Spatial Analysis and Environmental Modeling Manual

Spatial Analysis and Environmental modeling
Practical Manual
PREPARED BY:
Kalid Hassen
REVIEWED BY:
Elias Cherenet (Ass prof)
SEPTEMBER, 2020
HARAMAYA, ETHIOPIA
Prepared By: Kalid Hassen
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1
Site Selection Analysis Using Raster data ................................................................................. 2
1.1 Study information ........................................................................................................ 3
1.1.1 Case Study ...............................................................................................................................3
1.1.2 Description ..............................................................................................................................4
1.2 Starting ArcMap .......................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Setting your workspace ............................................................................................... 5
1.4 Creating a new toolbox ............................................................................................... 7
1.5 Creating a new model .................................................................................................. 8
1.6 Reclassifying datasets ............................................................................................... 14
1.7 Weight deriving Using ArcGIS “AHP_Extention” ................................................... 19
1.7.1 Introduction to the principles of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) .................19
1.7.2 Using AHP extension ..........................................................................................................21
1.8 Weighting and combining datasets ............................................................................ 24
1.8.1 Weighted Overlay ................................................................................................................24
1.9 Selecting optimal sites ............................................................................................... 26
1.9.1 Extract optimal sites using the Con tool .........................................................................27
1.9.2 Refine the optimal areas using Majority Filter tool ......................................................28
1.9.3 Selecting the best site ..........................................................................................................29
Site Selection Analysis Using Vector data ............................................................................... 32
2.1 Study information ...................................................................................................... 33
2.1.1 Case Study .............................................................................................................................33
2.1.2 Description ............................................................................................................................33
2.2 Buffering ................................................................................................................... 33
2.3 Merging Shapefiles ................................................................................................... 34
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2.4 Erase .......................................................................................................................... 35
2.5 Clipping ..................................................................................................................... 36
Finding an alternate access route ............................................................................................. 38
3.1.1 Case Study .............................................................................................................................39
3.1.2 Description ............................................................................................................................39
3.2 Creating a new model ................................................................................................ 40
3.3 Creating the cost dataset ............................................................................................ 41
3.4 Finding the least costly path ...................................................................................... 43
3.5 Raster to Poly line ..................................................................................................... 46
Watershed delineation Using Hydrology Tool ......................................................................... 48
4.1.1 Introduction to hydrology in GIS .....................................................................................49
4.1.2 Case Study .............................................................................................................................49
4.1.3 Description ............................................................................................................................50
4.2 DEM Data Preparation .............................................................................................. 50
4.3 Fill ............................................................................................................................. 50
4.4 Flow direction ........................................................................................................... 51
4.5 Flow Accumulation ................................................................................................... 52
4.6 River Route Delineating ............................................................................................ 53
4.6.1 Reclassification ....................................................................................................................53
4.6.2 Stream to feature ..................................................................................................................54
4.6.3 Selection by Attribute..........................................................................................................54
4.6.4 Export the result ...................................................................................................................55
4.7 River Basin Delineating ............................................................................................ 55
4.7.1 Basin to Polygon ..................................................................................................................56
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Watershed delineation using Arc Hydro Tools......................................................................... 58
5.1 About ArcHydro tool ................................................................................................. 59
5.2 Description ................................................................................................................ 60
5.3 Getting Started........................................................................................................... 61
5.3.1 Set Projection ........................................................................................................................62
5.3.2 Fill ...........................................................................................................................................63
5.3.3 Flow Direction ......................................................................................................................64
5.3.4 Flow Accumulation .............................................................................................................65
5.3.5 Stream Definition .................................................................................................................66
5.3.6 Stream Segmentation ..........................................................................................................67
5.3.7 Catchment Grid Delineation ..............................................................................................68
5.3.8 Catchment Polygon Processing.........................................................................................69
5.3.9 Drainage Line Processing ..................................................................................................70
5.3.10 Adjoint Catchment Processing ..........................................................................................70
5.3.11 Drainage Point Processing .................................................................................................71
5.3.12 Point Delineation .................................................................................................................72
Network Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 75
6.1.1 Case Study .............................................................................................................................76
6.1.2 Description ............................................................................................................................76
6.2 Concept of Network Analysis ................................................................................... 76
6.3 How to create Service area ........................................................................................ 77
6.3.1 Topology ................................................................................................................................77
6.4 Adding fields to the attribute table and filling necessary data’s ............................... 78
6.4.1 Length.....................................................................................................................................78
6.4.2 Speed Mode...........................................................................................................................79
6.4.3 Time ........................................................................................................................................80
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6.5 Creating Network Analyst Dataset in ArcMap .......................................................... 81
6.6 Creating Service Area Polygons ................................................................................ 83
6.7 Finding shortest route between two locations ........................................................... 87
Geostatistical Analyst............................................................................................................... 89
7.1.1 Case Study .............................................................................................................................90
7.1.2 Description ............................................................................................................................90
7.2 Creating a surface using default parameters ............................................................. 91
7.3 Exploring your data ................................................................................................... 98
Soil Erosion Assessment using Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) ................ 105
8.1 Study information .................................................................................................... 106
8.1.1 Case Study ...........................................................................................................................106
8.1.2 Description ..........................................................................................................................106
8.2 Context of Erosion and RUSLE modeling .............................................................. 107
8.2.1 Limits of the method considered ....................................................................................108
8.3 Climatic factor: rainfall aggressiveness R Factor ................................................... 109
8.3.1 Calculation of the average annual Precipitation .......................................................... 110
8.4 LS factor calculation ............................................................................................... 114
8.5 Vegetation cover: C factor ....................................................................................... 116
8.6 Soil Erodibility (K) Factor ...................................................................................... 118
8.7 Soil conservation practices: P factor ....................................................................... 120
8.8 soil loss A calculation from the RUSLE equation ................................................... 120
Algorithm for Automated Mapping of Land Surface Temperature Using LANDSAT 8 Satellite
Data ........................................................................................................................................ 122
9.1.1 Case Study ...........................................................................................................................123
9.1.2 Description ..........................................................................................................................123
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9.2 Calculation of TOA (Top of Atmospheric) spectral radiance. ................................. 123
9.3 Conversion of Radiance to At-Sensor Temperature. ............................................... 125
9.4 Calculate the NDVI ................................................................................................. 127
9.5 Calculate the proportion of vegetation Pv ............................................................... 127
9.6 Calculate Emissivity ε ............................................................................................. 129
9.7 Calculating the Land Surface Temperature ............................................................. 130
Supervised Image classification Using support Vector Machine (SVM) .............................. 132
10.1.1 Case Study ...........................................................................................................................133
10.1.2 Description ..........................................................................................................................133
10.2 Concept of Image classification and SVM .............................................................. 133
10.3 Supervised classification ......................................................................................... 134
10.3.1 Adding the Image Classification toolbar ......................................................................134
10.3.2 Adding a multiband image for the classification.........................................................134
10.3.3 Creating Training Samples ...............................................................................................135
10.3.4 Managing training samples ..............................................................................................136
10.4 Creating classifier definition file ............................................................................. 137
10.5 Executing the classifier definition file .................................................................... 139
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INTRODUCTION
Dear trainee, I am very glad to be able to introduce a spatial analysis and Environmental
modelling. Spatial analysis is in many ways the crux of GIS, because it includes all of the
transformations, manipulations, and methods that can be applied to geographic data to add
value to them, to support decisions, and to reveal patterns and anomalies that are not
immediately obvious in other words, spatial analysis is the process by which we turn raw data
into useful information. If GIS is a method of communicating information about the Earth’s
surface from one person to another, then the transformations of spatial analysis are ways in
which the sender tries to inform the receiver, by adding greater informative content and value,
and by revealing things that the receiver might not otherwise see. Some methods of spatial
analysis were developed long before the advent of GIS, and carried out by hand, or by the use
of measuring devices like the ruler and spatial analysis using GIS is in many ways its logical
successor.
This training manual aims to guide students how to explore ArcGIS Desktop software produced
by ESRI (Environmental System Research Institute) for different spatial analysis. The manual
intended to help identify different spatial problems and solutions. Each section in the manual
introduces a general group of functions in ArcGIS, providing step by step instructions for using
a set of tools with screen captures showing those steps.
This manual tries to cover the presentation and implementation under ArcGIS and its spatial
analysis tool box, Geostatistical Extension, Archydro Tool and Landsat Tool was used through
case studies dealing with site selection using both Vector and raster data’s, Finding alternative
route Analysis, hydrological analysis using Hydrology toolset and Archydro Tool,
Geostatistical Analysis, Network analysis and RUSLE soil erosion model, Land surface
Temperature modeling as well.
Hence, I recommend interested students, staffs, researchers and all concerned to use this
manual to familiarize themselves with spatial Analysis and modelling in GIS in particular to
their field of specialization. I always appreciate feedback, whether you found a typo or spelling
mistake or want to suggest a better way of explaining particular concepts and techniques. The
best way to succeed with GIS is to make learning how to use it a collective process.
Kalidh84@gmail.com
Kalidh84@yahoo.com
Kalid.hassen@haramaya.edu.et
Kalid Hassen, Haramaya University
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Site Selection Analysis Using Raster data
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1.1 Study information
1.1.1 Case Study
Assuming you are employed as GIS analyst in the urban planning department in Dire
Dawa city, Ethiopia, as a GIS expert you are asked to develop site suitability map of the
town to support the future urban development planning activity proposed by the planning
department. The planning department is interested to know information on suitable area
for School in the city. This is because the existing urban structure is not enough to
accommodate the demand of the population hence by constructing new school the
associated problem in the town will be minimized. The department also set criteria to fulfill
for the candidate site to be selected. The final suitable site to be selected for building new
school should not to be located on steep slope, forest land, and not near to existing school.
On the other side the planning department wanted to locate the new school near to
recreational sites and roads infrastructure. In addition to this the size of the final site should
be 2000 square meters. Based on the above stated criteria and requirement, find the most
suitable site for building new school. Therefore, based on the project requirement develop
a site suitability model consisting of a detailed procedure to select the best site as stated in
the criteria. During the weighted overlay in most case the most important parameter will
get higher influence than the least important and optionally we can also set to use equal
influence but it should be fully justified. The common scale to be used during reclassifying
the raster data will be 1 to 10 by 1. We will use this scale range to combine all the input
data set during weighted overly to select the best/ suitable site.
Our input data set
Land use Raster dataset representing the land-use types over the area
DEM Raster dataset representing the elevation of the area
School location Feature class representing point locations of existing schools
Recreational sites Feature class representing point locations of recreation sites
Roads Feature class representing the linear road network for the city of
Dire
City boundary Indicate the extent of the city
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1.1.2 Description
In this exercise, you will prepare for analysis then creating a geodatabase for your results.
Next, you will derive slope, distance to recreation sites, and distance to existing schools,
and then reclassify these derived datasets to a common scale from 1 to 10. You will drive
weight them using AHP method in ArcGIS_Ahp extension and the land use dataset
according to a percentage of influence and combine them to produce a map displaying
suitable locations for the new school. Finally, you will select the optimal site for the new
school from the alternatives.
1.2 Starting ArcMap
Steps:
1. Start ArcMap by clicking Start → ArcGIS → ArcMap.

