Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

FLM3B0S
Dimensional Analysis
and Similitude
O. Nemraoui
Mechatronics Department of Mechanical Engineering
Cape Peninsula University of Technology
1
FLM3B0S Dimensional Analysis and Similitude
Objectives
1. Understand dimensions, units, and
dimensional homogeneity
2. Understand benefits of dimensional
analysis
3. Know how to use the step by step the
method of repeating variables
4. Understand the concept of similarity and
how to apply it to experimental modeling
2
Dimensions and Units
 Dimension: Is a category that represents a physical
quantity such as length, time, mass
 Units: Is a way to assign a number to a dimension,
e.g., (m), (sec), (kg)
 7 Primary Dimensions:
3
Dimensions and Units
All non-primary dimensions can be formed

by a combination of the seven primary
dimensions
Examples
 {Velocity} = {Length/Time} = {L/T}
 {Force} = {Mass x Length/Time} = {ML/T2}
4
Dimensional Homogeneity (DH)
When the dimensions on each term of an
equation are the same, the equation is
dimensionally homogeneous
 Example: Bernoulli equation
• {p} = {force/area}={mass x length/time x 1/length2} = {M/(T2L)}

• {(1/2)rV2} = {mass/length3 x (length/time)2} = {M/(T2L)}
• {rgz} = {mass/length3 x length/time2 x length} ={M/(T2L)}
5
Example 1
In the following equation where Q is volume flow rate, C is a pure number, L is
length, g is acceleration due to gravity, and H is head.
Determine if the above equations is dimensionally homogeneous
Using Dimension:
Left side of equation term:
Right side of equation: C is pure number thus it has no dimension and units
Since left and right sides have the same dimension , the equation is dimensionally
Homogeneous
Using units:
Left side of equation term:
Right side of equation: C is pure number thus it has no dimension and units
Since left and right sides have the same units , the equation is dimensionally
Homogeneous
6
Example 2
In the following equation where
S: source (mass per unit time) of air pollution in a room of Volume V

c: mass concentration of contaminant (mass per unit volume)
A: surface area of walls , floor etc…
Q: the volume flow rate of fresh air entering the room
K: absorption constant
Write the primary dimensions of the first three additive terms in the equation, and
verify that those terms are dimensionally homogeneous. Then determine the
dimensions of k
Since the right side of the eq. is a sum (diff) of 3 terms and since you CAN NOT add
(or subtract) Apples and Oranges: Therefore All the terms of the right side of the eq.
should have the same Dimensions or Units.
For the eq. to be homogeneous  left side and right side should have same dimensions
Left side is a product of 2 terms V (volume) and dc/dt (derivative of concentration
with respect to time of equation term:
7
Example 2: solution
Dimension of V is
Dimension of dc/dt
Therefore Left side of equation has dimensions of
Thus Right side of equation has dimensions of and hence each term of the right side
of the eq. should have as dimensions
S: source (mass per unit time) : dimension : is same as left side

Qc: is same as left side
cAk: should has same dimension as left side where X is the dimension of k so we
solve for X
 surface area of walls , floor etc…
In conclusion the dimension of the dimension of K is
8
Example 3
The Reynolds transport theorem (RTT) is written as follow:
or
where
Bsys: can be any property of the flow—scalar, vector, or even tensor—it can have a
variety of dimensions. So, just let the dimensions of B be those of B itself, {B}. Also, b
is defined as B per unit mass.)
U: relative velocity of fluid, V is volume of fluid (control volume), A area
r: density
n: normal to the surface its dimension is 1 i.e. it has no dimension
Write the primary dimensions of each additive term in the equation, and verify that the
equation is dimensionally homogeneous.
9
Example 3: solution
Dimensions of
Dimensions of
Dimensions of
All the terms have the same dimensions therefore the eq. is homogenous
10
Quiz 10 min
(a) The pressure difference Dp across a partial blockage in artery (called stenosis) is
approximated by the equation:
2
 V  Ao 2
p Kv   Ku    1   V
D
 A1 
where V is the blood velocity,

m is the blood viscosity (ML-1T-1),
r the blood density,
Ao the area of the unobstructed artery, and A1 the area of the
stenosis.
Determine the dimensions of the constants Kv and Ku.
11
Dimensional analysis: why?
 Fluid mechanics is more heavily involved with
experimental testing than other disciplines:
Equations too difficult to solve
Computational Fluid Mechanics (CFM) yields only fair
approximations for turbulent flows
 Tests carried out on a subscale model and the results

