ρl
The resistance R of a conductor is related to the resistivity r by R = ,
A
where l and A are the length of the conductor and the cross-sectional area,
respectively. Since the cable consists of N = 7 copper wires, the total cross-
sectional area is
π ( 0.073 cm)
2
πd2
A = Nπr2 = N =7
4 4
The resistance then becomes,
ρl ( 3 × 10 Ω cm) ( 3 × 10 cm)
−6 8
R= = = 3.1 × 104 Ω ⇒ R = 31 KW
7π ( 0.073 cm)
2
A
4
Recasting a wire of given mass
Consider a conductor of mass m, density d, resistivity r to be recast to a
wire of length l, cross sectional area A (or radius r), then we have
ρl
R= …(1)
A
Resistance
19.
Since, m = volume × density = Ald …(2)
m
⇒ A=
ld
Then from (1), we get,
ρl  ρd 
R
= =   l 2 …(3)
(m / ld)  m 
As r, d, m are constants, so we have
R ∝ l2
2
R2  l 2 
⇒ =  …(4)
R1  l 1 
So, we conclude that if a given mass of wire is stretched (or drawn) to n

times its original length, then the new resistance is n2 times the original
resistance of wire. Hence
Rnew = n2Rold
m
Further if we put value of l from (2) i.e., l = in (1), then we get,
Ad
ρm  mρ   1 
=R =   
AdA  d   A2 
1
⇒ R ∝ …(5)
A2
1
Since A = pr2 ⇒ R∝
r4
Remark(s) :
Thus, if given mass of material is stretched to make its length l, then
R ∝ l2 and if the given mass of material is stretched to make its radius r,
then
4
1 R2  r1 
R∝ or = 
r4 R1  r2 
So, we conclude that if a given mass of wire is stretched (or draw) such that
new radius of wire is n times its old radius, then
1
Rnew = 4 Rold
n
Fractional change in resistance
The resistance of a wire depends on its length L, radius r and cross-
sectional area A (where A = pr2). If the wire is stretched by a small amount,
Resistance
its resistance R changes.
20.
Case 1 :
Suppose the length L increased by a small amount DL (<< L). Then, we can
write
ρL  L2 
R= = ρ   (As AL = volume, V = constant)
A V
Hence fractional change in resistance with a small change in length is
∆R ∆L
=2
R L
Case 2 :
Suppose the wire is stretched so that the cross-sectional area A reduces
by small amount DA (<< A). Then we can write
ρL  V  ∆R ∆A
R= = ρ 2  ⇒ = −2
A A  R A
Case 3 :
Suppose the wire is stretched so that the radius reduces by Dr (<< r). Then,
we can write
ρL  LA  V  ρV  1 ∆R ∆r
R= =
ρ 2  =ρ  2  4 ⇒
= = −4
A  A  ( πr )  π  r
2 2 R r
Stretch Based Question

Example :
If a wire is stretched to double its length, find the new resistance if original
resistance of the wire was ‘R’.
Solution :
A0 A
r stretch
l0 l
New resistance = R = ?
Concept :
(1) Volume must be constant
V1 = V2 (here V1 and V2 are initial and final volume of wire)
Resistance
A0 × l0 = A¢ × nl0
21.
A0l 0 A
A′ = ⇒ A′ = 0
nl 0 n
(2) r = constant : Since material is same

l′ ρ × (nl 0 )  ρl 0  2
R′ = ρ × = ⇒ R′ =   (n ) ⇒ R′ = n2R
A ′  A0   A0 
 
 n 
R′ = ( 2) R ⇒ R′ = 4R
2
Given n = 2;
Short Cut :
If a wire is stretched such that its new length becomes nl0 then new
resistance of wire becomes R′ = n2R
Example :
A carbon resistance is stretched such that it becomes 0.1% larger. Then
calculate the percentage change in the resistance.
Solution :
l l l
R = ρ× ⇒ R = ρ× ×
A A l
l2 l2 l2
R = ρ× ⇒ R = ρ× = ρ
(A × l ) v v
Take log both side

 l2 
ln (R=
) ln  ρ × 
 V
ln (R ) = ln ( ρ ) + ln (l 2 ) − ln ( V )
New differentiate both side w.r.t. x

1 dR 1 dl 1 dl 1 dV
= +2 −
R dx ρ dx e dx v dx
dR dρ dl dV
= +2 −
R ρ l V
Since, r = constant; V = constant

dR  dl 
= 2 
R  l 
∆R  dl   ∆R   ∆l 
100 × = 2   × 100 ⇒ × 100  = 2  × 100 
Resistance

R  l   R   l 
22.
Percentage change
 ∆l 
%R 2  × 100  = 2 × ( 0.1% )
=
 l 
∆R
0.2%
× 100 = Ans. 0.2%
R
Example :
A wire of mass m, length l, density d, and are of cross section A is stretched
in such a way that its length increased by 10% of its original value. Express
the changed resistance in percentage.
Solution :
Given mass m, length l1 = l. density d. and are of cross section A1 = A. Let
r be the resistivity and R1 be the resistance of the wire. Mass of wire m =
volume × density = Al × d = Ald.
Therefore, area of cross section is A1 = m/ld. and the resistance of the

wire is.
l l 2d  ρe  2
R1 =
ρ =
ρ  l = kl 2
A1 m m
Let l2 be the new length, then
10
l2 = l+ l=
l + 0.1l = 1.1l
100
Let R2 be the resistance of the wire after stretching, then
R2 = kl 22
R2 l 22 (1.1)2 l 21
Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i), we have = = = 1.21
R1 l 21 l 21
or R2 = 1.21 R1 = R1 + 0.21 R1
or R2 – R1 = 0.21 R1
Hence, the percentage change in the resistance is
R2 − R1
× 100 =
21%
R1
Resistance
23.
Resistivity (‘r’) and Its
Dependency on Temperature
For a given conductor of uniform cross-sectional A and length l, if has been
observed that the electrical resistance R is
l l
⇒ R ∝ ⇒ R= ρ
A A
Where r is a constant of proportionality called specific resistance or
resistivity of the material of the conductor at a given temperature.
RA
⇒ ρ=
l
If l = 1m, A = 1m2, then r = R (Numerically) so,
the specific resistance of the material of the I I
conductor is defined as the resistance offered by
the conductor of length 1m and cross sectional
area 1m2, when current flows normal to the area. =R
Unit : ohm-metre (W m).
l=1m
Resistivity depends on
(1) Nature of Material
(2) Temperature of material
(3) It does not depends on the size and shape of the material because it is
the property of the conductor material.
Dependency of Resistivity on Temperature

m
Case 1: Conductor : ρ = 2
ne τ
Temperature ↑ ⇒ vibration of e– ↑ ⇒ Collision ↑ ⇒ t ↓ ⇒ r ↑ ⇒ R ↑
Resistivity (‘r’) and Its Dependency on Temperature
So, on increasing temperature r increase also, R increases.
Case 2: Semi conductor :

Temperature ↑ ⇒ t ↓ ⇒ r ↑
Temperature ↑ ⇒ n ↑ ⇒ r ↓
Temperature ↑ ⇒ nt ↑ ⇒ r ↓
So, on increasing temperature ⇒ r decreases also, R decreases.
Temperature Dependency of Resistivity (Mathematical relation)

Let a = fractional change in resistivity per unit change in temperature.
dρ
⇒ α =
ρdT
dρ
⇒ = αdT (a can be assumed constant for small temperature variation)
ρ
Integrate both sides,
24.
ρ
dρ
T
 ρ 
⇒ ∫ = α ∫ dT ⇒ ln   = α ( T − T0 )
ρ0 ρ T0  ρ0 
ρ
⇒ eα ( T − T0 ) = ⇒ ρ = ρ0 .eα ( T − T0 ) ⇒ ρ = ρ0 .eα ( T − T0 )
ρ0
Approximation
 {α ( T − T0 )} 
2
ρ = ρ0 1 + α ( T − T0 ) +
 + ... 
 2 
 
x x2 x 3
Here we use ex =1 + + + + ...
1! 2 ! 3 !
Now : If α ( T − T0 ) <<< 1 then we can Neglect higher order terms:
ρ = ρ0 ( 1 + α ( T − T0 ) )
Where r0 = Resistivity at temperature T0

a = Coefficient of thermal resistivity
T – T0 = Change in temperature
r = Resistivity at temperature T
Graph of Resistivity and Mathematical Relation

y Resistivity rT of copper as a function of Temperature T.
Resistivity (10–8 metre)

0.4
0.2
0
0 50 100 T(K)
150
y Resistivity vs. temperature curve for Nichrome
25.
Resistivity ( cm)
1.20
1.10
0
0 200 400 T(K)
600
y Resistivity vs. temperature curve for Semiconductor

T
Example :
A wire l = 8m long of uniform cross-sectional area A = 8 mm2, has a
conductance of G = 2.45 W–1. The resistivity of material of the wire will be
(A) 2.1 ´ 10–7 Wm (B) 3.1 ´ 10–7 Wm
(C) 4.1 ´ 10–7 Wm (D) 5.1 ´ 10–7 Wm
Solution :
RA A 8 × 10−6
=
ρ = = = 4.1 × 10−7 Ω meter
l Gl 2.45 × 8
\ (C) is correct option.
26.
Variation of Resistance
with Temperature
The resistance of a given conductor depends on its length and area of
cross-section besides the resistivity.
Approximation: As temperature changes, the length and area also change

l 
but these changes are quite small and factor   may be treated as
A
constant.
ρl l
R= ⇒ R = ρ×
A A
l
= constant
A
Take ln both side,
l
ln (R=) ln   + ln ( ρ )
A
 
ln (R )= ln (l ) − ln ( A ) + ln ( ρ )
Differentiate both side,
1 1 dR dρ
dR = 0 − 0 + dρ ⇒ = …(1)
R ρ R ρ
dρ dρ
From relation : = α ⇒ = αdT …(2)
ρdT ρ
dR
Important relation : = αdT
R
Where a = Temperature coefficient Resistance.
R T
dR
Integrate both side, ∫ = ∫ αdT
R0 R T0
Variation of Resistance with Temperature

T0=Initial T=Final
A0 temperature A0 temperature
After
Heating
l0 l0
R0 R
R
ln (R ) R = α aT T α ( T − T0 )
R T
⇒ ln   =
 R0 
0 0
R = R0 .eα ( T − T0 ) , if α ( T − T0 ) << 1
R R0 ( 1 + α ( T − T0 ) )
=
27.
Temperature coefficient of Resistance
The resistance change factor per degree Celsius of temperature change is
called the temperature coefficient of resistance. It is denoted by ‘a’.
After
Heating
R1, T1 : R2, T2 :
R2 − R1
α= .
R1T2 − R2 T1
Example :
A copper coil has a resistance of 20.0 W at 0oC and a resistance of 26.4 W at
80oC. Find out the temperature coefficient of resistance of copper.
Solution :
R80o C R0o C [1 + α∆T ]
=
⇒ 26.4 = 20.0 [1 + a × (80 –0)]
26.4
⇒ =1 + 80α
20
On solving, we get a = 4 × 10–3/oC
Example :
A metallic wire has a resistance of 120 W at 20oC. Find the temperature
at which the resistance of same metallic wire rises to 240 W where the
temperature coefficient of wire is 2 × 10–40 C–1.
Solution :
Given R1 = R20 = 120 W, R2 = RT = 240W, a = 2 × 10–40 C–1, t1 = 20oC, t2 = T = ?
Formula used to find the temperature coefficient of resistance is
R − R1 R − R20
α= 2 ⇒ α= T
R1 ( t2 − t1 ) R20 ( T − 20)
240 − 120 120
2 × 10−4 = ⇒ T − 20 =
120 ( T − 20) 120 × 2 × 10−4
1
⇒ T = −4
+ 20 = 0.5 × 104 + 20 = 5020o C
2 × 10
Example :
The resistance of a thin silver wire is 1.0 W at 20oC. The wire is placed in
liquid bath & its resistance rises to 1.2W. What is the temperature of the
bath? (Here a = 10–2 / oC)
28.
Solution :
Here change in resistance is small so we can apply
R = R0 (1 + aDq)
⇒ 1.2= 1 × (1 + 10−2 ∆θ)
⇒ ∆θ
= 20°C
⇒ θ − 20 = 20
⇒ q = 40°C Ans.
Example :
1 o
A conductivity wire has resistance of 10 ohm at 0oC and a is / C , then
273
determine its resistance at 273oC.
Solution :
In such a problem, term aDT will have a larger value so could not be used
directly in R = R0(1 + aDT). We need to go for basic as
dR
As we know that α =
RdT
dR R
⇒ ∫ = ∫ αdT ⇒ ln 2 = α ( T2 − T1 )
R R1
⇒ R2 = R1eα ( T2 − T1 ) ⇒ R = 10e1
⇒ R2 = 10 e W Ans.
Example :
The cross-sectional area and length of cylinder l
conductor are A and l respectively. The specific
conductivity varies as s(x) = s0 l / x where x is
A
the distance along axis of the cylinder from one

of its ends.
x
(i) Compute the resistance of the system along the cylinder axis.
(ii) What is the electric field at each point in the cylinder in the above case?
Solution :
1 dx xdx dx
(i) dR
= =
σ (x) A Alσ0
l l
1 2 l A
\=R ∫=
0
dR
Alσ0 ∫
0
=
xdx
3Aσ0
x
29.
v 0 3Aσ0 v 0
(ii) =
R 2 l
I 3σ0 v 0
The current density, =
J =
A 2 l
J 3v 0 x
Electric field, E
= (x) =
σ (x) 2l 3/2
Example :
Two wires A and B having resistivity ρA = 3 × 10−5 Ωm and ρB = 6 × 10−5 Ωm of
same cross section area are connected end to end to form a single wire. If
the resistance of the joined wire does not change with temperature, then
find the ratio their lengths, given that temperature coefficient of resistivity
of wire A and B is α A = 4 × 10-5 /oC and αB =−6 × 10-6 /oC . Assume that
mechanical dimensions do not change with temperature.
Solution :
R'A RA ( 1 + α A ∆T )
=
RB' RB ( 1 + αB ∆T )
=
R′ RA ( 1 + α A ∆T ) + RB ( 1 + αB ∆T )
=
From given condition,