2. Click New Maps in the ArcMap - Getting Started window if it is not already
highlighted.
3. Click the Open button.
4. Click the Connect to folder button in the Select the map's geodatabase window.
5. Browse to and click the working copy of the Spatial Analyst folder just created.
6. Click OK.
7. Click the New File Geodatabase button.
8. Name the new file geodatabase Scratch.
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9. Click Add.
10. Click OK
1.3 Setting your workspace
Both our current and scratch workspaces are set to your Scratch.gdb geodatabase. For this
workflow, access data from the Dire Dawa.gdb, which is in the Spatial Analyst folder and
contains your data; write your data, by default, to your Scratch.gdb.
Steps:
1. Click the menu Geoprocessing → Environments.
2. Click Workspace to expand the environment settings related to workspaces.
3. For Current Workspace, navigate to your Dire Dawa.gdb in your Spatial Analyst folder.
4. Click Add.
5. Click OK.
• your scratch workspace is already set to your Scratch.gdb geodatabase
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I. Saving your map document

Steps:
1. On the Standard toolbar, click the Save button
2. Browse to the working copy of the folder.
3. For File name, enter Site Analysis.mxd.
4. Click Save.
II. Checking out an ArcGIS Spatial Analyst extension license

Steps:
1. Click the Customize → Extensions menu.
2. Check the Spatial Analyst check box.
3. Click Close.
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III. Add the Spatial Analyst Toolbar

The Spatial Analyst toolbar contains a Create Contour tool and a Histogram button.
Steps:
1. Click Customize → Toolbars → Spatial Analyst on the main menu.
2. The Spatial Analyst toolbar is added to your ArcMap session.
1.4 Creating a new toolbox
You will first create a new toolbox to hold the models will create in this exercise & the
next.
Steps:
1. Create a new toolbox in your Spatial Analyst folder. Name the toolbox Site Analysis.
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1.5 Creating a new model
You will create a model to perform Spatial Analyst tasks. A model is built by stringing
tools together in ModelBuilder. Once your model is created, we can easily experiment with
parameter values, use different input data, run the model over and over again, and share it
with others.
Steps:
1. Right-click the Site Analysis Tools toolbox and click New > Model.
2. An empty ModelBuilder session will open.