are extrapolated to the full-scale system (prototype) by
implementing Dimensional Analysis through the
identification of dimensionless groups ( Reynolds number,
Froude number etc…) that provide correspondence of data
between model and prototype
 It save TIME and MONEY
12
Dimensional analysis: motivation
Consider flow through inverted nozzle
flow may occur the “right way” most of the
time and the “wrong way” part of the time
—hence the need for such knowledge.
P1-P2= DP is function of do, d1, V1, r and m .
Test program: numerous
measurements (time and
money) at different V1 and r
for 3 different nozzle’s Too may data
diameter
Is there a better approach!
13
Dimensionless Groups: motivation
Dimensional analysis: Better Approach
Shows pressure drop can be expressed as
Pressure dimensionless Diam ratio group
group
Reynolds nbr. Re
if Re too large results independent of Re, then pressure group is a

function of only diam ratio
Test program: only three
tests are needed
14
Buckingham P Theorem
 If a problem involves n relevant variables and m independent
(primary)dimensions then it can be reduced to a relationship
between n – m non-dimensional parameters P1, ..., Pn-m.
 To construct these non-dimensional P groups:

(i) Choose m dimensionally-distinct scaling variables (aka
repeating variables).
(ii) For each of the n – m remaining variables construct a non-
dimensional P of the for
P = (variable)(scale1)a(scale2)b(scale3)c….
where a, b, c, ... are chosen so as to make each P non-dimensional.
15
Choosing Repeating (scaling) variable
In order to ensure dimensional independence in {MLT}

systems it is common – but not obligatory – to choose the
repeating variables as:
• purely geometric quantity (e.g. a length),
• kinematic (time- but not mass-containing) quantity
(e.g. velocity or acceleration)
• dynamic (mass- or force-containing) quantity (e.g.
density).
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Choosing Repeating (scaling) variable
1. Never pick the dependent variable. Otherwise, it may appear in all the
's.
2. Chosen repeating parameters must not by themselves be able to form a
dimensionless group. Otherwise, it would be impossible to generate the
rest of the 's.
3. Chosen repeating parameters must represent all the primary dimensions.
4. Never pick parameters that are already dimensionless.
5. Never pick two parameters with the same dimensions or with dimensions
that differ by only an exponent.
6. Choose dimensional constants over dimensional variables so that only
one  contains the dimensional variable.
7. Pick common parameters since they may appear in each of the 's.
8. Pick simple parameters over complex parameters.
17
Method: The Six Steps
1. List the parameters in the problem and count their
total number n.
2. List the primary dimensions of each of the n
parameters
3. Set the m as the number of primary dimensions.
Calculate k, the expected number of 's, k = n - m.
4. Choose m repeating parameters.
5. Construct the k 's, and manipulate as necessary.
6. Write the final functional relationship and check
algebra.
18
Example 1
Ball Falling in a Vacuum • Step 1: List relevant parameters.
z=f(t,w0,z0,g)  n=5
• Step 2: Primary dimensions of
each parameter
• Step 3: There is 2 primary

dimensions (L and t)  m=2.
Number of expected 's is
k=n-m=5-2=3
• Step 4: Choose repeating
variables w0 and z0
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Example 1: continued
• Step 5: Combine repeating parameters into products with
each of the remaining parameters, one at a time, to create
the ’s.
• 1 = zw0a1z0b1
– a1 and b1 are constant exponents which must be determined.
– Use the primary dimensions identified in Step 2 and solve for a1 and
b1.
– Time equation:
– Length equation:
– This results in
20
• Step 5: continued
– Repeat process for 2 by combining repeating parameters with t
– 2 = tw0a2z0b2
– Time equation:
– This results in
21
• Step 5: continued
– Repeat process for 3 by combining repeating parameters with g
– 3 = gw0a3z0b3
– Time equation:
– This results in
22
• Step 6:
– Double check that the 's are dimensionless.
– Write the functional relationship between 's
• Overall conclusion: Method of repeating variables properly