RA ( 1 + α A ∆T ) + RB ( 1 + αB ∆T=
) RA + RB
⇒ RA + RA α A ∆T + RB + RB αB ∆T = RA + RB
⇒ RA α A + RB αB = 0
ρ Al A ρl
lA 3
α A + B B αB =0 ⇒ =
AA AB lB 10
Example :
 1  dρ
The temperature coefficient of resistivity a is given by α =  , where r
 ρ  dT
is the resistivity at temperature T.
a
(a) Assume that a is not constant and is given by α = − , where T is the
T
absolute temperature where a is a constant, show that the resistivity r
b
is given by ρ = n , where b is another constant.
T
30.
Solution :
1 dρ
(a) α =
ρ dT
dρ dT
⇒ =
αdT =
−a
ρ T
ρ T
dρ dT
Let r = r0 at T = T0, then ∫
ρ0
ρ
= −a ∫
T0
T
a
 ρ  T T 
⇒ loge   = −a loge   = loge  0 
 ρ0   T0  T
1 b
⇒ ρ = ( ρ0 T0a ) a = a
T T
Here, b = ρ0 T0a
31.
Colour Code for Carbon
Resistance
Colour Strip A Strip B Strip C Strip D (Tolerance)
Block 0 0 10o
Brown 1 1 101
Red 2 2 102
Orange 3 3 103
Yellow 4 4 104
Green 5 5 105
Blue 6 6 106
Violet 7 7 107
Grey 8 8 108
White 9 9 109
Colour Code for Carbon Resistance
Gold - - 10–1 ± 5%
Silver - - 10–2 ± 10%
No Colour - - - ± 20%
Must be remembered as : B B R O Y Great Britain very Good Wife
32.
Example :
Draw a colour code for 42 K W ± 10% carbon resistance.
Solution :
According to colour code colour for digit 4 is yellow for digit 2 it is red, for 3
colour is orange and 10% tolerance is represented by silver colour, so colour
code should be yellow, red, orange, and silver.
Example :
What is resistance of following resistor.
Violet Gold
yellow Brown
Solution :
Number for yellow is 4, number for violet is 7.
Brown colour gives multiplier 101 gold gives a tolerance of ±5 % so resistance
of resistor is 47 × 101 W ± 5% = 470 ± 5% W.
Example:
What is resistance of following resistor.
Violet Gold
Yellow Brown Colour Code for Carbon Resistance
Solution:
Number for yellow is 4. Number of violet is 7
Brown colour gives multiplier 101. Gold gives a tolerance of ± 5%.
So resistance of resistor is
47 × 101 W ± 5% = 470 ± 5% W.
33.
Electrical Conductivity
& Conductance
Electrical Conductivity
1
The reciprocal of resistivity (r) is called the conductivity (s) ⇒ σ =
ρ
The unit of conductivity is mho metre–1 (W–1 m–1) ohm’s Law in alternative
form may be expressed as J = sE where J = Current Density and E =
Electric Field strength.
Electrical Conductance
1
Conductance (G) is the reciprocal of resistance ⇒ G=
R
Unit of conductance is siemen or mho (= W–1).
Electrical Conductivity & Conductance
34.
Combination of Resistances
(a) Series Combination

Rseries = R1 + R2 + R3 ……….Rn
Series connection means current is same in all the resistors.
R1 R2 R3 Rn
A B
+ –
v
Let the equivalent resistance between A and B is equal to Req required
then by definition,
V
Requivalent = …(1)
I
Using Kirchhoff’s 2nd Rule for the loop shown in figure,
V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + ..... + IRn …(2)
From equation (1) and (2),
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 ......Rn
(b) Parallel Combination

In parallel combination potential difference will remain same across
each resistor.
R1
I1 R2 B
A I2
I3 R3
I Rn
+ –
v
V
Here again, Req = …(1)
I
V V V V
I = i1 + i2 + i3 + .... + in = + + + ... + …(2)
R1 R2 R3 Rn
1 1 1 1 1
= + + ......
Req R1 R2 R3 Rn
35.
Example :
The resistance of the series combination of two resistances is S. When they
are joined in parallel, the total resistance is P. If S = nP, then the minimum
possible value of n is
(A) 4 (B) 3 (C) 2 (D) 1
Solution :
For two resistances R1 and R2
1 1
S = R1 + R2 (in series), =
P + (in parallel)
R1 R2
 RR 
According to S = nP, R1 + R2 =
n 1 2 
 R1 + R2 
If n is minimum R1 = R2 = R then n = 4
\ (A)
Example :
Consider a hollow cylinder of length L and inner radius R1 and outer radius
R2, as shown in figure. The material has resistivity r.
R1 R2
A L B
(a) Suppose a potential difference is applied between the ends of the

cylinder and produces a current flowing parallel to the axis. What is the
resistance measured?
(b) If instead the potential difference is applied between the inner and outer
surfaces so that current flows radially outward, what is the resistance

measured?
Solution :
(a) When a potential difference is applied between the ends of the cylinder,
current flows parallel to the axis.
36.
=resistivity of
material
I
R1 R2
A L B
π (R22 − R21 ) , and the resistance

In this case, the cross-sectional area is A =
ρL ρL
is given by= R =
A π (R2 − R21 )
2
(b) Consider a differential element which is made up of a thin cylinder of

inner radius r and outer radius r + dr and length L. Its contribution to
the resistance of the system is given by
Direction of flow of
current
R1 R2
I
A L B
Direction of
ρdl ρdr current flow
=
dR =
A 2πrL
Where A = 2prL is the area normal to the direction of
current flow. The total resistance of the system becomes ‘dr’
R2 r
ρdr ρ R 
R
= ∫R= 2πrL 2πL
loge  2 
 R1 
Example :
Consider a material of resistivity r0 in a shape of a truncated cone of altitude
l, and radii a and b, for the right and the left ends respectively, as shown
in the figure.
Assuming that the current is distributed uniformly through the cross-
section of the cone what in the resistance between the two ends.
37.
y-axis
radius
b
a
i i x-axis
Solution :
y-axis
radius
r b
a
i x i x-axis
dx
Consider a thin disk of radius ‘r’ at a distance x from the left end from the
figure shown.
Equation of line : r
=
y mx + c
(b − a )
=r (x) + a b–a
l b
(b − a ) l
=r ( x ) + a …(1) a
l x
Now differentiate this equation :
l
(b − a ) (b − a ) ldr
=dr (dx ) + 0 , dr = (dx ) , dx =
l l (b − a )
RTotal = dR1 + dR2 + dR3 + ...dRn
a b
i i i i
dR1
dR2
dR2 …….
Combination of disks
38.
n
∑ dr
i= 1
{current is same in all disks so they must be connected in series}
ρ0dx dx
RTotal = ∫ dR , R= ∫=
dR ∫ , RTotal = ∫ dR = ρ0 ∫
Total
( πr ) 2
πr2
ldr ρ0 × l b dr ρ0l 1 1
RTotal = ρ0 ∫
( a ) πr2
b −
=
( − )π a
b a ∫ r 2
=
−
( b − a π
−
)  a b 
ρ0l 1 1 ρ0l b − a 
= − =
(b − a ) π  b a  (b − a ) π  ab 
ρ0l
R= (Total resistance)
π ( ab )
ρ0l
R=
πab
Example :
Two resistors with temperature coefficient of resistance a1 and a2 have
resistances R01 and R02 at 0oC. Find the temperature coefficient of the
compound resistor consisting of the two resistors connected, (a) in series
(b) in parallel.
Solution :
In series :
At 0oC R01 R02 R0=R01 + R02
At t°C, R01 (1 + α1t) + R02 (1 + α=

2 t) R0 (1 + αt)
⇒ R01 (1 + α1t) + R02 (1 + α2=

t) (R01 + R02 )(1 + αt)
⇒ R01 + R01α1t + R02 + R02 α2 t = R01 + R02 + (R01 + R02 )αt
R α + R02 α2
⇒ α = 01 1
R01 + R02
In Parallel :
1 1 1
At t °C, = +
R0 (1 + αt) R0 (1 + α1t) R02 (1 + α2 t)
R01 + R02 1 1
⇒ = +
R01R02 (1 + αt) R01 (1 + α1t) R02 (1 + α2 t)
39.

Since at <<1, so by using the Binomial expansion, we get

1 1 1 1
(1 − αt) + (1 −=
αt) (1 − α1t) + (1 − α2 t) 6
R02 R01 R01 R02
 1 1  α1 α α1R02 + α2R01
⇒ αt  + = t + 2 t ⇒ α=
R
 01 R02  R01 R02 R01 + R02
40.
Battery & E.M.F
Battery
Battery is a device which maintain a potential difference across its two
terminals.
Electromotive force (e.m.f)

Definition 1: Electromotive force is the capacity of the system battery to
make the charge flow.
Definition 2: It is the work done by the battery for the flow of 1 coulomb
charge from lower potential terminal to higher potential terminal inside the
battery.
Mechanism of Battery
Condition 1 :
When battery is not connected to external load.
Fb + + – + –
+ –
– Fb + –
+ –
Battery Battery
Battery
y
Non-electrostatic Electric field At full charge condition
force developed by generated due to of battery net force on
Battery charge separation charge becomes zero

Initially Non-Electrostatic force Fb develop by battery mechanism, come in
picture and start pulling positive charge on one side and -ve charge on
another side of battery. Due to this electric field develop in the battery, at
some instant.   
F=
b F=
E qE
At this condition battery is fully charged.
When battery connected to external load ‘R’ electron move from negative
plate of battery through wire and reach at positive
 plate of battery so charge
on the plates decreases and so does the E .
 
(
Fb > FE )

Due to this Fb again pull some charge to positive plate and negative plate,
 
again Fb = qE and this process going on. Here work done by Fb come from
Battery & E.M.F
chemical energy of battery.
41.
Important Point :

(1) Fb does not decrease with time.

(2) E due to charge separation.
(3) Charges are not created only separated.
(4) Battery is source of energy not charge.
(5) Fb depends on chemical energy.

(6) Inside the battery direction of ‘I’ and E is different.
(7) Electro motive force measured in volt.
Representation for Battery

(1) Ideal cell : Cell in which there is no heating effect.
VA –
+ VB
Higher potential Lower potential
difference difference
Ideal cell
(2) Non ideal cell :

Internal resistance (r) : The potential of battery
real source in a circuit is not equal to the emf –
+
VA VB
of the cell. The reasons is that charge moving
r
through the material of battery (electrolyte) of the
cell in counters collision so other resistance. We
called this the internal resistance of the source.
Case 1: Battery acting as a source (or battery is discharging)

(VA – VB) = e – ir ⇒ V = e – ir
VA – VB = V = called terminal voltage.
Charge flow in time ‘dt’ ⇒ dq = idt i + – i

VA VB
r
Energy supply to load
(Power)Load = i – i 2r
∆w = ( ε − ir ) × (i dt )
Power supplied Power Internal power
∆w =ε i dt − i2rdt to load dissipation
developed
dw battery
= εi − ir
Battery & E.M.F
dt
42.
Case 2: Battery acting as a load (or battery charging)
VA – VB = e + ir + –
i i
The rate at which chemical energy stored in the cell = ei A B
r
Thermal power inside the cell = i2r
Electrical power input = ei + i2 r V
= (e + ir)i
= (VA – VB)i
For Electrolyte Cell :

r ∝ d (distance between electrode)
1
r ∝ (area of electrode)
s
r ∝ c (concentration)
1 R1
r∝
temperature C D
Example :
In the given electric circuit find + –
B A
(a) Current ,r
(b) Power output
(c) Relation between r and R so that the electric power output (that means
power given to R) is maximum.
(d) Value of maximum power output.
(e) Plot graph between power and resistance load
(f) From graph we see that for a given power output there exists two
values of external resistance, prove that the product of these resistance
equals r2.
(g) What is the efficiency of the cell when it is used to supply maximum
power.
Solution :
(a) In the circuit shown if we assume that potential at A is zero then
potential at B is e – ir. Now since the connecting wires are of zero
resistance.
\ VD = VA = 0 ⇒ VC = VB = e – ir
Now current through CD is also I (  it is in series with the cell)
VC − VD ( ε − ir ) − 0 ε
=
\ i = current i =
Battery & E.M.F
R R r +R
43.
Note : After learning the concept of series combination we will able to
calculate the current directly.
ε2
(b) Power output P = i2R = R
(r + R )
2
dP ε2 2ε2R ε2
(c) = − = [R + r − 2R]
(r + R ) (r + R ) (R + r )
2 3 3
dR
dP
For maximum power supply = 0 ⇒ r + R – 2R = 0 ⇒ r = R
dR
Here for maximum power output outer resistance

should be equal to internal resistance.
P
ε2
(d) Pmax =
4r
(e) Graph between ‘P’ and R, where maximum power Pmax

ε2
output at R = r, i.e., Pmax = P
4r
Relation between power output & resistance load R