I. Renaming the model
Steps:
1. On the model's main menu, click Model > Model Properties.

2. Click the General tab.
3. Type FindSchool in the Name text box and Find location for school in the Label text
box.
• The name is used in scripting and at the Python window. The label is the display
name for the model.
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4. Check the Store relative path names (instead of absolute paths) check box.
5. Checking this box sets all source paths referenced by the tool as relative to the
location of the toolbox; therefore, if the model is moved to a different directory it
will still be able to be executed successfully.
II. Specifying environment settings
Before start to perform analysis on our data, should set any relevant environment settings.
For more information on how to set environments and the hierarchy between analysis
environments, go to the analysis environment of the ArcGIS Spatial Analyst extension.
Because your environment settings apply to each process of this model only, you will set
environment settings for the model.
Steps:
1. Click the Environments tab.
2. Expand Processing Extent and check Extent.
3. Expand Raster Analysis and check Cell Size.
Tip: The Current Workspace and the Scratch Workspace are already set, as these
environment settings are inherited from the map document.
4. Click Values.
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5. Expand Processing Extent. Set the Extent by click the drop-down and selecting same
as Layer elevation.
6. Expand Raster Analysis. Set Cell Size by click the drop-down arrow and selecting
same as Layer elevation. The cell size of your elevation layer will be applied to all
subsequent raster outputs. Your elevation dataset has the largest cell size (30 meters).
Caution: Setting a smaller cell size than your largest input will not mean we have more
detailed information in subsequent raster results; we will just have more cells of the same
value, which may affect your display and calculation speeds. Although the software does
not prevent it, it is considered incorrect to set a cell size smaller than your largest input
cell size.
7. Click OK on the Environment Settings window.
8. Click OK on the Model Properties window.
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9. On the toolbar, click the Save button.

Tip: The model's properties are updated. If at any point we want to close the model and
carry on later, right click the model in the ArcToolbox window and click Edit to continue
with the tutorial.
III. Deriving datasets
you will derive the following from your project data:
• Derive Slope from the elevation dataset.
• Derive Distance from recreation sites from the recreational site dataset.
• Derive Distance from existing schools from the school’s dataset.
Steps:
1. From our table of contents, drag the layers elevation, rec_sites, and schools onto your
model.
2. Click and drag the Slope tool from the Spatial Analyst Surface toolset onto your model
and place it in line with your elevation data. An element that references the Slope tool
is created on the display window.
3. Locate the Euclidean Distance tool in the Spatial Analyst Tools toolbox Distance
toolset. Click and drag the Euclidean Distance tool onto our model and place it in line
with recsites.
4. Repeat the previous step, but this time places the Euclidean Distance tool in line with
schools.
5. Click the Add Connection tool.
6. Use the Add Connection tool to connect to the elevation dataset to the Slope tool. To
do this, click elevation, then click the Slope tool.
7. Repeat the previous step, this time connecting rec_sites to the Euclidean Distance tool
and schools to the Euclidean Distance (2) tool.
Note: The process (consisting of the input data, tool, and output data) is now filled with a
solid color, meaning it is ready to run. If you are to run the model now, it would run using
the default parameters for each tool.
8. On the model toolbar, click the Select tool, because we no longer need the Add
Connection tool.
9. Click the Auto layout button, and then click the Full View button to apply the current
diagram properties to the elements and place them within the display window.
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III. Deriving Slope from elevation

Steps:
1. Right-click the Slope tool and click Open, or double-click the Slope tool.
2. Leave the Input raster and the Output measurement as the default values.
3. Accept the default location for the value of the Output raster parameter, but type
slope_out for the name. A meaningful output name, slope_out, has been provided to
help locate this data later in exercise 3.
4. For the Z factor, type 0.3048 to convert the z-values to same unit of measure as the x,y
units (from feet to M).
5. Click OK.
6. Right-click the output variable from the Slope tool and click Rename.
7. Type Slope Output and click OK.
Caution: Renaming an element label does not alter the name of the output on disk. A layer
will be added to the Table of Contents called Slope Output which references data on disk
called Slope out.
IV. Deriving distance
i. From recreation sites
To find locations close to recreation sites, must first calculate the Euclidean distance from
recreation sites.
Steps:
1. Hover the pointer over the Euclidean Distance tool connected to rec_sites. We can
easily see all the default parameters set for this tool. There is no need to adjust any of
these parameters.
2. Accepted the default for the Maximum distance, thus leaving this parameter empty.
Therefore, the edge of the output raster is used as the maximum distance. The Output
cell size is taken from the environment setting previously set to that of our elevation
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data. In this exercise, the Output direction raster is not required.