predicts the functional relationship between dimensionless
groups.
• However, the method cannot predict the exact mathematical
form of the equation.
23
Example 2:
Consider flow of an incompressible fluid of density r and viscosity m through
a long, horizontal section of round pipe of diameter D. The velocity profile is
sketched the figure, V is the average speed across the pipe cross section,
which by conservation of mass remains constant down the pipe. For a very
long pipe, the flow eventually becomes fully developed, which means that
the velocity profile also remains uniform down the pipe. Because of frictional
forces between the fluid and the pipe wall, there exists a shear stress tw on
the inside pipe wall as sketched. The shear stress is also constant down the
pipe in the fully developed region. We assume some constant average
roughness height e, along the inside wall of the pipe. In fact, the only
parameter that is not constant down the length of pipe is the pressure, which
must decrease (linearly) down the pipe in order to “push” the fluid through
the pipe to overcome friction. Develop a non-dimensional relationship
between shear stress tw and the other parameters in the problem.
24
Example 2: solution
List of relevant parameters: tw = f (V, e, r, m, D) n=6
• t w V e r m D
{M1L-1T-2} {LT-1} {L} {ML-3} {ML-1T-1} {L}
the expected number of P’s is k = n - m = 6 -3 = 3.
We choose three repeating parameters since m = 3. we cannot pick the
dependent variable tw. We cannot choose both e, and D since their dimensions
are identical. The best choice of repeating parameters is thus V, D, and r.
25
Alternative Method:
26
Example2: alternative method
FALLING BODY IN VACUUM: V = f (g, h).
There are three significant dimensional variables for a body falling
in a vacuum (no viscous effects): the velocity V; the acceleration
due to gravity, g; and the distance through which the body falls, h.
Find the -groups using the step-by-step
Step 1: Significant variables and dimensions
[V] = L ⁄ T
[g]= L ⁄ T 2
[h] =L There are only two dimensions, L and T.
Step 2: From the Buckingham theorem, there is only one

(three variables–two dimensions) P-group.
27
Step 3: Set up table with three rows (number of variables) and
three (dimensions + 1) columns.
Step 4: List variables and primary dimensions in first column.
Variable dimension variable dimension variable dimension
V L/T V/h 1/T 0
g L/T2 g/h 1/T2
h L
Step 5: Select h to eliminate L. Divide g by h, enter in second

column with dimension 1/T 2. Divide V by h, enter in second column
with dimension 1/T..
28
Step 3: Select g/h to eliminate T. Divide V/h by and enter in
third column.
As expected, there is only one -group,
The final functional form of equation of the equation is.
29
30
31
THE EXPONENT METHOD
32
THE EXPONENT METHOD: Example
33
COMMON P-GROUPS
34
Similitude
Similitude is the theory and art of predicting prototype
performance from model observations.
Whenever it is necessary to perform tests on a model to obtain
information that cannot be obtained by analytical means alone,
the rules of similitude must be applied.
It involves the application of p-groups, such as the Reynolds
number or the Froude number, to predict prototype
performance from model tests.
35
Geometric Similitude
Geometric similitude means that the model is an exact
geometric replica of the prototype.
Consequently, if a 1:10 scale model is specified, all linear
dimensions of the model must be 1/ 10 of those of the
prototype.
, w, and c are specific linear

Prototype dimensions associated with the model
and prototype
Model Lr is the scale ratio between

model and prototype.
Area: A m/Ap = ( Lr )2 ; Volume: Vm/Vp = ( Lr )3
36
kinematic Similitude
• Kinematic similitude that the velocity at any point in the
model flow must be proportional (by a constant scale factor)
to the velocity at the corresponding point in the prototype
flow.
• Specifically, for kinematic similitude the velocity at
corresponding points must scale in magnitude and must
point in the same relative direction.
• Geometric similitude is a prerequisite for kinematic
similitude. Just as the geometric scale factor can be less
than, equal to, or greater than one, so can the velocity scale
factor
37
Dynamic Similitude
Dynamic similitude means that the forces that act on
corresponding masses in the model and prototype are in the
same ratio (Fm/Fp=constant) throughout the entire flow field.
38
Exercise 1
The thrust T (force) of a propeller is known to be
dependent on the axial-flow velocity V , fluid density ρ,
dynamic viscosity μ, rotating speed N in rpm, and
diameter D. Determine the appropriate non-dimensional
parameters by means of dimensional analysis (using
Buckingham PI theorem).
39
Exercise 2
A jet fan used in highway tunnel ventilation is an axial-
flow fan with a cylindrical casing. Its performance is
expressed in terms of the static thrust T versus shaft
power Ps. These two parameters are function of the
impeller diameter D, rotating speed ω in radians per
second, and air density ρ.
Determine the corresponding non-dimensional
parameters.
40
Exercise 3
The Taco Inc. model 4013 centrifugal pump has an impeller of diameter D =
12.95 in. When pumping 20°C water at ω = 1160 rpm, the measured flow rate
Q and pressure rise Δp are given by the manufacturer in the table below
(a) Assuming that Δp = fcn(ρ, Q, D, V), use the pi theorem to rewrite this
function in terms of dimensionless parameters and then plot the given data in
dimensionless form. (b) It is desired to use the same pump, running at 900
rpm, to pump 20°C gasoline (ρ=680kg/m3) at 400 gal/min. According to your
dimensionless correlation, what pressure rise Δp is expected, in Pa? (1
gal=3.785 L, 1lb/in2=6.895kPa)
41
Exercise 4
The power P generated by a certain windmill design
depends on its diameter D, the air density ρ, the wind
velocity V, the rotation rate ω, and the number of blades
n.
(a) Write this relationship in dimensionless form.
A model windmill, of diameter 50 cm, develops 2.7 kW
at sea level when V = 40 m/s and when rotating at 4800
r/min.
(b) What power will be developed by a geometrically
and dynamically similar prototype, of diameter 5 m, in
winds of 12 m/s at 2000 m standard altitude?
42
Exercise 5
A fan operating at 1750 rev/min at a volume flow
rate of 4.25m3/s develops a head of 153mm
measured on a water-filled U-tube manometer. It is
required to build a larger, geometrically similar fan
which will deliver the same head at the same
efficiency as the existing fan, but at a speed of
1440 rev/min.
Calculate the volume flow rate of the larger fan.
Ans: 6.28 m3/s