R1 R=r R2
is given as,
ε2R
⇒ P=
(r + R )
2
ε2R
(f) Power output P =
(r + R)2
 ε2 
P (r2 + 2rR + R2 ) =
ε2R ⇒ R2 +  2r −  R + r2 =
0
 P
Above quadratic equation in R has two roots R1 and R2 for given values
of e, P and r such that
\ R1R2 = r2 (product of roots), ⇒ r2 = R1R2

2
ε2 ε2  ε  ε2
(g) power of battery spent = . Power (output) =
.2r =  × r =
(r + r ) r + r 
2
2r 2 4r
ε
× 100
power output 1
Efficiency = =4r2 = × 100 = 50%
total power spent by cell ε / 2r 2
Battery & E.M.F
44.
Example :
In the figure given beside find out the current in the wire BD.
5
C B
20V
10V
D A
2
Solution : 5
V=+20 V=0
Let at point D potential = 0 and write the potential C B
10 4A
of other points then current in wire AD= = 5A 5A
2 4A
10V
20
from A to D current in wire CB = = 4 A from C 20V 1A
5 +10V
to F
D A
\ current in wire BD = 1 A from D to B
5A 2
Battery & E.M.F
45.
Kirchhoff’s Laws
Kirchhoff’s current law: This law is based on law of I1

conservation of charge. It state that “The algebraic sum of I4
the currents meeting at a point of the circuits zero” or total I2
currents entering a junction equals total current leaving the I5
junction.
I3
Incoming current = outgoing current
I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 + I5
∑I in = ∑I
out
Example :
Calculate the value of current I in the circuit shown in figure.
2A 1A
4A A B 2A
Solution : 2A
Apply KCL at A : 2 + 4 = I1 ⇒ I1 = 6A 1A
Apply KCL at B: I1 = 1 + I2 ⇒ 6 = 1 + I2 ⇒ I2 = 5A
4A A I1 B 2A
Apply KCL at C: I2 + I = 2 ⇒ 5A + I = 2
I2
Answer is I = –3A
i.e., current I is 3A and is leaving the point C.
C
I
Example :
Find the potential at point ‘A’ in the given port of circuit.
20V
2
– 15V
+10V 1 20V + 1 + –
–50V
– + A
5V
1
Kirchhoff’s Laws
–30V
46.
Solution :
20V
2
– 15V
+10V 1 20V + 2 + –
– + A –50V
5V
1
–30V
Steps for problem solving :

Step 1 : Assume outgoing current in all the branches.
Step 2: let potential of point A is VA.
Step 3: Apply KCL at junction ‘A’.
20V
2
– 15V
20V
V +
10V 1 I1 I2 2 + –
– + VA I3 –50V
I4 5V
1
–30V
Apply KCL at junction ‘A’
Outgoing current = incoming current
I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 = 0
VA − 20 − 10 VA − 15 − 20 VA − 5 + 50 VA + 30
+ + + =
0
1Ω 2Ω 2Ω 1Ω
 1 1 1 1  30 35 45
VA  + + +  − − + + 30 =
0
 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
30 35 45 30 60 + 35 − 45 − 60 −10
VA [3] =
Kirchhoff’s Laws
+ − − = =
1 2 2 1 2 2
5
VA [3] = −5 ⇒ VA = − volt
3
47.
Kirchhoff’s voltage laws
The algebraic sum of all the potential drop across each element along a
closed loop is zero.
∑
closed loop
∆V =0
“It is based on the law of conservation of energy”.
+ – I
I Traversing
I direction
R1 R2
Assuming – + I
clockwise current I
E2
+ IR2 + E1 + I R1 + E2 = 0
For : ‘R’ and emf we can write as ∑ IR + ∑ EMF =
0
The Rule for determining DV (Potential drop) across a resistor and a battery
For Resistors :
Higher I R Lower
a b
(i)
Traversing direction
DV = Vb – Va = –IR
Lowerr ‘V’ R I Higherr ‘V’
(ii)
a b
DV = Vb – Va = +IR
Kirchhoff’s Laws
For Batteries :
48.
E Higherr ‘V’
Lowerr ‘V’ – +
(i) a b
DV = Vb – Va = +E
Higherr ‘V’ + – Lower ‘V’
a b
(ii) E
DV = Vb – Va = –E
Summary of sign conventions :
+ –
(i) –E
E
+ –
(ii) +E
E
I
(iii) –IR
I
(iv) +IR
Steps to solve numerical problems using KVL:

Step 1: Assign direction of current in the loop/closed circuit (if not given).
Step 2: Choose the traversing direction.
Step 3: Apply KVL in the loop with sign convention given above.
Example : 20
Find the potential difference between A and B. A I=5A B
Kirchhoff’s Laws
Solution : VA 20 VB
Let potential of A is VA and for ‘B’ is VB.
A 5A B
49.
Choose traversing direction :
Case 1: Move from left to right
VA − I × R − VB =0
20
VA − 5 × 20 − VB =0
A 5A B
VA − VB = 20 × 5
VA − VB =
100V
Case 2: Move from right to left :

VB + IR − VA =
0
5A
VB + 5 × 20 − VA =0
VA 20 VB
VB − VA =
−100 Volt
VA − VB =
100 volt Traversing direction
Example :
Find current in the circuit.
20V 1
D C
+ –
–
4 15V
+
+ 2
10V
–
– +
A B
3
3V
Solution :
20V 1
I I C
D
I + – I
–
4 15V
I +
+
Kirchhoff’s Laws
10V 2
–
I – + I
A I I B
3 30V Traversing direction
50.
 All the element are connected in series current is all of them will be
same left current = i. Applied Kirchhoff’s voltage law in ABCDA loop
10 + 4I – 20 + I + 15 + 2i – 30 + 3i = 0
10I = 25
I = 2.5A
Numerical Problems
Example :
Find the current in each wire applying only Kirchhoff voltage law.
F – + E – + D
10V 50V
2
1 2
+
30V –
A B C
Solution :
Step 1: Assign direction of current in the loop (you can choose any direction
either clockwise or anti clockwise.
Step 2: Choose direction of traversing:
Let we traversed the circuit in clockwise direction.
Step 3: Apply K.V.L. in the loops.
Applying Kirchhoff voltage law in the loop A F E B A: (For clockwise traversing)
−1 × I1 + 10 − 2 (I1 − I2 ) − 30 =0
−I1 + 10 − 2I1 + 2I2 − 30 =0
2I2 − 3I1 =
20 …(1) F – + E – + D
Applying KVL in the loop B E D C B : 10V 50V
(for clockwise traversing) 2
I1 I2 2
+30 + 2 (I1 − I2 ) + 50 − 2I2 =
0 1
+
30 + 2I1 − 2I2 + 50 − 2I2 =
0 30V – I2
Kirchhoff’s Laws
2I1 − 4I2 =
−80 A B C
I1
−40
I1 − 2I2 = …(2)
51.
After solving equation (1) and (2)
2I2 − 3I1 =
20
−40 ,
I1 − 2I2 = −2I1 =−20
I1 = 10A …(3)
From equation (3) and equation (2)
−40
10 − 2I2 = ⇒ I2 = 25A
E E
2 I1 – I2 = 10 – 25 = –15 2 15A from B to E
B B
Current in wire AF = 10 A from A to F.

Current in wire EB = 15A from B to E.
Current in wire DE = 25A from E to D.
Kirchhoff’s Laws
52.
Nodal Analysis
It is also called Node-voltage analysis or branch current method.

It is based on Kirchhoff’s current law.
R1 R2
+ +
R3 V
– V1 – 2
Suppose we want to calculate current in all branches or voltage at nodes.
Steps for Problem Solving

Step 1: Assign ground Node and mark voltages at all nodes.
R1 R2
V
+ +
V1 R3 V
– – 2
0V 0V
Step 2: Assign current direction at Nodes (always take outward current for
easy simplification).
R1 I1 I2 R2
V
I3
+ +
V1 R3 V
– – 2
0V
Nodal Analysis
0V 0V
53.
Step 3: Write KCL equation at assigned Node.
i1 + i2 + i3 = 0
V − V1 V − V2 V − 0
+ + =
0
R1 R2 R3
Step 4: Solve the above equation and find unknown voltage.
Example :
Find current in all branches.
2 4
+ +
2V 1 3V
– –
Solution :
Step 1:
2 V 4
+ +
– 2V 1 – 3V
0V
0V 0V
Step 2:
2 I1 V I2 4
I3
+ +
– 2V 1 – 3V
Nodal Analysis
0V
54.
Step 3:
i1 + i2 + i3 =
0
V−2 V−3 V−0

+ + =
0
2 4 1
 1 1 1 2 3 0
V + + − − − = 0
2 4 1 2 4 1
2 + 1 + 4  3 7 7
V −1− =0 ⇒ V=
  ⇒ V = 1 volt
 4  4 4  4
1−2 1 1−3 1 1
I1 = = − ; I2 = = − ; I3= = 1
2 2 4 2 1
1 1
Answer is i1 = A , i2 = A , i3 = 1 A
2 2
Example :
Find current in all branches.
2 + –
2V
2
2
+ 2
– +
10V
–
4V
2 I1 I4 + –
V
Solution :
Apply KCL at Node A : I3
I2 2V
I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 =
0
2
V − 0 V − 4 V − 10 V − 2 2
+ + + =
0 + 2
2 2 2 2 – +
10V
1 1 1 1 –
V + + + −0−2−5−1 =0 4V 0V
2 2 2 2 
0V 0V
2V = 8
V = 4 Volt
4−0 4 − 10
=I1 = 2 A , I3 = = −3 A
2 2
4−2
I2 = 0, = I4 = 1A
Nodal Analysis
2
Answer is I1 = 2 A , I2 = 0 , I3 = −3A , I4 = I A
55.
Note : Verify the answer
∑1 = 2 + 0 − 3 + 1 = 0
Example :
In the circuit shown in figure determine the voltage drop between A and D.
2 A C
1
3 6
10V 4
4V
B D
20V
Solution :
We need to divide this circuit into three parts. We have left loop right loop,
and the central part. To find out voltage drop between points A and D we
have to apply Kirchhoff’s second law to these circuits one by one.
Also let us assume that current I1 flows in the left circuit in the clockwise
direction and current I2 flows in the right circuit in the anticlockwise
direction.
Direction of both the currents is decided by the battery present in the
circuit as current flows from positive to negative.
I1 2 A C
1
3 6
10V I1 4 I2
I1 I2 I2
4V
B D
20V
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to left loop, we get,

−2I1 − 3I1 + 10 =
0
⇒ −5I1 =−10
⇒ I1 = 2A
Now applying Kirchhoff’s second law to right loop, we get
–4I2 – 6I2 + 20 = 0
Nodal Analysis
⇒ 10I2 = 20
⇒ I2 = 2A
56.
Applying between the points A and D we get
VA – 3I1 + 4 + 4I2 – VD = 0
Putting values of I1 and I2 in the above expression, we get
VA – VD = 3 × 2 – 4 × 2 – 4 = 6 – 12 = –6 V
Example : 2V
Find the current through 12W resistor in figure.
6
12 4
15V 3V
8
4V
Solution :
Let V be the potential at P, then applying KCL at junction P, we get
15 − V V − 2 V − 3 V − 4
I = I1 + I2 + I3 ⇒ = + +
12 6 4 8
68 15 − (68 / 15 ) 157
or V == V and I = A
15 12 180
2V
6
12 I I1 4
15V 3V
P I3
I2
8
4V
Nodal Analysis
57.
Voltage & Current
Division Rules
Voltage Division Rule
Voltage division rule is applicable only in case of series connection.
(a) In case of Resistor :
V1 V2
R1 R2
+ -
V
 R1 
Potential drop across resistor R1, V1 =   (V)
 R1 + R2 
R2
Potential drop across resistor R, V2 = (V)
(R1 + R2 )
(b) In Case of Capacitor :
 C2 
Potential difference across plates of capacitor C1, V1 =   (V)
 C1 + C2 
 C1 
Potential difference across plates of capacitor C2, V2 =   (V)
 C1 + C2 
Current Division Rules :
Case-1 : Two resister connected in Parallel
I1 R1 I1
Voltage & Current Division Rules
I
I2 I2
R2
Use : I = I1 + I2
I1 R1 = I1 R2 = Voltages Across each resistor are same.
On solving equation (1) and (2) we get
R2 R1
I1 = (I) , I2 = (I)
(R1 + R2 ) R1 + R2
58.
Case-2 :
I1 I1
I I2 I2
I3 I3
  1     1     1  
           
I1 =  R1   (I) ; I   R2   [I] ; I3 =   R3   (I)
 1 1 1  2
 1 1 1   1 1 1 
R R + + + + R + + 
R3  R R2 R3  R2 R3
 1 2
  1   1 
Example :
When two resistors are in parallel
combination then determine i1 and R1
i2 in terms of i.
i1
A B
Solution : i
i1 R2 R2
\ i1R2 = i2R2 or = i2
i2 R1
Ri
⇒ i1 = 2
(R1 + R2 )
1
Note : Remember this law of i ∝ in the resistors connected in parallel.
R
Example :
Find current passing through the battery and each resistor.
2
3
A B
6
30V
59.
Solution :
Method (1)
It is easy to see that potential difference across each resistor is 30 V.
30 30 30
\ Current is each resistors are
= 15A, = 10A and = 5A
2 3 6
\ Current through battery is = 15 + 10 + 5 = 30 A.
Method (2)
V
By ohm’s law i =
Re q
1 1 1 1 30
= + + = 1Ω , Re q = 1 Ω ⇒ i= = 30 A
Re q 2 3 6 1
Now distribute this current in the resistors in their inverse ratio.
2 15A 2
3 30A
A B =A B
6 15A 2
Current total in 3 W and 6 W is 15 A it will be divided as 10 A and 5A.