3. Rename the output variable from the Euclidean Distance tool to Distance to recreation
sites.
ii. From schools
To find locations away from existing schools, we must first calculate the Euclidean
(straight-line) distance from schools.
Steps:
1. Hover the pointer over the Euclidean Distance (2) tool connected to schools. We can
easily see all the default parameters set for this tool. There is no need to adjust any of
these parameters.
2. Rename the output variable from the Euclidean Distance (2) tool to Distance to
schools.
IV. Run model to derive datasets
Steps:
1. Right-click each of the output variables (Slope output, Distance to recreation sites, and
Distance to schools) and click Add to Display.
2. With the Add to Display property on, the data referenced by the variable will be added
to the display each time the model is run.
3. Click the Run button on the model toolbar to execute the three tools Slope, Euclidean
Distance, and Euclidean Distance (2) in your model.
Notice: that as the tool runs, its progress is documented on the progress dialog box, and
the tool that references the tool is highlighted in red. When the tools have finished running,
the tool and its output become shaded, indicating that the output has been created on disk.
4. If the progress dialog box is present, check the Close this dialog when completed
successfully check box, then click Close.
5. Examine the layers added to your ArcMap display.
• On the Slope Output layer, steep slopes are displayed in red and less steep slopes in
green in the output layer. On the Distance to recreation sites layer, distances increase
the farther we are from a recreation site. On the Distance to schools’ layer, distances
increase the farther we are from a school.
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1.6 Reclassifying datasets
Deriving datasets, such as slope, is the first step when building a suitability model. Each
cell in our study area now has a value for each input criteria (slope, land use, distance to
recreation sites, and distance to schools). Need to combine the derived datasets so can
create our suitability map that will identify the potential locations for the new school.
Hover, it is not possible to combine them in their present form for example, combining a
cell value in which slope equals 15 degrees with a cell value for land use that equals 5
(forest) and get a meaningful answer that can compare to other locations. To combine the
datasets, they first need to be set to a common measurement scale, such as 1 to 10. That
common measurement scale is what determines how suitable a particular location each
cell is for building a new school. Higher values indicate more suitable locations for the
school. Using the weighted Overlay tool, can weigh the values of each dataset, and then
combine them. Hover, the inputs for the weighted Overlay tool must contain discrete,
integer values. Land-use data is already categorized into discrete values; for example,
forest equals a value of 5, so we can add this dataset directly into the weighted Overlay
tool and assign each cell a new value on the common measurement scale of 1 to 10 (you
do this later in the tutorial). The values in the datasets you derived in previous steps are all
floating-point, continuous datasets, categorized into ranges, and they must first be
reclassified so that each range of values is assigned one discrete integer value. Potentially,
the value given to each range can be any number, provided we note the range that the value
corresponds to. This is because can weight these values within the weighted Overlay tool
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the next step after reclassifying the derived datasets. Hover, it is easier to weight the cell
values for derived datasets while reclassifying. In the weighted Overlay tool, can accept
the default and leave the scale values the same as the input values will reclassify each
derived dataset to a common measurement scale, giving each range a discrete integer value
between 1 and 10. Higher values will be given to attributes within each dataset that are
more suitable for locating the school.
Steps:
1. Locate the Reclassify tool in the Spatial Analyst Toolbox Reclass toolset. Click and
drag the Reclassify tool onto ModelBuilder in line with Slope Output. Add another
Reclassify tool in line with Distance to recreation sites and another in line with
Distance to schools.
2. Click the Add Connection tool. Use the connect tool to connect:
a. Slope Output to the Reclassify tool
b. Distance to recreation sites to the Reclassify (2) tool
c. Distance to schools to the Reclassify (3) tool
d. On the model toolbar, click the Select tool.
e. Click the Auto Layout button, and then click the Full View button.
I. Reclassifying slope
It is preferable that the new school site be located on relatively flat ground. We'll reclassify
the slope output, slicing the values into equal intervals. We'll assign a value of 10 to the
most suitable range of slopes (those with the lost angle of slope) and 1 to the least suitable
range of slopes (those with the steepest angle of slope) and linearly rank the values in
between.
Steps:
1. Open the Reclassify tool connected to the Slope Output variable.
2. Accept the default for the Reclass field parameter so the Value field will be used.
3. Click Classify.
4. Click the Method drop-down arrow and click Equal Interval.
5. Click the Classes drop-down arrow and click 10.
6. Click OK.
7. Click Reverse New Values.
• Reversing the values applies higher new values to the values representing less steep
slope, since these areas are more suitable for building.
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8. Accept the default for the Output raster parameter.

9. Click OK.
10. Rename the output variable from the Reclassify tool to Reclassed slope.
II. Reclassifying distance to recreation sites

The school should be located as close as possible to a recreational facility. you will
reclassify the distance to recreation sites output, assigning the number 10 to ranges of
values that represent areas closest to recreation sites (the most suitable locations),
assigning the number 1 to ranges of values that represent areas far from recreation sites
(the least suitable locations), and ranking the values linearly in between.
Steps:
1. Open the Reclassify tool connected to the Distance to recreation sites variable.
3. Click Classify.
4. Set the Method to Equal Interval and the number of Classes to 10.
5. Click OK.
6. Click Reverse New Values. It makes it so that distances close to recreational facilities
receive a higher new value, since these areas are more desirable.
7. Accept the default path and name for the Output raster parameter.
8. Click OK.
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9. Rename the output variable from the Reclassify tool to Reclassed distance to
recreation sites.
Tip: To resize the output variable element, Reclassed distance to recreation sites, click the
element and move the mouse pointer over one of the blue handles surrounding the element,
then click and drag to resize the element so all text can be seen.
III. Reclassifying distance to schools
It is necessary to locate the new school away from existing schools to avoid encroaching
on their catchment areas. you will reclassify the Distance to schools’ layer, assigning a
value of 10 to areas farthest from existing schools (the most suitable locations), assigning
a value of 1 to areas near existing schools (the least suitable locations), and ranking the
values in between linearly. By doing this, you will determine which areas are near and
which areas far from exist schools.
Steps:
1. Open Reclassify (3) tool.
3. Click Classify.
4. Set the Method to Equal Interval and the number of Classes to 10.
5. Click OK.
• We want to position the school away from existing schools, so we will assign larger
numbers to ranges of values that represent locations farther away, because these
locations are most desirable. Since the default assigns high New values (more
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suitable locations) to higher ranges of Old values (locations farther away from
existing schools), we do not need to change any values at this time.
6.Accept the default for the Output raster parameter.
7.Click OK.
8. Rename the output variable from the Reclassify (3) tool to Reclassed distance to
schools.
IV. Executing Reclassify
Steps:
1. Right-click each of the variable outputs Reclassed slope, Reclassed distance to
recreation sites and Reclassed distance to schools and click Add To Display.
2. Click the Run button to execute the three Reclassify tools in your model.
4. Examine the layers added to were ArcMap display.
5. Locations with higher values (with low gradient slopes, close to recreation sites, and
away from existing schools) are more suitable than locations with lower values (with
steeper slopes, far from recreation, and close to existing schools).
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1.7 Weight deriving Using ArcGIS “AHP_Extention”
1.7.1 Introduction to the principles of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was introduced by SAATY [1] and is a very
popular means to calculate the needed weighting factors by help of a preference matrix
where all identified relevant criteria are compared against each other with reproducible
preference factors.
I. AHP background process description