43
Exercise 6
An axial flow fan 1.83m diameter is designed to run at a speed of
1400 rev/min with an average axial air velocity of 12.2 m/s. A quarter
scale model has been built to obtain a check on the design and the
rotational speed of the model fan is 4200 rev/min. Determine the
axial air velocity of the model so that dynamical similarity with the
full-scale fan is preserved. The effects of Reynolds number change
may be neglected.
A sufficiently large pressure vessel becomes available in which the
complete model can be placed and tested under conditions of
complete similarity. The viscosity of the air is independent of
pressure and the temperature is maintained constant. At what
pressure must the model be tested?
Ans: 9.15 m/s; 5.33 atmospheres.
44
Exercise 7
A water turbine is to be designed to produce 27MW when
running at 93.7 rev/min under a head of 16.5 m. A model
turbine with an output of 37.5kW is to be tested under
dynamically similar conditions with a head of 4.9 m.
Calculate the model speed and scale ratio. Assuming a
model efficiency of 88%, estimate the volume flow rate
through the model. It is estimated that the force on the
thrust bearing of the full-size machine will be 7.0 GN.
For what thrust must the model bearing be designed?
Ans: 551 rev/min, 1:10.8; 0.885m3/s; 17.85 MN.

45
Exercise 8
A capillary tube has an 8-mm inside diameter through which liquid
fluorine refrigerant R-11 (viscosity = 0.42x10-3 Pa.s, S.G=1.48) flows
at a rate of 0.03 cm3/s. The tube is to be used as a throttling device in
an air conditioning unit. A model of this flow is constructed by using a
pipe of 3 cm inside diameter and water as the fluid medium
(viscosity=0.89 x10-3 Pa.s., )
a. What is the required velocity in the model for dynamic similarity?
b. When dynamic similarity is reached, the pressure drop in the
model is measured as 50 Pa. What is the corresponding pressure
drop in the capillary tube?
Ans: Vm = 0.050 m/s; Dp = 105 Pa.

46
Exercise 9
The pressure drop per unit length, Δ pL, for the flow of blood through a
horizontal small-diameter tube is a function of the volume rate of flow,
Q, the diameter, D, and the blood viscosity, μ . Perform a dimensional
analysis for this problem.
For a series of tests in which D = 2 mm and μ = 0.004 Pa.s, the
following data were obtained, where the Δ p listed was measured over
the length, L= 300 mm. Plot Δ p vs Q and make use of the data given
to determine a general relationship between Δ p and Q (one that is
valid for other values of D, L, and μ ).
Ans: Hagen Poiseuille
47

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FLM3B0S

All non-primary dimensions can be formed

• {p} = {force/area}={mass x length/time x 1/length2} = {M/(T2L)}

S: source (mass per unit time) of air pollution in a room of Volume V

S: source (mass per unit time) : dimension : is same as left side

where V is the blood velocity,

 Tests carried out on a subscale model and the results

if Re too large results independent of Re, then pressure group is a

 To construct these non-dimensional P groups:

In order to ensure dimensional independence in {MLT}

• Step 3: There is 2 primary

• Overall conclusion: Method of repeating variables properly

Step 2: From the Buckingham theorem, there is only one

g L/T2 g/h 1/T2

Step 5: Select h to eliminate L. Divide g by h, enter in second

The final functional form of equation of the equation is.

, w, and c are specific linear

Model Lr is the scale ratio between

Ans: 6.28 m3/s

Ans: 551 rev/min, 1:10.8; 0.885m3/s; 17.85 MN.

Ans: Vm = 0.050 m/s; Dp = 105 Pa.

Ans: Hagen Poiseuille

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