Note : The method (I) is batter. But you will not find such an easy case
everywhere.
Example :
Find current which is passing through battery.
2
3
6
30V, 1
60.
Solution :
Here potential difference across each resistor is not 30 V
 battery has internal resistance here the concept of combination of
resistors is useful.
30
Req = 1 + 1 = 2 W ⇒ i= = 15 A.
2
Example :
Find equivalent Resistance.
A B
R R R
Solution :
R R
A B
VA R VB VA VB
Here all the Resistance are connected between the terminals A and B
Modified circuit is
R R
So Re q = A B
3
R

Example :
Find the current in Resistance P if voltage supply between A and B is V
volts.
R
P
A B
R R R
61.
Solution :
R
P
Modified circuit A B
R C R
A B
VA VB C
R
R R/2
3R 5V A P B
Re q = ⇒ I=
5 3R
5V R
R×
3R 2V
Current
= in P =
1.5R + R 3R
Example :
Find the current in 2W resistance.
4 2
120V 6
1
3
4 4
4
Solution :
12A 12A
2W, 1W in series = 3W
18 2
3W, 6W in parallel = = 2W
9
2W, 4W in series = 6W 4 12A
6W, 3W in parallel = 2W
Req = 4 + 4 + 2 = 10W 12A 4A 3
120
=i = 12A 6
3
10
8 8A
So current in 2W Resistance = A
3 4
62.
Calculation of Effective
Resistance
In some cases, resister neither in series nor in Parallel. Such type of circuit
can be solved by following methods.
1. Successive Reduction Method.
2. Balanced Wheat Stone Bridge.
3. Unbalanced Wheat Stone Bridge.
4. Symmetrical Circuit.
5. Ladder Problems.
6. Cube Problems.
Successive Reduction Method

This method is applicable only when we are able to identity resistance in
series or in parallel. The method is based on the simplification of the circuit
by successive reduction of the series and parallel combination.
Example :
Calculate the equivalent resistance between points method M and N, the
network shown in fig.
Q r P
r
r
O
2r
2r
r
r 2r
r N
M
Solution :
r
Calculation of Effective Resistance
r
r 2r
r
2r
M r
N
63.
P
r
O
O r
r
r 2r M N
2r
M r
M r
N
N
Balanced Wheat Stone Bridge
VC
R1 R2
R5
R4 R3
+ -
E R
The arrangement as shown in figure, is known as wheat stone bridge. Here

there are four terminals in which except two all are connected to each
other through resistive elements. In this circuit if:
R1 R3 = R2 R4 then VC = VD and current in R5 = 0, this is called balance point
or null point.
Here in this case products of opposite arms are equal. Potential difference
between C and D at null point is zero. The null point is not affected by
resistance R5, E and R. It is not affected even if the positions of R5 and E
are interchanged.
Hence, Here the circuit can be assumed to be following :
64.
R1 R2 R1 R2
OR A B
R4 R3 R4 R3
Example :
Find equivalent resistance of the circuit between the terminal A and B.
10 6
20
A B
5 3
Solution :
Since the given circuit in wheat stone bridge and it is in balance condition.
\ 10 × 3 = 6 × 5
16 × 8 16
Hence this is equivalent to, Re=q = Ω
16 + 8 3
Example :
10 6
Find :
(a) Equivalent resistance. 5 3
(b) Current in each resistance in the given circuit. A B
16

10 6
20
5 3
+ -
60V, 1
65.
Solution :
Redraw the circuit.
16
10 6
5 3
+ -
60V, 1
Since the given circuit is wheat stone bridge and it is in balance condition.
\ 10 × 3 = 5 × 6 = 30
So, no current will flow through 20W resistance so we can remove 20W
resistance.
1 1 1 1 1+1+2 4
= + + = =
Re q 16 16 8 16 16
60 60
Current flow thrown battery ⇒ =I = = 12A
4+1 5 4
By using current distribution law
Current in resistance 10W and 6W = 3A
Current in resistance 5W and 3W = 6A
Current in resistance 20W = 0 + -
Current in resistance 16W = 3A
60V 1
10 6
3A 3A
I=0
5 20 3
12A
6A 6A
16 3A
I = 12A
+ -
I
60V, 1
66.
Unbalanced Wheat-Stone-Bridge :
In some circuits resistance neither connected in series nor in parallel
also wheat stone bridge is not balanced. We use V-I method to solve such
type of circuit.
Example :
1 2
2
2 2
Solution :
Step 1 : Connect a battery across the terminal.
1 2
2
2 2
+ -
V Volt
Step 2: Mark the voltages of nodes.
1 x-volt 2
v-volt i1 OV
2
2 2 i
y-Volt i2
+ -
V
V
Step 3: Calculate. Re q =
I
Apply KCL at node ‘x’
x−V x−0 x−y
⇒ + + =
0
1 2 2
67.
⇒ 2x – 2V + x + x-y = 0
⇒ 4x – 2V = y ...(1)
Apply KCL at node ‘y’
y−x y−V y
+ + = 0
2 2 2
⇒ 3y - v = x …(2)
Solve Eq. (1) and Eq. (2)
7V 6v
x= , y=
11 11
Now calculate :
x−0 7V 7V y 6V 6V
= I1 = = ⇒ I2 = = =
2 11 × 2 22 2 11 × 2 22
So, equivalent resistance
V V V 22
= Re q = = ⇒ Re q =Ω
i1 + i2 7V 6V 13V 13
+
22 22 22
Symmetrical Circuits
There are two type of Symmetry : (1) Mirror symmetry, (2) Folding Symmetry
Mirror Symmetry
When a circuit is symmetrical about a line (by symmetry. we mean that two
parts are mirror image of each other), then the potential and current must
also be symmetrical.
b
R
R
R R
a e
A B
c
R
R R
Therefore, current in ab and af are same. Currents in fc and bc are same,

potential of the points b, e and f are same
68.
There are following step to Solve Symmetrical Circuit
b` b
R
R
R R I1
R I1
R I2
e
A B A B
I2
I3 I3
R
R R
f f
mirror
Step–1 : Draw a mirror Step–2 : Mark the Current
R I1
I1
I2 I=0
c I
Step-3 : Reverse the direction of Current A B
I I2 I
I3 3
I=0
I3
f
b
Important points :
Due to symmetry we observe that current I1 is not R R Calculation of Effective Resistance
divide at junction b, I2 is not divide at junction e
and I3 is not divide at junction ‘f’ I1 I1
So, No current flow through the Resistor a e c
connected between be and ef. I R I2 I
I3 2 R 3
⇒ Now Re-draw the circuit
R R
1 1 1 1 2R
Now equivalent Resistance : = + + =
Rab 2R 2R 2R 3
is Answer. f
69.
Folding Symmetry
R R
A B C
R R R
R R
O
R R
R
R R
D E F
⇒ In this case the circuit has symmetry

⇒ With the help of symmetry we can write, VA = VD ; VB = VE ; VC = VF
and we know that same potential point can connect.
R R
A B C
⇒ R R
R R R R R
x y
R O R
A B C
R /2 R/2
⇒ R/2 R/2 R/2
x y
R O R
Req = R. Answer is R
70.
Example :
Calculate effective resistance between points A and C for the networks
shown.
R
A B
R R
R R
R O R
R
D C
Solution :
With the help of symmetry about line AC we can write, VD = VB = Vo
Now fold the circuit about line AC.
R
B
A
R
R
R R R
R
O
R
C
R/2 R/2
B B
A A
R/2
R R/2 R R/2
O O
R R
C C
Thus, between points A and C

2R
⇒ Req = . Answer is 2R/3.
3
71.
Alternatively,
Since the points B, O and D are at same potential, we can treat them shorted.
R R R R
B
R R R R
A C ≡ A B O C
O D
R R
D R R
C
R R 2R
⇒ Req = + = is Answer.
3 3 3
Example :
Calculate the effective resistance between points A and C, by applying symmetry principle.
B
R
R R
R D R
A C
R
Solution :
Break the branch AC int two resistors in series, each R/2, and consider the dotted line
passing through B, D and E. The network on the two sides of this line is symmetrical. Hence,
one can short- circuit the points B, D and E and calculate (Req)AE
B
R R
R
R R
⇒
R R
R D R B D
A C
E
R/2 R/2
A C
R/2 R/2
72.
Now, we find that resistances R, R and R/2 are in parallel across A and E.
The parallel combination of R and R gives R/2. This R/2 in parallel with R/2
gives R/4. Hence,
R R  R
(Req )AE = ⇒ (Req )AC =2(Req )AE =2  =.
4 4 2
Cube Problems (Identical Potential Points)
In some networks, you may not find symmetry on the two sides of a line.
But, you may find that the network contains some set of points having
identical potential. Such a set of points can be joined together to make the
network simple.
Example :
Twelve equation wires of resistances R each are joined up to form the
edges of a cube, as shown in figure. The cube is connected into a circuit
across the diagonal AG. Find the equivalent resistance of the network.
D
C
A
B
H G
E F
Solution :
Let us search the points of identical potential. since the three edges of the
cube from A, viz., Ab, AD and AE are identical in all respects in the circuit,
the points B, D and E are the same potential. Similarly, for the point G, the
sides GC, GH and GF are symmetrical and the points C, H and F are at the
same potential.
A D C G
B H
E F
Next, to simplify the circuit, we bring together the points, B,D and E and
also C, H & F.
Now, it becomes obvious that
73.
the resistance between A and D = R/3
the resistance between D and C = R/6
the resistance between C and G = R/3
Thus, the circuit is equivalent to three resistance of value. R/3, R/6 and R/3,
in series, and hence the net resistance between An and G is
R R R 5R
RAG = + + =
3 6 3 6
Summary :
Equivalent Resistance Between :
Edge (RAB) Face diagonal (RAF) Body diagonal(RAG)
7R 3R 5R
12 4 6
Infinite Ladder Problems

Some networks make a ladder (or a grid) and extend to infinity. To reduce
such networks we use the following steps.
Step-1: Let us assume the total resistance of the infinite network to be X

(say).
Step-2: Now just retain one basic repetitive unit and we observe the
remaining circuit to be the same as the original circuit. So, resistance of
this left out circuit must be X.
Step-3: Now the equivalent circuit, is the combination of basic unit and
original repetitive circuit of resistance X, such that the net resistance of
the entire circuit is X.
The following illustrations are done on the basis of these three steps.
Example :
Find effective resistance between points A and B of an infinite chain of
resistors joined as shown in figure.
74.
Solution :
Suppose the effective resistance between A and B is X. Applying the steps discussed, we get
R2 X R1 R2 R1
⇒ X = R1 + [R2 || X] = R1 + C
(R2 + X) A
⇒ X2 − R1X − R1 R2 =0 R2 R2 R2 To infinity
⇒ X=
2
1
(
R1 ± (R21 + 4R1 R2 ) ) B
D
R1 C
A
X R2 X
B D
R1  4R2 
And as resistance cannot be negative, we have, X=  1 + 1 + 
2  R1 
R
However, if R1 = R2 = R we get, X = (1 + 5) = 1.6 R
2
75.
Combination of Cells
Series Combination
When the cells are connected in series the total emf of the series
combination is equal to the sum of the emf’s of the individual cells and
internal resistance of the cells also come in series.
+ – r1 + – r2 + – rn
E1 E2 En
I
Equivalent emf(E) = E1 + E2 + E3 ….En

Equivalent emf(req) = r1 + r2 + r3 …rn
Enet nE
Current 1 = ; if all n cell are identical then I =
rnet + R nr + R
E
y If nr >> R, =
I ≅ current from one cell.
r
nE
y If nr << R,=I ≈ n × current from one cell.
R
Note : If polarity of m cells is reversed, then equivalent emf = (n – 2m)E

while the equivalent resistance is still (nr + R), so current in R will be
(n − 2m)E
i=
nr + R
Example :
Find the current flow in the given circuit.
40V,2
1 + –
4 2
+ – 10V,1
15V,1
– +
– +
3 20V,1
76.
Solution :
The given circuit can be simplified as 35V,5
10 + –
35 35 7
=I = = A
10 + 5 15 3
7 I
I= A
3
Parallel Combination
Let we have cells connected as follows:
+ –
1 r1 Equivalent battery eq req
+ –
can be represented
2 r2 two ways
– + OR
eq req
+ 3– r3 – +
Equivalent battery can be written in two ways:
+ – – +
or
eq req eq req
Figure-1 Figure-2
Case – 1: If we consider the polarity this (fig.1) way then value of eeq can be written as
ε 1 ε 3 ε2 –
+ − +
r r3 r2 1 1 1 1
εeq =1 ⇒ = + + eq req
1 1 1 req r1 r2 r3
+ +
r1 r2 r3 Figure-1
Case -2: If we consider the polarity of battery:
 ε2 ε 1 ε 3  – +
 − − 
Then, Eeq =  r2 r1 r3  ⇒
1 1 1
= + +
1
eq req
1 1 1 req r1 r2 r3
 + + 
 r1 r2 r3 
77.
Special Case : If m cells each of emf E and internal resistance r be connected
in parallel and if this combination is connected to an external resistance
then equivalent emf of circuit is e.
+ – r
+ – r
eq=
+ –
+ – r
+ –
r
ε ε ε ε
+ + ... → n − times n×
εq =r r r = r = ε ⇒ εeq =ε
1 1 1 1
+ + ... → n − times n×
r r r r
1 1 1 1 1 n r
= + + + ...n times , =   ⇒ req =
req r r r req  r  n
Example :
Three cells of emf 3V, 4V and 6V are connected in parallel. If their internal
resistance are 1W, 2W and 1W. Find the equivalent req and the current in the
external load R = 1.6 W.
Solution :
Let’s assume that polarity of equivalent battery is
3V
V
1 – +
2 + 4V
–
A B
– + – +
eq req
1 6V
R=1.6
78.
That means the batteries which are connected in – +
Such combination take as +ve sign.
Now,
3 6 4
1 + 1 − 2
εeq = 1 1 1  , since it is connect in opposite polarity.
 + + 
1 2 1
εeq =2.8 volt
1 1 1 1 2+1+2 5
= + + = =
req 1 2 1 2 2
2
req= = 0.4 Ω ⇒ req = 0.4 W
5
– + req=0.4
Now redraw the circuit
Current flow in the circuit : 2.8V
2.8V 2.8V
i= =
1.6 + 0.4 2
i = 1.4 amp R=1.6
Answer is eeq = 2.8V
req = 1.4 W
i = 1.4 amp
Mixed Combination of Batteries

m identical cells in each row
+ – r + – r + – r

+ – r + – r + – r

– r + r + – r
nth row

R = external resistor
79.
This situation is shown in figure. These are m identical cells in a row and number of rows in
n. The emf of each cell is e and internal resistance is ‘r’.
Now simplification of above circuit
mE This circuit contain n identical