All criteria/factors which are considered relevant for a decision are compared against each
other in a pair-wise comparison matrix which is a measure to express the relative
preference among the factors. Therefore, numerical values expressing a judgment of the
relative importance (or preference) of one factor against another have to be assigned to
each factor. Since it is known from psychological studies that an individual cannot
simultaneously compare more than 7 ± 2 elements, Saaty [1] and Saaty & Vargas
[2]suggested a scale for comparison consisting of values ranging from 1 to 9 which
describe the intensity of importance (preference/dominance). A value of 1 express “equal
importance” and a value of 9 are given for those factors having an “extreme importance”
over another factor.
Intensity of importance Description
1 Equal importance
3 Moderate importance of one factor over another
5 Strong or essential importance
7 Very strong importance
9 Extreme importance
2, 4, 6, 8 Intermediate values
Reciprocals Values for inverse comparison
The following table shows a simple comparison matrix of order 3 where 3 criteria C1, C2
and C3 are compared against each other. In the direct comparison of the criteria C1 and
C3, for example, criterion C1 has been regarded strongly more important than C3, hence
a value of 5 has been assigned to the corresponding matrix position. The transpose position
automatically gets a value of the reciprocal value, in this case 1/5 which equals 0.2.
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Pair-wise comparison matrix which holds the preference values

Criteria C1 C2 C3
C1 1 4 5
C2 0.25 1 0.5
C3 0.2 2 1
Next, the assigned preference values are synthesized to determine a ranking of the relevant
factors in terms of a numerical value which is equivalent to the weights of the factors.
Therefore, the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the square preference matrix revealing
important details about patterns in the data matrix are calculated. The above square matrix
of order three gives three eigenvalues with which three eigenvectors each having three
vector components can be calculated. It is regarded sufficient to calculate only the
eigenvector resulting from the largest eigenvalue since this eigenvector contains enough
information to provide by its eigenvector components the relative priorities of the factors
being considered [2].
Of course, the values of the pair-wise comparison matrix will normally be well considered
and not set arbitrarily. However, people’s feelings and preferences remain inconsistent and
intransitive and may then lead to perturbations in the eigenvector calculations. Such
inconsistencies might be of the form that a factor Ai being preferred over another factor
Aj with Aj being preferred over a factor Ak is not preferred over Ak (Ai must be preferred
over Ak in this case). Therefore Saaty [1] provided the consistency ratio CR which is a
single numerical index to check for consistency of the pair-wise comparison matrix. It is
defined as the ratio of the consistency index CI to an average consistency index RI, thus
𝑅𝐼
CR =
𝐶𝐼
Values for RI [2] (with n = order of matrix)
(n) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(RI) 0 0 0.58 0.90 1.12 1.24 1.32 1.41 1.45 1.49 1.51 1.48 1.56 1.57 1.59
Following the illustrations of Saaty [1] who calculated RI values up to a matrix order of
15, matrices with an order greater than 8 have an RI order of magnitude value of about
1.45.
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The consistency index CI can be directly calculated from the preference matrix with
𝜆 𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑛
CI =
n−1
Where
λmax: greatest eigenvalue of preference matrix
n: order of matrix
Based on expert knowledge and experience, Saaty & Vargas [2] recommend a revision of
the preference matrix if the consistency ratio CR exceeds a value of 0.1.
1.7.2 Using AHP extension
Steps:
1. Push the button. A window appears which lets you define all criteria which you
consider relevant for your decision.
Please note: The extension expects classified raster datasets. Therefore, only integer
rasters will appear as list items in the classified map raster layers list box. You must take
care that all raster’s are classified within the same class value range (no checking is
performed if
the classified criteria raster’s have the same class range).
2. Click on a list item and the push the button to define it as a criterion which will
be used in the subsequent analysis.
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3. Please note that you can change the descriptor of the used layers
4. If you are finished with your criteria definitions click on the button.
The following window appears:
5. Enter your preference values in the preference matrix by double clicking on the
corresponding matrix cell or by hitting the <Enter> key. A window will appear asking
you to enter a value.
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• Having entered a valid value, the transpose position in the matrix is automatically
inverted. Elements on the matrix’ main diagonal will remain unchanged. Entering
values higher than the maximum preference value (which is 9) will be reset to 9
values smaller or equal to 0 will be set to one. The ‘pref. table’ button displays a
window which shows a ‘legend’ of the preference values.
6. To calculate the weights, push the button. The calculated weights are displayed
in the text box which is underneath the compute button. The button lets you view the
details of the calculation in terms of the resulting eigen values and more.
• The given preference values are a numerical way to express the importance or
dominance of one criterion over another. Here, the criterion slope is regarded
strongly more important than criterion school (value 7 in the first row); you can
see that criterion Slope receives by far the highest weight 58%, LULC gets about
14 %, distance from recreational site 20 %.
Note: The consistency ratio ‘CR’ of 0.04 is less than Saaty’s recommended threshold
of 0.1, therefore the result is acceptable.
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7. Push the ‘OK’ button. If you want a report file to be created check ‘create report file’
(default); then specify a filename.
1.8 Weighting and combining datasets
You are now ready to combine the reclassified datasets and land use to find the most
suitable locations. The values of the reclassified datasets representing slope, distance to
recreation sites, and distance to schools have all been reclassified to a common
measurement scale (more suitable cells have higher values). The landuse dataset is still in
its original form because we can weigh the cell values for this dataset as part of the
weighted overlay process. Slope values that are less than 4 (the least suitable because they
are too steep) as restricted so these values can be excluded. If all datasets reclassify equally
important, we could simply combine them, giving each equal influence; hover, we have
been informed that it is preferable to locate the new school close to recreational facilities
and away from other schools. You will weight all the inputs, assigning each a percentage
of influence based on previous step. The higher the percentage, the more influence a
particular input will have in the suitability model. We will assign the inputs the following
percentages of influence:
Reclassed distance to rec_sites: 20%

Reclassed distance to schools: 7%
Reclassed slope: 58%
landuse: 14%
1.8.1 Weighted Overlay
Steps:
1. Open the weighted Overlay tool.

2. Type 1, 10, and 1 in the From, To, and By text boxes.
• The default evaluation scale is from 1 to 9 by 1. A scale of 1 to 10 was used when
reclassifying datasets, so before adding input rasters to the weighted Overlay tool,
we want to set the evaluation scale from 1 to 10 by 1. This means we will avoid
having to update the scale values after adding your input datasets.
3. Click Apply.
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4. Add the Reclassed slope to the weighted Overlay tool.

• The raster is added to the weighted Overlay Table. The Field column displays the
values of the Reclassed slope data. The Scale Value column mimics the Field
column because the Evaluation scale was set to encompass the range of values in
each input raster. We could modify the Scale Values for each class at this point, but
for this input, the values were already weighted appropriately at the time of
reclassifying.
5. Repeat the previous step for each of the reclassified datasets including Reclassed
distance to recreation sites and Reclassed distance to schools.
6. For the Reclassed slope input, in the Scale Value column, click the cell with a value of
1.
7. Click the drop-down arrow, scroll, and then click Restricted.
8. As you know we don't want to build on slopes greater than about 33 percent, even if
all other conditions are ideal. We'll make values from 1 to 3 restricted, since these
values represent slopes from 33.431043 to 47.758633 (the maximum slope).
9. Add the land use layer, this time setting the Input field to LANDUSE. Click OK.
• You will now weight the scale values of the landuse layer so they are comparable
with the other inputs. A lower value indicates that a particular land-use type is less
suitable for building.
10. Change the default Scale Values for the landuse layer to the following values:
• Shrub---5
• Barren land---10
• Built up---3
• Agriculture---9
• Forest---4
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11. We'll now assign a percentage of influence to each raster; based on how much
importance (or weight) each should have in the final suitability map.
12. In the % Influence column, type the percentages for each of the input raster’s:
• Reclassed distance to schools to 7
• Reclassed distance to recreation sites to 20
• Reclassed slope to 58
• land use to 15
Tip: Move the mouse pointer over the name of an input raster to view the entire name.
14. Click OK.
II. Executing Weighted Overlay
Steps:
1. Click the Auto Layout button, and then click the Full View button.
2. Rename the output variable from the weighted Overlay tool to Suitable Areas, click
OK.
3. Right-click the Suitable Areas variable and click Add to Display.
4. Run the weighted Overlay tool.
• Examine the layer added to ArcMap display. Locations with higher values indicate
more suitable sites areas that are on less steep slopes of suitable land-use types,
closer to recreational facilities, and away from existing schools. Notice that the
areas we marked as restricted have a value of zero.
1.9 Selecting optimal sites
On our layer, each pixel has a value that indicates how suitable that location is for a new
school. Pixels with the value of 9 are most suitable, and pixels with the value of 0 are not
suitable. Therefore, the optimal site location for a new school has the value of 9. Another
criterion for an optimal location is the size of the suitable area. A suitable location would
include several pixels with value of 9 being connected.
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1.9.1 Extract optimal sites using the Con tool
You will use a conditional expression in the Con tool to extract only the optimal sites. It
has been decided that those sites that are considered optimal must have a suitability value
of 9 (the highest value in the suit areas output). In the conditional expression, all areas with
a value of 9 will retain their original value (9). Areas with a value of less than 9 will be
changed to NoData.
Steps:
1. Click and drag the Con tool, located in the Conditional toolset, into ModelBuilder.
2. Open the Con tool.
3. Click the Input Conditional Raster value drop-down arrow, click the Suitable Areas
variable.
4. Type the condition Value = 9 for the value of the Expression parameter.
5. Click the Input true raster or constant value drop-down arrow and click the Suitable
Areas variable. If the condition we enter is true, then the value of the cells of the Input
true raster or constant value will be applied to the cells of the output raster.
6. Leave the value for the Input false raster or constant value parameter blank. Leaving
the Input false raster or constant value parameter blank will apply the default. The
default is that if any value in the Input conditional raster that doesn't meet the
condition, we enter will be assigned NoData in the output raster.
8. Click OK.
9. Click the Auto Layout button, and then click the Full View button.
10. Rename the output variable from the Con tool to optimal areas and click OK.
11. Right-click optimal areas and click add To Display.
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12. Run the Con tool.
Examine the layer added to your ArcMap display. These are the optimal site locations for
the new school. There are many single cells representing optimal locations. These 30-
meter cells are too small for the school site. You will clean up the result, removing these
small areas, using the Majority Filter tool.
1.9.2 Refine the optimal areas using Majority Filter tool
Steps:
1. Click the Majority Filter tool, located in the Spatial Analyst Tools Toolbox
Generalization toolset, and add it to ModelBuilder.
2. Open the Majority Filter tool.
3. Click the Input raster drop-down arrow and click the optimal areas raster variable.
4. Accept the default Output raster parameter.
5. Click the Number of neighbors to use drop-down arrow and click EIGHT.
• This option specifies the number of neighboring cells to use in the kernel of the
filter. The kernel of the filter will be the eight nearest neighbors (a 3-by-3 cell
window) to the present cell.
6. Accept the default to use the MAJORITY as the Replacement threshold. Using
MAJORITY as the Replacement threshold means five out of eight connected cells
must have the same value for the present cell to retain its value.
7. Click OK.
8. Rename the output variable from the Majority Filter tool to Filtered optimal areas.
9. Right-click the Filtered optimal areas and click Add To Display.
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10. Run the Majority Filter tool.