+ – mr
cell. (emf of each cell is mE)
mE
+ – mr
A B
mE + –
+ – mr
n row
th
req (as discussed
eq=mE
earlier)
R
mr
req =
n
Final circuit after reduction :
mE Equivalent Circuit
+ –
Very Important Point Regarding This Circuit :

(1) Total no of Battery = m × n
(2) Net emf = mE
mr
(3) Total internal resistance =
n
(4) Total external resistor = R
mE
(5) Current flow through the external resistor ‘R’ is, i =
mr
R+
n
80.
Special Cases :
(1) Condition for maximum power transfer to external resistor (load)
⇒ Internal resistor of circuit = External resistor of circuit
mr
⇒ = R ⇒ mr = nR
n
(2) In case of maximum power transfer to the load current flow in the circuit:
mE mE
i= max =
2R  mr 
2 
 n 
(3) In case of maximum power transfer to the load formula for numerical solving
in terms of total number of battery:
N = m × n total no of battery
N r
From relation : mr = nr, × r = n × R , n2= N ×
n R
r Int ernal resis tance of battery
n= ×N= × Total No. of Battery
R External resis tance
N
m×n=N⇒ m=
n
Example :
Calculate equivalent emf of four different cells connected in parallel combination
as shown in figure.
1V,1
2V,1
B
A
3V,1
4V,2
Solution :
E1 E2 E3 E4 1 2 3 4
+ + + + − +
r1 r2 r3 r4 1 1 1 = 2 2 4
Since, Eeq = ⇒ =
Eeq = V
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 7
+ + + + + +  
r1 r2 r3 r4 1 1 1 2 2
The equivalent cell arrangement between A and B is shown for reference.

4 2
V
7 7
A + – B
81.
Example :
Find the emf and internal resistance of a single battery which is equivalent to a
combination of three batteries as shown in figure.
10V 2
6V
1
4V 2
Solution :
For parallel combination we can apply,
E1 E2 10 4
− −
r1 r2 2 2 3 V Further, 1 = 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 1
= Eeq = = ⇒ req = 1W
1 1 1 1 req r1 r2 2 2
+ +
r1 r2 2 2
The given combination consists of two batteries in parallel and resultant of
these two in series with the third one.
+ – – + + –
⇒
6V 1 3V 1 E=3V r=2
Numericals Based on mixed grouping of cells

Example :
In a mixed grouping of identical cells five rows are connected in parallel and
each row contains 100 cells. This combination sends a current I through an
external resistance of 20W.
If the emf and internal resistance of each cell is 1.5V and 5W, respectively then
find the value of i ?
Solution :
n = 5, m = 100, R = 20
mE 100 × 1.5 150 150

i= = = = = 1.25 A
 mr  100 × 5 20 + 100 120
R+  20 +
 n  5
i = 1.25 Amp
82.
Example :
100 cells each of emf 5V and internal resistance 1W are to be arranged to
produce maximum current in a 25 W resistance.
Each row contains equal no of cells. Find number of rows and number of
cell in each row.
Solution :
r  1 
The relation=
n ×N , =n   × ( 100)
R  25 
n = 2
nm = N
m × 2 = 100
m = 50
Two rows and each row contain 50 cells.
83.
Maximum Power Transfer
Theorem
+ –
E r
Suppose we want to find out for what value of external resistance the
maximum power will be drawn from a battery.
For this, in the shown network let the power developed in resistance R be:
2
 ε 
=
P= I × R
2
⇒ P   ×R
R + r 
ε2R
P=
(R + r )
2
dP
Now, for =0
dR
dP
Since P will be maximum if = 0 (concept of maxima & minima)
dR
d  E2 × R  d  R 
⇒  = E2 ×  
dR  (R + r ) 
2
dR  (R + r )2 
 
(R + r ) × 1 − (R ) (2) (R + r ) ( 1 + 0) 
2
⇒ E2  2 
 (R + r )2  
 
dP R2 + r2 + 2Rr − 2R2 − 2Rr 

⇒ = E2  
(R + r )
4
dR  
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
dP  r2 − R2 
⇒ = E2  4
…(1)
dR  (R + r ) 
dP
⇒ = 0 0
⇒ r2 − R2 = ⇒ r=R
dR
Now we can find maximum power delivered to load:
V2 V2 V2R V V
Pmax= i2 × RL = ×R
= × R= = ⇒ Pmax =
(R + r ) (2RL )
2 L 2 L 2
4RL 4RL 4RL
RL = resistance of load.
84.
Example :
Find out value of RL such that it will receive maximum power.
+
– V
R RL
Solution :
Steps for find out equivalent resistance across the load.
Step-1 : remove load resistance
Step-2 : short circuit the voltage source
Step-3 : solve the given network of resistances.
R A R A
+
+
– V
R RL – V
R
B
Step-1 B
A
R A
Short R
circuit
B
Step-2 B
Step-3
So, for maximum power receive by load.

Req = RL
R
RL = Ans.
2
85.
Example :
A battery of internal resistance 4W is connected to the network of resistance as shown. In
order to given the maximum power to the network the value of R should be
R R
4Ω R 6R R
+
4V
–
R 4R
4 8 11
(A) Ω (B) Ω (C) 2W (D) Ω
9 9 7
Solution :
Important Point : Load may be a single resistance or a group of resistances or may a circuit
which contain resistance as will as batteries.
Now, Given load network:
R R
A
R 6R R
R 4R B
This is balanced wheat stone bridge.
R 2R
A 6R B
2R 4R
86.
R 2R
A B
2R 4R
3R × 6R
= =
RAB 3R  6R = 2R
( 3R + 6R )
⇒ Now : In case maximum power transfer :
2R = 4W
R = 2W
Option C is correct.
87.
Heating Effect of Current
When an electric current is passed through a conductor it becomes hot

and its temperature starts rising. This is know as ‘Heating effect of current’
or ‘Joul’s heating effect.
Cause of Heating
The potential difference applied across the two ends of conductor sets up
electric field. Under the effect of electric-field, electron accelerated and
as they move, they collide against the ions and atoms in the conductor, the
energy of electrons transferred to the atoms and ions appears as heat.
Heat-produced by an Electric Current VA R VB

y The net amount of charge flow in time t
q=I×t I
y Since we know that current always flow from higher potential to lower
potential so decrease in potential of this charge is given by:
DV = (VA – VB)
⇒ Decrease in potential energy of charge ‘q’
DU = q × DV
DU = (VA – VB) × q
∆U =I × t(VA − VB ) ⇒ This decrease in the potential energy will appear in

form of heat energy.
H=
I × t(VA − VB )
Case-1:
For ohmic resistance
VA − VB =I×R
H = I × t × IR
Heat energy = I2 × R × t
Joule’s Law of Heating

Joule’s law of heating states that the amount of heat produced in a
conductor is directly proportional to:
Hai2
HaR
Hat
=
H i2R × t
2
V V V2
2nd form V = i × R ⇒ i = , H=   × R × t = ×t
R R R
V
3rd form R=
I
88.
V
H = i2 × R × t ⇒ H = I2 × ×t ⇒ H=V×I×t
I
V2
So, energy = i2 × R × t = × t = V ×i× t
R
Note :
1. “Heat produced in conductor docs not depends upon the direction of
current”.
2. Heating affect of current is common to both DC as well as AC currents.
Unit of Heat
1. SI Unit : Joule
2. Practical unit : 1 Kilowatt hour (KWh)
y Electrical power produced in the circuit :
I R
+- r
q q
The rate at which the energy is dissipated is called as electric power(p).

It is given as :
Heat disspated I2 × R × t
=P =
t t
V2
P = I2R. So =
P I2=
R = VI
R
Question :
What is 1 kilo watt Hour ?
Solution :
It is unit of energy. 1 k.wh is the energy consumed by an Appliance of Power

1 kilowatt when it run for 1 hour.
1 k.wh = 1000 × 60 × 60
1 k.wh = 3.6 × 106 Joule.
89.
Summary :
V2
1) Electrical power (P) = i=
2
R = VI
R
d( Energy)
2) Electrical power ‘P’ =
dt
∫ dE
= ∫ P ⋅ dt
Energy produced in form of heat.

t2
Heat energy=
= ∫t1
i2 × Rdt
Problems based on heat – energy dissipation.
Concept : Heat Energy = ∫i × Rdt

2
Example : R = 2
Find heat dissipation through resistor in 2 sec.
2
=( + 1)
Solution :
Heat = ∫ i2Rdt
Given i = (t2 + 1)
2
= ∫ (t + 1)2 × 2 × dt
2

0
2
= ∫ (t + 1 + 2t2 )2dt
4
2 2
 t5   t3 
=
2 ×   + 2(t)20 + 4  
 5 0  3 0
2 5 4
= [2 − 0] + 2(2 − 0) + (8 − 0)
5 3
32 × 2 32
= +4+
5 3
= 27.3 J
Example : R
Find-out heat dissipation through ‘R’ in infinite time.
i=(i0.e-at)
90.
Solution :
∞
∫ (i .e )
− at 2
Heat Energy = ∫i × R × dt
= × Rdt
2
0
0
∞
∞ e−2at
= i × R∫ e 0
2 −2at
.dt = i ×R×
0
2 0
0 −2a
i02 × R −∞ i20R

=
−2a
{e − e−=
0
}
−2a
( 0 − 1)
i20R
Ans. Heat Energy = Joule
2a
Discussion on power of battery

I R
(1) Power delivered by battery :
PBattery = Rate of work done by Battery
d d  dq 

= =
(WD) (q × potential diff.)
=   × (Emf)
dt dt  dt 
+- I=
ε ε 2
r0 R + r0
PB = eI, PB = ε × , PB = I
R+r R+r
(2) Power consumed in external resistance :
2
 ε  ε2R
PR= i2 × =R , PR   × R , PR =
R + r  (R + r)2
(3) Power consumed in internal resistance of Battery.
2
 ε  ε2r
Pr = i2 × r0 =   × r0 , Pr =
 R + r0  (R + r)2
Power-Calculation in different cases
(1) Bulb problems : series and parallel combination.
(2) Water – Heater problems.
Important Points :
a) Resistance of Bulb :
Rating of Bulb
(V0, P0)
v2
We know, P =
R
v 20
Resistance of bulb R =
P0
This ‘R’ is constant through-out problem.
91.
b) Power dissipation for a given bulb (given rating) when connected to
different voltage.
V2 V2
(V0, P0) =
P =
R  V02 
 
 P0 
2
V
+ - =P   × P0
v  V0 
Power calculation in case of two bulb.

a) Series combination:
(V0, P1) (V0, P2)
v 20
Resistance of bulb B1, R1 =
P1
v 20
Resistance of bulb B2, R2 =
P2
+ –
V
Derivation
Total power dissipated, PT= P1 + P2
2
V2 V2 V2 V2 V PP
=
PT = = = ⇒ PT =   × 1 2
Re q R1 + R2 V02 V02
+
P + P1 
V02  2  V0  (P1 + P2 )
P1 P2 
 P1 P2 
When connected voltage and rated voltage are same then total power
dissipated for n number of bulbs in series,
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ...... +
PT P1 P2 P3 Pn
b) Parallel combination
PT= P1 + P2 (V0, P1)
V2 V2 V2 V2 V2
= + = += (P1 + P2 )
R1 R2 V02 V02 V02

(V0, P2)
P1 P2
2
V
=PT   (P1 + P2 )
 V0  + –
92.
When connected voltage and rated voltage are same then total power
dissipated for n number of bulbs in parallel,
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + ...... + Pn
Water Heater Problem

Example :
An Electric Kettle has two coils of same power when one-coil is switched
on, it takes 15 minutes to boil water, and when the second coil is switched
on, it takes 30 min. How long will it take to boil water when both the coil
are used in.
a) series b) parallel
Solution :
Heat produced in resistance ‘R’ in time ‘t’ is
V2
= P×t = ×t
R
V2
For coil-1
= H1 ( 15 × 60)
R1
V2
For coil-2,
= H2 (30 × 60)
R2
But according to the given problem
H1 = H2
15 30
i.e. = ⇒ R2 = 2R1
R1 R2
(a) When both the coils are used in series, we have
v2 v2
Hs = × ts = × ts [as R2 = 2R1]
(R1 + R2 ) 3R1
Here Hs = H1 = H2
V2 V2
So (15 × 60) = × ts ⇒ ts = (45 × 60) sec
R1 3R1
ts = 45 minute
(b) When both the coils are used in parallel
 V2 V2  3V2
We have Hp =  + × t = × tp [as R2 = 2R1]
 p
 R1 R2  2R1
According to the given problems, Hp = H1
3V2 V2
or × tp = × (15 × 60) or tp = (10 × 60)sec ⇒ tp = 10 min
2R1 R1
Ans. (a) 45 Min. (b) 10 min
93.
Shortcut method :
If a heat boils m kg water in time T1 and another heater boils the same
water in T2, then both connected in series will boil the same water in Time.
a) Ts = T1 + T2 = 30 + 15 min = 45 minute Ans.
b) For parallel connection
T1 T2 30 × 15
= Tp = ⇒ Tp = 10 minute.
T1 + T2 30 + 15
Important Concepts
a) In series combination of Resistances (bulbs) :
(V, P1) (V, P2)
+ –
V
1
Brightness ∝ power consumed by the bulb ∝ t ∝ R ∝
2
PRated
So, bulb of lesser wattage (rated power) will shine more.
For same current P = I2 × R; P ∝ R; R ↑ ⇒ P ↑
b) Parallel combination :
(V, P1)
(V, P2)
+ –
V
Brightness ∝ power consumed by Bulb

1
∝ V2 ∝ Bulb of greater wattage (rated power) will shine more.
R
1
For same ‘V’ more power will be consumed in smaller resistance P ∝ .
R
94.
Characteristics of a Fuse
Fuse is used with the main electrical circuit for the safety of electrical
appliances.
A fuse wire must have high resistance and low melting point. Hence,
generally it is made of tin-lead alloy.
Let R be the resistance, ρ0 resistivity, l length, a cross-sectional area and I

ampere be its current carrying capacity.
When the fuse is safe, then for its steady state temperature, heat produced
per second must be equal to heat radiated by it per second. Heat produced
in fuse wire per second.
Q 2  ρl 
=
H = IR
= I2  
t A
I2ρl
H= joule sec-1 …(1)
πr2
If e is emissivity of fuse material of radius r and T is the excess safe
temperature of wire above surroundings then according to Newton’s Law of
cooling, the energy radiated per second.
H e(2πrl)T
= …(2)
For steady state
ρl I2ρ
e(2πrl)T = I2 2 ⇒ T =2 3
πr 2π er
So, we observe that the steady state temperature of a fuse is independent
of its length.
Hence length is immaterial for an electric fuse.
For a given material of a fuse wire.
I2 ∝ r3
Example:
A fuse with a circular cross-sectional radius of 0.15mm blows at 15A. What
is the radius of a fuse, made of the same material which will blow at 120A ?
Solution :
For fuse wire I ∝ r3/2
2/3 2/3
r I   120 
So 2 =  2  =  =(8)2/3 = 4 ⇒ 4r1 =0.60mm .
r1  I1   15 
95.
Example:
What amount of heat will be generated in a coil of resistance R due to a
charge q passing through it if the current in the coil decreases down to
zero.
(a) uniformly during a time interval t0 ?
(b) halving its value every t0 seconds ?
Solution :
Heat generated in a resistance is given by
H = I2Rt
We can directly use this formula provided I is constant. Here, I is varying.
So, first we will calculate I at any time t, then find a small heat dH in a short
interval of time dt. Then by integrating it with proper limits we can obtain
the total heat produced.
(a) The corresponding I-t graph will be a straight line with I decreasing
from a peak value (say I0) to zero in time t0. I-t equation will be as
I 
I I0 −  0  t (y = –mx + c)
= …(1)
 t0 
I0
x
0 t0 t
Here, I0 is unknown, which can be obtained by using the fact that area
under I-t graph gives the flow of charge. Hence
1 2q
q = (t0 )(I0 ) ⇒ I0 =
2 t0
Substituting in (1), we get
2q  t   2q 2qt   2q 2qt 
=I 1 −  ⇒ =
I  − 2  ⇒ =
I  − 2 
t0  t0   t0 t0   t0 t0 
Now at time t, heat produced in a short interval dt is, dH = I2Rdt
2
 2q 2qt 
⇒ dH =  − 2  Rdt
 t0 t0 
t0
So, total heat produced is H = ∫
0
dH
2
t0  2q 2qt  4 q2R
⇒=
H ∫0

 t0
− 2  Rdt
t0 
⇒ H=
3 t0
96.
I
(b) Here, current decreases from some peak value (say I0) to zero
exponentially with half life t0. I-t equation in this case will be
I0
I = I0e−λt
log (2)
Here, λ = e
t0
∞ ∞
 I0  0
Now, ∫= ∫I e = t
−λt
= q Idt 0dt  
0 0 λ
⇒ I0 =
λq
⇒ I =(λq)e−λt
⇒ dH = λ2q2e−2λtRdt
I2Rdt =
∞ ∞ q2 λR
∫0 ∫0
−2 λt
⇒ H= dH =
λ 2 2
q R e dt =
2
log (2) q2Rloge (2)
Substituting λ = e , we have H =
t0 2t0
Example :
An electric heater and an electric bulb are rated 500W, 220V and 100W, 220V
respectively. Both are connected in series to a 220V a.c. mains. Calculate
power consumed by (i) heater (ii) bulb.
Solution :
V2 V2
=
 P = or R , For heater.
R P
(220)2
Resistance=
Rh = 96.8Ω ,
500
(220)2
For bulb resistance =
RL = 484Ω
100
Current in the circuit when both are connected in series
V 220
=I = = 0.38 A
RL + Rh 484 + 96.8
(i) Power consumed by heater = I2Rh = (0.38)2 × 96.8 = 13.98 W
(ii) Power consumed by bulb = I2RL = (0.38)2 × 484 = 69.89 W
Example :
A heater coil is rated 100 W, 200 V. It is cut into two identical parts. Both
parts are connected together in parallel, to the same source of 200V.
Calculate the energy liberated per second in the new combination.
97.
Solution :
V2 V2 (200)2
 P= ∴ R= = = 400 Ω
R P 100
400
Resistance of half piece
= = 200 Ω
2
200
Resistance of pieces connected in parallel
= = 100 Ω
2
(200)
2
V2
Energy liberated/second=
P = = 400 W
R 100
Example :
The power of a heater is 500W at 800°C.
What will be its power at 200°C. If α = 4 × 10−4 per°C ?
Solution :
V2 P R R (1 + 4 × 10−4 × 800)
P= ∴ 200 = 800 = 0
R P800 R200 R0 (1 + 4 × 10−4 × 200)
P200 (1 + 3200 × 10−4 )
=
500 1 + 800 × 10−4
P200 (1 + 0.32)
=
500 (1 + 0.08)
P200 1.32
=
500 (1.08)
1.32
=
P200 × 500
1.08
P200 = 611.11 watt

Example :
When a battery sends current through a resistance R1 for time t, the heat
produced in the resistor is Q. When the same battery sends current
through another resistance R2 for time t, the heat produced in R2 is again
Q. Determine the internal resistance of battery.
Solution :
2 2
 E   E 
=  R1   =
R2 ⇒ r R1 R2
R1 + r  R2 + r 
98.
Example :
If bulb rating is 100 watt and 220V then determine
(a) Resistance of filament
(b) Current through filament
(c) If bulb operate at 110 volt power supply then find power consumed
by bulb.
Solution :
Bulb rating is 100W and 220 V bulb means when 220 V potential
difference is applied between the two ends then the power consumed
is 100W
Here V = 220 Volt, P = 100W
V2
= 100 . So R = 484W
R
Since resistance depends only on material hence it is constant for bulb.
V 220 5
=
I = = Amp
R 22 × 22 11
Power consumed at 110V
2 2 2
V  110  1 100
=
P   × P= 0   × 100 =   × 100 = = 25 w
 V0   220  2 4
Answer is R = 484W
5
I = Amp , P = 25watt
11
99.
Measurement & Electrical
Instruments
Measurement is a process of comparison between a standard and an

unknown, resulting in knowing the magnitude of unknown, in terms
of standard value instrument is a device that allows us to make this
comparison.
Here the list of electrical instruments

(1) Galvanometer (2) Ammeter
(3) Voltmeter (4) Meter Bridge
(5) Potentiometer
Galvanometer
The instrument used to measure the current of low strength by measuring
the deflection of the coil due to torque produced by a magnetic field is
known as galvanometer.
If we pass a current through a galvanometer more than the specified
amount, it may get damaged. The specified current through a galvanometer
is known as the full scale deflection current (IG).
The resistance of a galvanometer is very small.
Symbol :
G
IG
Construction of Galvanometer :
It consists of a pivoted coil placed in the magnetic field of a permanent
magnet. Attached to the coil is a spring. In the equilibrium position, with no
current in the coil, the pointer is at zero and spring is relaxed. When there
is a current in the coil, the magnetic field exerts a torque on the coil that
Measurement & Electrical Instruments
is proportional to current. As the coil turns, the spring exerts a restoring

torque that is proportional to the angular displacement. Thus the angular
deflection of the coil and pointer is directly proportional to the coil current
and the device can be calibrated to measure current.
When coil rotates the spring is twisted and it exerts an opposing torque on
the coil.
There is a resistive torque also against motion to damp the motion. Finally
in equilibrium
τspring ⇒ BINA sin θ = Cφ
τmagnetic =
100.
But by making the magnetic field radial q = 90o
\ BINA = Cf
Here, B = magnetic field A = Area of the coil
I = Current C = torsional constant
N = Number of turns f = angle rotate by coil
y Current sensitivity :
The ratio of deflection to the current flowing through galvanometer i.e.,
deflection per unit current is called sensitivity (C.S.) of the galvanometer
φ BNA
CS= =
I C
y Voltage Sensitivity :
The ratio of deflection to the voltage across galvanometer. Voltage sensitivity
φ
VS =
V
Note : before study of ammeter and voltmeter we should know about shunt.
Shunt : The small resistance connected in parallel to galvanometer coil

in order to control current flowing through the galvanometer is knows as
shunt.
Advantage :
(1) To protect the galvanometer coil from burning.
(2) Any galvanometer can be converted into ammeter of desired range with
the help of shunt.
(3) The range an ammeter can be changed by using shunt resistance of
difference values.
Disadvantage : shunt resistance decreases the sensitivity of galvanometer.
Ammeter
A galvanometer can not be used directly to measure large current. To Measurement & Electrical Instruments
measure large current we have to carry out some modification in the
galvanometer.
“An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the current in
circuit.”
Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter :

Let a galvanometer is given:
rg
G
101.
Operating range (1mA – 1mA) if we want measure the current in Ampere
range we have to connect by pass resistor.
i–ig Rs
rg
G
I ig
‘A galvanometer can be converted into ammeter by connecting law resistance

in parallel to its coil.
The value of shunt resistance to be connected in parallel to galvanometer
coil is given by :
Rgig
Rs =
i − ig
Where :
i = range of ammeter
ig = current required for full scale deflection of galvanometer
Rg = resistance of galvanometer coil
Example :
What is the value of shunt which passes 10% of the main current through a
galvanometer of 99 ohm?
Solution :
As in figure RgIg = (I – Ig)S I Ig
G
I  I 
⇒ 99 × = I −  × S S
10  10 
⇒ S = 11 W
(I – Ig)
Example :
Find the current of the circuit (a) & (b) and also determine percentage error
in measuring the current through an ammeter.
2 2
10V 10V A 0.5
(a) (b)
102.
Solution :
10
In figure a,=I = 5A
2
10
In figure b,
= I = 4A
2.5
i − i′
Percentage error is = × 100 = 20%
i
Here we see that due to ammeter the current has reduced. A good ammeter
has very low resistance as compared with other resistors, so t6hat due to
its presence in the circuit the current is not affected.
Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an instrument used to find the potential difference cross any
two points in a circuit.
Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter :

The galvanometer can be converted into ammeter by connected high
resistance in series with its coil.
The high resistance to be connected in series with galvanometer coil is
given by
V
=
R − Rg
ig
V
R= – Rg
ig
Rseries
G
Ig

I i–ig R
Rg
G
ig
=V ig (Rs + rg )
ig = current through galvanometer, Rs = Series resistance,
rg = resistance of galvanometer
103.
Example :
How can we make a galvanometer with G = 20W and Ig = 1 mA into a voltmeter
with a maximum range of 10 V ?
Solution :
V 10
Using R
= − G . We have, R = − 20 = 9980 Ω
Ig 10−3
Thus, a resistance of 9980 W is to be connected is series with the
galvanometer to convert it into the voltmeter of desired range.
Please note that at full scale deflection current through the galvanometer,
the voltage drop across the galvanometer
Vg = 20 × 10−3 V =
IgG = 0.02V
and the voltage drop across the series resistance R is,
V= 9980 × 10−3 V =
IgR = 9.98V
Important Points :
(a) An ideal ammeter should have zero resistance, but a non-ideal ammeter
has small but non-zero resistance.
(b) An ideal voltmeter should have infinite resistance, but a non-ideal
voltmeter has larger but not infinite resistance.
(c) non-ideal voltmeter (i.e., a practical voltmeter always draws some
current from the circuit and there is always a potential drop across a
non-ideal ammeter (i.e., a practical ammeter).
V
I
E
r
I
V
Therefore, when it is used to measure the emf of a cell, it will read V = E –Ir. As
I ¹ 0 therefore, reading of a voltmeter will not be equal to emf of the cell.
Example :
In the electrical circuits shown in figure (a) and figure (b), the instruments
are ideal in figure (a) while their resistance are marked in figure (b).
Determine their readings.
104.
V
2
V
2 2 0.5
A A
0.5 0.5
10V 10V
(a) (b)
Solution :
For figure (a), we have
10
I
= = 4A
2 + 0.5
So, reading of ammeter is 4A and reading of voltmeter is IR = 8V
For figure (b), we have
10 2×2 10
I′ = , where R′= = 1Ω ⇒
= 5A I′
=
R′ + 0.5 + 0.5 2+2 2
So, reading of ammeter is 5A and reading of voltmeter is I′ R′ =5 × ( 1) =5V
Example :
A galvanometer with a scale divide into 100 equal division, has a current
sensitivity of 10 division per mA and voltage sensitivity of 2 per mV. What
adoptions are required to use it (a) to read 5A full scale and (b) 1 division
per volt?
Solution :
φ 100
Full scale deflection current=
ig = = 10mA
mA
CS 10
Full scale deflection voltage Vg =