11. On the toolbar, click the Save button and close your model.
Examine the layer added to wer ArcMap display. Compare Filtered optimal areas and
optimal areas. Many optimal areas that are considered too small in area have been
removed.
Note: If we want to remove areas of multiple cells, use the Nibble tool also located in
the generalization toolset.
• The section of our model will look like the following:
1.9.3 Selecting the best site
We have discovered the optimal sites for building the new school. All the locations in the
Filtered optimal areas layer are suitable. The last step in this exercise is to locate the best
site out of the alternatives. Then you will locate the best site based on area. An optimal
school site is 20000 square meters square meters. You will first convert the Filtered
optimal areas raster to a feature class inside a geo database so you can use the area field
that is generated. You will use the select Layer by Attribute tool identify the optimal site
from the alternatives, based on area.
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I. Rasterizing
Steps:
1. Open the Raster to Polygon tool in the Conversion Tools toolbox, inside the From
Raster toolset.
2. Click the Input raster drop-down arrow and click the Filtered optimal areas raster
layer.
3. Leave the default for the Field parameter as VALUE.
4. Accept the default Output polygon features parameter path, but change the name
5. Leave the default checked to Simplify polygons. The polygons will be simplified to
reduce the stair-step effect when a raster is converted to a polygon.
6. Click OK.
II. Select Layer by Attribute

Steps:
1. Open the Select Layer by Attribute tool in the Data Management toolbox, Layers
and Table Views toolset.
2. For the Layer Name of Table View, select opt_area from the drop-down list.
3. For the Selection type parameter, choose NEW_SELECTION.
4. Click the query builder button.
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Now we have located a new site with 20000 square meters for School according to the
city urban office.
Optimal site for school site
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Site Selection Analysis Using Vector data
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2.1.1 Case Study
Dire Dawa Health bureau officials decided to build new hospital, when building a new
hospital, there are criteria that should be followed in order to find the most appropriate
location. These criteria consist of required proximities or distances from certain features.
Suppose, as a town planner, you have been assigned the task of finding the potential sites
for new hospital construction.
2.1.2 Description
In this exercise, you will able to develop suitable areas for hospital construction in Dire
Dawa city based on Vector spatial Analysis. Necessary input data are:
Road Feature class representing the roads over the area
Existing Hospital Feature class representing the existing hospital in the study area
Residential area Feature class representing residential areas over the city
Study Area Indicate the extent of the Area
2.2 Buffering
Buffer is a zone around a map feature measured in units of distance or time. A buffer is
useful
for proximity analysis. In this exercise you need to buffer each of the shapefiles in order
to make them meet the criteria for hospital site selection.
Tip: find area of road and residential within 100 meter surrounding the city and 500 meters
away from Existing hospitals.
Steps:
1. Add Exsisting_hospital, residential and roads from your data directory
2. From the Analysis tools of ArcToolbox expand the Proximity toolset,
3. Double Click on the Buffer tool element from the proximity toolset
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4. Select Road as input layers.

5. In the Output feature class options save the output data.
6. Set the distance field to 100 meters.
7. Click-Ok When you finish.
• Repeat this with each of the remaining shapefiles, setting the distance based on the
criteria stated above.
2.3 Merging Shapefiles
Now that road and residential shapefiles have been buffered to only show the portions that
are applicable for hospital site selection, we need to merge these shapefiles with criteria to
be within a certain distance (residential, and road).
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Steps:
1. From the Data Management tools of ArcToolbox expand the General toolset,
2. Double Click on the Merge tool element from the General toolset
3. Select Road and residential as input Dataset.

4. In the Output feature class options save the output data.
5. Click-Ok When you finish.
2.4 Erase
You have to exclude the land that is within a certain distance of existing hospitals; we must
remove these areas from the shapefile we created in the previous step.
Steps:
1. From the ArcToolbox window expand the Analysis Tools toolbox
2. Expand the Overlay toolset
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3. Double click on the Erase tool

4. In the coming erase dialogue box
5. In the Input features dialogue box; use the dropdown arrow and select Shapefile
created in the previous step as an input data set.
6. In the Erase Features select Existing hospital 500km buffer using the dropdown arrow
Click on the browse fodder icon and store the output feature class
7. Click ok when finished.
2.5 Clipping
Clipping allows you to turn one Shapefile into a cookie cutter in order to cut out part of a
larger Shapefile. In the following exercise you extract suitable hospital site found in Dire
Dawa.
Steps:
1. From the ArcToolbox Window, Expand the “Analysis” tools.
2. Expand the Extract toolset on “Clip” tool element.
In the input Clip dialog box do the following arrangements.
a. In the input Features, use the dropdown arrow and select suitable hospital site
b. In the Clip Features box, use the dropdown arrow and select “Dire_Dawa”
c. In the output feature class option, click on the browse folder and save the data
d. Click OK when you finish
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Final accepted area shapefile
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Finding an alternate access route
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3.1.1 Case Study
Assuming you are hired as GIS expert in the Haromaya woreda Transport Authority, the
office finds out a problem on the road which takes from bate to Harar city which there is
a huge traffic jam in Awady Town, causes wastage of fuels and air pollution as well it
increases stress and frustration among motorists and passengers. Unsafe driving was
observed as a main impact of traffic jam which may lead to road mishaps and hence
injuries, as a GIS expert you are asked to find alternate access route in this Area.
Our input data set are:

Land use Raster dataset representing the land-use types over the area
DEM Raster dataset representing the elevation of the area to drive Slope
Destination Point Feature class representing point locations of where Traffic Jam
ends
3.1.2 Description
In this exercise, you'll find the best route for a new access road from the Bate Town
location site to a nearby road intersection. The steps you might follow to produce such a
path are outlined below.
• Create the source dataset if necessary. The source is the Bate Town.
• Create the cost dataset by deciding which datasets are required, reclassifying them to a
common measurement scale, weighting them, then combining them.
• Perform cost distance analysis using the source and cost datasets as inputs. The distance
dataset created from this tool is a raster in which the value of each cell is the accumulated
cost of traveling from each cell back to the source.
1. To find the least costly path, you need a direction dataset, which can be created as an
additional dataset using the Cost Distance tool. This gives you a raster of the direction of
the least costly path from each cell back to the source (in this exercise, Bate Town).
• Create the destination dataset if necessary. In this exercise, the destination dataset is a
point at a road junction.
• Perform cost path analysis using the distance and direction datasets created with the Cost
Distance tool.
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3.2 Creating a new model
You will create a new model, Find Best Route, inside our Site Analysis Tools toolbox. This
model will calculate the best path through the landscape from the source (Bate Town) to
the destination point, taking into consideration the slope of the land and the type of land
use the path will cross.
I. Setting up the model