φ
= 50 mv Measurement & Electrical Instruments
Vs
Vg 50mV
So, galvanometer resistance G= = = 5Ω
ig 10mA
(a) To convert the galvanometer into an ammeter of range 5A, a resistance
of value SW is connected in parallel with it such that
(i – ig) S = ig G
(5 – 0.01) S = 0.01 × 5
5
S= ≅ 0.01 Ω
499
105.
(b) To convert the galvanometer into a voltmeter which reads 1 division per
volt, i.e., of range 100V.
V = ig (R + G)
100 = 10 × 10–3(R + 5)
R = 10000 – 5
R = 9995 W = 9.995 kW
Example :
The scale of galvanometer is divided into 150 equal divisions. The galvanometer
has the current sensitivity of 10 divisions per mA and the voltage sensitivity
of 2 divisions per mV. How can you convert this galvanometer into a/an
(a) ammeter of 6A per division
(b) voltmeter of 1V per division
Calculate the galvanometer resistance G, value of shunt S to be connected

to convert into ammeter and value of series resistance R to be connected
to convert into voltmeter.
Solution :
Since galvanometer resistance is
Full scale voltage
G=
Full scale current
No. of divisions 150
Also, full scale voltage = = = 75 mV
Voltage sensitivity 2
No. of divisions 150
and full scale current = = = 15mA = 15 × 10–3 A
Current sensitivity 10
75 × 10−3
⇒ G= = 5Ω
15 × 10−3
IgG 15 × 10−3 × 5 V 150

⇒ =S = =−3
83mΩ ⇒ R = −G = − 5 = 9995 Ω
I − Ig 150 × 6 − 15 × 10 Ig 15 × 10−3
Meter Bridge
It is based on principle of balanced wheat stone bridge. It is used to find
out unknown resistance of wire. AC is 1 meter long uniform wire R is known
resistance and S is unknown resistance. A cell is connected across 1 meter
long wire and a galvanometer is connected to mid-point D. To find out
unknown resistance we touch jockey from ‘A’ to ‘C’ and find balanced
condition. Let balance is a B point on wire.
106.
‘S’
R
D
G
A C
l B 100 –l
+ –
Meter Bridge
AB = l cm
Resistance across wire AB, P = rl
BC = (100 – l) cm
Resistance across wire BC, Q = r (100 – l)
Where r = resistance per unit length on wire
P R rl P ( 100 − l ) R
At balanced condition = ⇒ = ⇒ S=
Q S r ( 100 − l ) S l
Note : The bridge is most sensitive when the resistance in all the four
branches of the bridge is of same order.
Example :
In the meter bridge circuit shown in figure. Calculate the length AJ for null
deflection in galvanometer.
R1 = 15 R2 = 10
A B

J
Solution :
Let AJ = l cm, then JB = (100 – l) cm, at zero deflection of galvanometer
R1 RAJ l 15 l
= = ⇒ =
R2 RJB 100 − l 10 100 − l
3 l
⇒ = ⇒ 300 – 3l = 2l
2 100 − l
⇒ 5l = 300 ⇒ l = 60 cm
107.
Example :
In the circuit shown, a meter bridge is in its balanced state. The meter
bridge wire has a resistance 0.1 ohm/cm. The value of unknown resistance
X and the current drawn from the battery of negligible resistance is
X 6
G
A 40cm 60cm B
C
5V
(A) 6W, 5 amp (B) 4W, 0.1 amp (C) 4W, 1.0 amp (D) 12W, 0.5 amp
Solution :
Resistance of the part AC
RAC = 0.1 × 40 = 4W and RCB = 0.1 × 60 = 6W
X 4
In balanced condition = ⇒ X = 4W
6 6
5
Equivalent resistance Req = 5W so current drawn from battery i = = 1A
5
\ (C)
Example :
If resistance R1 in resistance box is 300 W, then the balanced length is
found to be 75 cm from end A. The diameter of unknown wire is 1 mm and
length of the unknown wire is 31.4 cm. Find the specific resistance of the
unknown wire.
Solution :
R l
Since, =
X 100 − l
 100 − l   100 − 75 
⇒ X =   r ⇒ =
X   ( 300
= ) 100Ω
 l   75 
ρl ρl
Where =
X =
A  πd2 
 
 4 
 22 
  ( 10 ) ( 100)
−3 2
πd X2
7
⇒ ρ = ⇒ ρ =  ρ 2.5 × 10−4 Ωm
⇒ =
4l ( 4) (0.314)
108.
Potentiometer
Necessity of Potentiometer :
Practically voltmeter has a finite resistance (ideally it should be ¥) in other
words it draws some current from the circuit. To overcome this problem
potentiometer is used because at the instant of measurement it draws no
current from the circuit. It means its effective resistance is infinite.
Working Principle of Potentiometer :

Any unknown potential difference is balanced on a known potential
difference which is uniformly distributed over entire length of potentiometer
wire. This process is named as zero deflection or null deflection method.
Potentiometer wire :
Made up of alloys of manganin, constantan, Eureka, specific properties of
these alloys are high specific resistance, negligible temperature coefficient
of resistance.
Circuit of Potentiometer :
+ – Rh
()

A B
+ – wire
G <
Primary Circuit :
Primary circuit contains source of voltage, rheostat or resistance box.
+ V– Rh Measurement & Electrical Instruments
i r
i
A B
R::r
V  V 
i= ⇒ VAB =i × R =  ×R
R + r + Rh  R + r + Rh 
109.
Potential Gradient :
The full of potential per unit length of potentiometer wire is called potential
gradient.
 
k ∝ i 
V i×R i  l  ρ  
k = AB ⇒ k = = × ρ  , k = i ; k ∝ ρ 
l l l  A A  1
k ∝ 
 A
Where k = potential gradient
i = current flow in primary circuit
r = resistivity of wire
A = area of cross-section of wire
Potential drop on potentiometer wire :
+ –
Rh
r
A B
x C
Potential drop between points A and C = Potential gradient × length of wire

VAB
VAC= k × x ⇒ V=
AC ×x
l
VAC ∝ x ⇒ “Principle of potentiometer”
“If a constant current is passed through a wire of uniform cross-section

the potential difference across any segment of the wire is proportional to

its length.
Application of potentiometer : It is used to

(1) Find emf of a cell
(2) Find internal resistance of a cell
(3) Compare emf’s of two cells
(4) Compare two small resistances
110.
(1) Emf of a cell:
+
i – –
r
E
Primary i A
circuit
VAB
()
A C
x B
+ – G Galvanometer
Secondary
circuit
At null deflection condition : Emf = kx, where

K = potential gradient, X = balancing length
(2) To compare Emf’s of two cells:
+–+
–
E r

( )
A
A C B
+ –
()
1 k1 G
k2
+ –
()
1

Step 1:
k1 ® closed, k2 ® open, ε1 =kl 1 …(1)
Where,
e1 = emf of first cell, k = potential gradient, l1 = balancing length for cell e1
Step 2:
k1 = open, k2 = closed, ε2 =kl 2 …(2)
Where,
e2 = emf of second cell, k = potential gradient, l2 = balancing length for cell e2
ε kl ε l
So, 1 = 1 ⇒ 1 = 1
ε2 kl 2 ε2 l 2
111.
(3) Internal resistance of a cell :
+–+
–
()
E r0 R
VAC C
A B
l1
+ – r
G
Resistance Box ()

Key Open
Step 1: Open the resistance box key and find the balancing length.
Emf of cell = kl1 …(1)
l1 = Balancing length in step 1, k = potential gradient
Step 2: Closed the key and plug-out ‘R’ resistance from ‘Resistance Box’
and find the length of new Balance point.
VAD
D
A B
l2
Secondary + – r C
circuit G
A
Resistance Box ()

Circuit closed current Key Open
flow in this loop
Potential difference V = kl2
Now see carefully closed circuit : + – r

ε ×R
V= …(2)
(R + r ) A

D
⇒ From equation (1) and (2)
V R kl R
= ⇒ 2 =
ε R+r kl 1 (R + r ) R
V
l − l 
⇒
= r  1 2  ×R
 l2 
112.
Where, r = initial resistance of battery
l1 = Balancing length without ‘R’ (Step-1)
l2 = Balancing length with ‘R’ (Step-2)
R = value of resistance plugged out from resistance box.
Comparison of two small resistances :

(a) For comparison of two small resistances with the help of potentiometer
the following circuit is used :
If the potential difference across the ends of resistance r1 is V1 and

balancing length for it is l1 then
V1 = ir1 = x1 …(1)
(b) The potential difference across the resistances r1 and r2 connected in
series is V2 and balancing length for them is 2 then
V2 = i(r1 + r2) = x2 …(2)

i(r1 + r2 ) x 2 r +r 2 r2  2 −  1
From equation (1) and
= (2), = or 1 2 , =
ir1 x 1 r1 1 r1 1
  − 1 
(c) If r1 is known then r2 will be, r2 =  2  r1
 1 
(d) An unknown small resistance can also be determined with the help
of potentiometer. The small resistance r is connected in series with
a known resistance R and the balancing lengths for the potential
differences across R and (R + r) are found out. If the balancing lengths
are respectively l1 and l2 then
 − 1
= iR x 1 and= i(r + R) x 2 hence r = 2 R
1
113.
Example :
One of the circuits for the measurement of resistance using a potentiometer
is shown. The galvanometer is connected and zero deflection is observed
at length AJ = 30 cm. In second case the secondary cell is changed.
Take ES = 10 V and r = 1W in 1st reading
And ES = 5 V and r = 2W in 2nd reading.
In second case, the zero deflection is observed at length AJ = 10 cm.
Calculate the resistance R (in ohm).
Solution
At zero deflection, we have
V I1R I2R
= = …(1)
l 30 10
ES1 10 ES2 5
Now I1 = ⇒ I1 = , I2 = ⇒ I2 =
r1 + R 1+R r2 + R 2+R
Substituting in (1), we get
10R 5R
= ⇒ 4 + 2R =3 + 3R ⇒ R =Ω
1
(1 + R) × 30 (2 + R) × 10
Example :
In a potentiometer circuit to find the internal resistance r of the cell of

emf E, when K is open, the balance point is obtained at 60 cm. When K is
closed, the balance point is obtained at 50 cm. What is the value of r? If
the cell is shorted by a 10W resistor, then calculate the internal resistance
of the cell.
Solution :
l1 = 60 cm, when K is open and
l2 = 50 cm, when K is closed
 lkey open  l   60  1
Since r 
= − 1 R ⇒ r =  1 − 1 R =  − 1  10Ω = × 10Ω = 2Ω
 lkey closed   l2   50  5
 
114.
Example :
In a potentiometer arrangement a cell of emf 1.5 V gives a balance point at 30 cm length
of wire. Now, when the cell is replaced by another cell, the balance point shifts to 50 cm.
Calculate the emf of second cell?
Solution :
E1 = 1.5V, l1 = 30 cm
E2 = ? , l2 = 50 cm
Using the formula for comparison of emf of cells by potentiometer, we have
E2 l 2 l2 50
= ⇒ E2 = × E1 = × 1.5V = 2.5V
E1 l1 l1 30
Example :
In the figure shown wire AB has a length of 100 cm and resistance 8W. Find the balance point
length l.
20V
2
A
I
A B
8V,2 G IG=0
6 r
Solution :
For condition of balance, we have IG = 0.
So loops (1) and (3) are independent of each other. Hence we observe that VAJ = VCD
⇒ I1RAJ = E – I2r …(1)
20V
Where E = 8 V, r = 2 W 2
I1
 20 
I1 =
=  2A
2 + 8
 RAB  A 1
 8  2l
= RAJ  =  l AJ = l
 IAB   100  25
I1
A I1 J
8 B
= I2 = 1A 2
2+6 I2 8V,2
G IG=0
Substituting these values in equation (1), we get C
D
 2l  4l I
2  = 8 − ( 1) ( 2 ) ⇒ =6 2 3 I2
 25  25
150
⇒ 4l = 150 ⇒=l = 37.5 cm 6
4
115.
Charging & Discharging of
a Capacitor (R-C Circuit)
Charging of a Capacitor
q q
C I R + –
R
Switch C
is closed I
+ – + –
t<0 V0
V0
It is given that initially capacitor is uncharged. Let at any time ‘t’ charge on
capacitor is ‘q’. Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law
q q
V0 − IR − 0
= ⇒ IR
= V0 −
C C
q V0C − q
⇒ IR
= V0 − ⇒ I =
C RC
q t
dq V0C − q dq dt
⇒
dt
=
RC
⇒ ∫0 V0C − q = ∫0 RC
t  V C − q t
⇒ − ln ( V0C − q) 0 =
q
⇒ ln  0 = −
RC  V0C  RC
Take antilog Both side :
V0C − q t
q −
t
 −
t

= e− RC , 1− =
e RC=, q CV0  1 − e RC 
Charging & Discharging of a Capacitor (R-C Circuit)
V0C CV0  
Where,
Q = charge on capacitor at any time ‘t’
V = voltage across the capacitor at final state (Terminal voltage)
RC = t (Time constant)
CV = qmax = maximum charge on capacitor
 −
t


= q qmax  1 − e RC 
 
Time constant of the circuit (t) : Time constant of circuit is defined as the
time at which charge on the capacitor reach at 63% of maximum value of
charge.
116.
q-t Graph q
  −
t
=q qmax  1 − e  RC
 
at (t = t = RC); qmax
0.98q
8 max
 −
RC

=q qmax  1 − e RC 
 
0.63qmax
=q qmax ( 1 − e−1 )
=q qmax ( 1 − 0.37 )
q = 0.63 qmax t
0 T=RC T=4RC
q = 0.63 VC
Current at any Time ‘t’

dq d   −
t
  t
 1 
=
i= q 1 − e  = qmax 0 − eRc −
RC
 max  
dt dt       RC  
qmax − RCt q  1 −
t
V0 − RCt
i= .e ⇒
= i  max  × .e RC ⇒ i= e
RC  C  R R
⇒ at t = RC :
V0 − RC V0 −1 V
i= .e RC ⇒ i= e ⇒ i=
0.37
R R R
Graph :

i
t
0 t=RC
117.
Voltage across the capacitor at any Time ‘t’ :
q = CVC (t)
q 1  −
t
 CV0  −
t
  −
t

VC ( t ) == × qmax  1 − e= Rc
 1 − e 
RC
⇒ VC ( t ) =V0  1 − e RC 
C C   C    
Where,
VC(t) = voltage across the capacitor at any Time ‘t’
V = terminal voltage across the capacitor (at the condition when capacitor
fully charge)
RC = Time constant.
VC(t)
V0
0.98V
8V0
0.63V
t
0 t=RC T=4RC
V − t  −
t
IR , VR  0 e RC  × R , VR ( t ) = V0e RC
Voltage across the Resistor : VR ==
R 
Graph :
VR(t)
V0
0.37V0
t
0 t=RC
118.
Heat Generated
First Method :
By energy conservation
H = work done by battery – DUcapacitor
= charge flow through the battery – (energy stored in capacitor)
1 1
= (qmax) (V0) – CV02 = (CV0 ) × V0 − CV02
2 2
1
Heat generated = CV02
2
Second Method :
∞ ∞ 2
 V0  −
2t
V02 ∞ − RC
2t
Heat (H) = ∫ i R= ∫0  R  × × × =
R ∫0
2
dt e RC
R dt e .dt
0
1
Heat generated = CV02
2
Example :
A capacitor is connected to a 12V battery through a resistance of 10W. It is
found that the potential difference across the capacitor rises to 4.0 V in 1
ms. Find the capacitances of the capacitor.
Solution :
 −
t
  −
t
 −
t
1
We know,
= V V0  1 − e RC  ⇒=4 12  1 − e RC  ⇒ 1−e RC
=
    3
t

− 2 t 3 t
⇒ e RC
= ⇒ = In
=   0.405 ⇒=
RC = 2.469 µs
3 RC 2 0.405
2.469 µs
⇒ =
C = 0.25 µF
10Ω
Example :
Initially the capacitor is uncharged find the charge on capacitor as a function
of time, if switch is closed at t = 0.
R R
+
– R C
119.
Solution : R i1 R
i C E
First Method : B
Without using the formula of equivalent.
+ q
Applying KVL in loop ABCDA R + q/C
– –
ε − iR − (i − i1 ) R =0
–q
q
ε − 2iR + i1R =0 I–i1

A F
Applying KVL in loop ABCEFDA D
q
ε − iR − i1R − =0
C
2ε − ε − i1R − 2i1R q dq
= , εC − 3i1RC =2q , εC − 2q =3 .RC
2 C dt
q
εC  
t 2t
dq dt 1 εC − 2q t −
∫0 εC − 2q = ∫0 3RC , − ln
2 εC
=
3RC
, q
=  1 − e 3RC 
2  
Second Method :
By using the formula of equivalent.
R R
+
– V0 R C
We know that charge on capacitor at any Time ‘t’ us given by:

 −
t

q qmax  1 − e eq  …(1)
R C
=
 
 
R = Req = equivale resistance across the capacitor when battery is replaced
by its internal resistance.
qmax = maximum charge on capacitor.
Step 1: Calculation for Req

Follow these steps for Req calculation
(i) Remove capacitor
(ii) Voltage source by its internal resistance
(iii) Calculate equivalent resistance across the capacitor terminal.
120.
R R R R
A
+ A
– V0 R R
B
R
A
3R
⇒ R=
AB R=
eq
2
Step – 2: Calculate maximum charge on Capacitor
Follow these steps to calculate maximum charge on capacitor.
(i) Remove capacitor
(ii) calculate terminal voltage VT across the capacitor
(iii) qmax = C × terminal voltage
R R R i=0
+ +

– V0 R C – V0 I R VT
V0 V V
I= ; VT =I × R = 0 × R = 0
2R 2R 2
VT = terminal voltage across the capacitor
= it is voltage across the when capacitor is fully charged
It is also called voltage across the capacitor at final state.
V CV0
⇒ qmax= C × VT = C × 0 ⇒ qmax =
2 2
Now from equation (1)
 −
t
R ×C
 CV0  −
2t


= q qmax  1 − e eq  = , q  1 − e 3RC

  2  
 
121.
Example :
In the given circuit the steady state current through the 2W resistor is
(A) 0.6 A (B) 0.9 A (C) 1.2 A (D) 1.5 A
Solution :
Since capacitor is a dc blocking element, so no current flows through the
branch containing the capacitor. However, a voltage drop will exist across
this branch.
V
Rnet = 4Ω ⇒ Itotal = =1.5 A
Rnet
Voltage drop across 2.8 W is V1 = (2.8) (1.5) ⇒ V1 =
4.2 V
So, potential across parallel combination of 2W and 3W is
V2 =6 − 4.2 =1.8 V
If I2 is the current in 2W resistor, then
1.8
= I2 = 0.9 A
2
Example :
In the adjoining circuit, when the key K is pressed at time t = 0, which of the
following statements about current I in the resistor AB is true?
122.
2V K A 1000Ω B
1µF 1000Ω
(A) I = 2 mA at all t
(B) I oscillates between 1 mA and 2 mA
(C) I = 1 mA at all t
(D) At t = 0, I = 2 mA and with time it goes to 1 mA
Solution : (D)
Case 1: t = 0 (Initial condition of capacitor) capacitor behave as short circuit
since it is uncharged.
2
So, i
= = 2mA
1000 Ω
Case 2: t = ∞ (steady state condition) after long time when capacitor fully
charged it behave open circuit then
2 2
= i = i = 1 mA
1000 + 1000 2000
Discharging of a Capacitor
Derivation of equation of discharging circuit :
V0 C V C
+ -
q q
+ -
+q0 -q0 i i

R R
i + iR -
initially
At t = 0 At any time t
Applying K.V.L.
q t
q q dq q −dq dt q t
+
C
−=
iR 0 ; =i
CR
⇒− =
dt CR
, ∫
q0 q
=∫
0 CR
⇒ − ln
q0
=+
RC
q = q0.e-t/RC

dq q0 − t/RC
i=
− = e
dt RC
123.
i i
q0
0.37 I0 0.37 q0
t t
O t=RC O t=RC
Example :
The electric field between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitance 2.0
µF drops to one third of its initial value in 4.4 µs when the plates are
connected by a thin wire. Find the resistance of the wire.
Solution :
The electric field between the plate is
Q Q0 − t/RC
=
E = e ⇒ E = E0e-t/RC
Aε0 Aε0
1
In the given problem,=
E E0 at=
t 4.4 µs.
3
4.4µs
1 − 4.4µs 4.4µs
Thus, = e RC , = ln
= 3 1.1 , =
R = 2.0Ω .
3 RC 1.1 × 2.0µF
Leakage Current through a Capacitor
In ideal situation, when the space between the capacitor is filled with a
dielectric (insulator) then no current flows through it when it is connected
to a battery as shown in figure below
Another ideal case where no current flows through the capacitor is when a
capacitor is charged and the charge on the capacitor is left over for a longer
duration of time, as shown.
124.
However, in both the cases discussed, we get some small amount of current flowing
through the capacitor. This non-zero current (of the order of microampere) is called the
leakage current. This is due to the fact that every insulator has some conductivity (or very
lightly conducting), on account of which some current flows through the capacitor which is
connected to battery as in figure (a). Similarly when the capacitor is charged and left over,
then the charge does not sustain (at its value) over a longer duration of time and starts
discharging. This situation can be thought of as being equivalent to the case of discharging
of a capacitor in an RC series circuit. In both the cases discussed above, we calculate the
resistance of the dielectric using the Ohm’s Law, according to which, we get
l
R= {s = specific conductance}
σA
Here l = d (the separation between the plates of the capacitor)

d
⇒ R=
σA

Thus, the leakage current in the circuit shown in figure is,
V
I=
R
Similarly, if the capacitor is given a charge q0 at time t = 0, and left over, then after time t
the charge that will remain on it is q, given by
q = q0e− t/ τ {discharging of a capacitor}
 Kε A   d  Kε
Here, =
τ RC
=  0   ⇒ τ= 0
 d   σA  σ
125.
Example :
A leaky parallel plane capacitor is filled completely with a material having
dielectric constant k = 5 and electrical conductivity s = 7.4 × 10–12 W–1 m–1. If
the charge on the plane at instant t = 0 is q = 8.85 mC, then calculate the
leakage current at the instant t = 12 s.
Solution :
The problem deals with discharging of CR circuit, because between the
plates of the capacitor, there is capacitor as well as resistance.
ρd d
=
R = {where r = resistivity and s = conductivity}
A σA
Kε A
and C = 0
d
The capacitive time constant of the circuit is,
Kε0
=τ CR =
σ
Substituting the values, we have
5 × 8.86 × 10−12
= τ = 5.98 s
7.4 × 10−12
Charge at any time decrease exponentially as

q = q0e− t/ τ
Where q0 = 8.85 × 10–6 C is the charge at time t = 0. Therefore, discharging
(leakage) current at time t is given by
 dq  q0 − t/ τ
I=
−  =e
 dt  τ
So, the current at t = 12 s is
(8.85 × 10−6 ) −12/5.98
I= e = 0.198 × 10−6 A = 0.198 µA
5.98
126.

Current Electricity

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Current Electricity

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CURRENT

Time rate of flow of charge through a cross-sectional area

Direction of Current Direction of Current

direction and magnitude of current.

There is no flow of current due to thermal motion of free electrons in a

The free electrons present in a conductor gain energy from temperature of

The speed gained by virtue of temperature is called as thermal speed and

Two important definition :

(3) Acceleration of electron :

No of charge particle confined in Dx distance = number of electron per unit

Where, i = electric current

Relation Between Current & Drift Velocity

Current density, a vector, at a point have magnitude equal to current per

A potential difference applied to the end of a wire made up of an allow

Relation between current density and area

Since current is same at surface 1 and surface 2.

E2 = Electric field at surface S2

Statement of ohm’s Law :

So, (A) is correct option.

Microscopic Ohm’s law (Vector form)

I  ne2 τ    ne2 τ     ne2 τ  

Where R is called resistance of the material.

Vd 3.9 × 10−4 m / sec

Limitation of Ohm’s Law :

(b) V-I curve for a solid (For non-ohmic resistance)

Variation of Current Vs voltage for GaAs.

class of material and device.

The resistance of a conductor is the A=area of  = resistivity

Resistance is the property of a conductor by virtue of which if oppose the

So, we conclude that if a given mass of wire is stretched (or drawn) to n

its resistance R changes.

Stretch Based Question

(2) r = constant : Since material is same

Take log both side

New differentiate both side w.r.t. x

Since, r = constant; V = constant

Therefore, area of cross section is A1 = m/ld. and the resistance of the

Dependency of Resistivity on Temperature

So, on increasing temperature r increase also, R increases.

Case 2: Semi conductor :

Temperature Dependency of Resistivity (Mathematical relation)

Where r0 = Resistivity at temperature T0

Graph of Resistivity and Mathematical Relation

Resistivity (‘r’) and Its Dependency on Temperature

y Resistivity vs. temperature curve for Nichrome

y Resistivity vs. temperature curve for Semiconductor

Approximation: As temperature changes, the length and area also change

Variation of Resistance with Temperature

Variation of Resistance with Temperature

mechanical dimensions do not change with temperature.

From given condition,

Variation of Resistance with Temperature

Colour Strip A Strip B Strip C Strip D (Tolerance)

Silver - - 10–2 ± 10%

Must be remembered as : B B R O Y Great Britain very Good Wife

Yellow Brown Colour Code for Carbon Resistance

(a) Series Combination

(b) Parallel Combination

(a) Suppose a potential difference is applied between the ends of the

surfaces so that current flows radially outward, what is the resistance

π (R22 − R21 ) , and the resistance

(b) Consider a differential element which is made up of a thin cylinder of

RTotal = dR1 + dR2 + dR3 + ...dRn

The resistance of a conductor is the A=area of = resistivity

(a) Suppose a potential difference is applied between the ends of the

(b) Consider a differential element which is made up of a thin cylinder of

Here for maximum power output outer resistance

(e) Graph between ‘P’ and R, where maximum power Pmax

Relation between power output & resistance load R

2 I1 – I2 = 10 – 25 = –15 2 15A from B to E