Steps:
1. Right-click the Site Analysis Tools toolbox and click New > Model.
2. Renaming the model
Steps:
1. On the main menu, click Model → Model Properties.
Note: The model properties and environments will be set as they’re in the previous
exercise.
2. Click the General tab and type FindRoute in the Name text box.
3. Type Find Best Route in the Label text box.
4. Check Store relative path names (instead of absolute paths)
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3.3 Creating the cost dataset
Initially you will create and Import the source dataset such as Bate Town and a slope
dataset. Next you will create the cost dataset that will identify the cost of traveling over
the landscape from any location back to the bate town, based on the fact that it is costlier
to traverse steep slopes and construct a road on certain land-use types.
This section of your model will look like the following:

Steps:
1. Add Slope Output to our model.
2. Locate the Reclassify tool and add it to ModelBuilder in line with Slope Output.
3. Click the Add Connection tool. Use the connect tool to connect Slope Output to the
Reclassify tool.
4. Click the Select tool on the model toolbar.
II. Reclassifying slope
It is preferable that the new road traverses on less steep slopes. You will reclassify the
Slope Output layer, slicing the values into equal intervals. We’ll assign a value of 5 to the
costliest slopes (those with the steepest angle of slope) and 1 to the least costly slopes
(those with the least angle of slope) and rank the values in between linearly.
Steps:
1. Open the Reclassify tool.
3. Click Classify.
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4. Click the Method drop-down arrow and click Equal Interval.

5. Click the Classes drop-down arrow and click 5.
• We want to avoid steep slopes when constructing the road, so steep slopes should
be assigned higher values in the cost dataset. Because the default assigns higher
values to steeper slopes, we do not need to change the default new values.
6. Click OK.
8. Click OK.
9. Rename the output variable from the Reclassify tool to Reclassed slope.
10. Right-click the Reclassify tool and click Run.
III. Weighting and combining datasets
Now we will combine the Reclassed slope and Land use datasets to produce a dataset of
the cost of building a road through each location in the landscape, in terms of steepness of
slope and land-use type. In this model, each dataset has equal weight.
Steps:
1. Locate the weighted Overlay tool in to ModelBuilder in line with Reclassed slope.
2. Open the weighted Overlay tool.
• The default evaluation scale is from 1 to 9 by 1. A scale of 1 to 5 will be used when
reclassifying the slope dataset, so before adding input rasters to the tool, we'll set
the evaluation scale from 1 to 5 by 1. This means we will avoid having to update
the scale values after adding your input slope dataset.
3. Type 1, 5, and 1 in the From, To, and By text boxes.
4. Click Apply.
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5. Click the Add raster row button. This time, add the landuse layer. Set the Input field
to Land use and click OK.
6. You will weigh the scale values of the land use layer so they are comparable with our
Reclassed slope dataset. A higher value indicates that it is costlier to build a road
through a particular land-use type.
7. Type the following Scale Values:
Shrub—3
Barren land—1
Built up—5
Agriculture—2
Forest—4
8. You will now assign an equal percentage of influence to each raster, since they are
both equally important in this analysis. Click Set Equal Influence to assign an equal
percentage of influence (50 percent each) to each input raster.
9. Accept the default for the Output Raster.
10. Click OK.
3.4 Finding the least costly path
To find the least costly path between the bate town, and the destination site, the Cost
Distance tool and the Cost Path tool will be used. There are two outputs from the Cost
Distance tool. The Output distance raster shows the accumulated cost of traveling from
any location (or cell) to the source (bate town). It does not contain information on which
way to travel from a particular cell to the source, just how much it will cost to get there
following the least costly path. The Output backlink raster shows which way to travel from
any cell, following the least costly path back to the source. Using these outputs as inputs
to the Cost Path tool, along with input destination data, you will calculate the least cost
path between the bate town and the destination site.
Steps:
1. Add the Bate Town and the destination layers to ModelBuilder.
2. Add the Cost Distance and the Cost Path tools to ModelBuilder.
• Both the Cost Distance and the Cost Path tools are located in the Spatial Analyst
Tools toolbox in the Distance toolset.
3. Use the Add Connection tool to connect Bate Town and Cost surface to the Cost
Distance tool.
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4. Rename the Output distance raster variable to Output cost distance and rename the
Output backlink raster variable to Output cost backlink.
5. Use the Add Connection tool to connect destination, Output cost distance, and Output
cost backlink to the Cost Path tool.
6. Rename Output raster to Output cost path.
II. Setting Cost Distance parameters

You will now run the Cost Distance tool using the cost dataset we just created (which
identifies the cost of traveling through each cell) and the Bate town layer (the source). The
outputs from this tool are a distance dataset in which each cell contains a value
representing the accumulated least cost of traveling from that cell to the source and a
backlink dataset that gives the direction of the least costly path from each cell back to the
source.
Steps:
1. Open the Cost Distance tool.
2. Confirm that the Input raster or feature source data is the Bate Town layer and that the
Input cost raster is Cost surface variable.
3. Accept the defaults for the Output distance raster and the Maximum distance.
4. Type cost_bklink for the name of the Output backlink raster.
• By default, the path to the scratch workspace (your output database) will
automatically be appended in front of the dataset name we just entered for the
Output backlink raster.
5. Click OK.
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III. Setting Cost Path parameters

The Cost Distance tool outputs a distance raster and a backlink raster, each of which are
used in the Cost Path tool. The destination layer was provided, and the layer is the starting
point for the new road to the school site.
Steps:
1. Hover over the Cost Path tool to verify that the parameters have the correct input
datasets.
• Input raster or feature source: data is set to the destination layer.
• Input cost distance raster: is set to the Output cost distance variable.
• Input cost backlink raster: is set to the Output cost backlink variable.
2. Accept the default for the Output raster, the Path type, and the Destination field
parameters.
• When the input feature destination data is processed, it will be converted temporarily
to a raster as part of the processing. There will only be one cell in this raster, because there
is only one destination point. The value for the Path type parameter can be left as
EACH_CELL. Only one path will be created, since there is only one cell.
IV. Running the cost distance analysis
Steps:
1. Right-click the Output cost distance, Output cost backlink, and Output cost path
variables and click Add To Display.
2. Run the Find Best Route model.
• Examine the layers added to our ArcMap display. The Output cost path layer represents
the least costly path from Bate Town to the destination point. It avoids steep slopes and
certain land-use types that are considered costlier for constructing the road.
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3.5 Raster to Poly line

I. Set parameters for Raster to Polyline
As a last step in our model, you will convert the raster path to a polyline for display.
Steps:
1. Remove the created layers Slope output, Reclassed slope, Cost surface, Output cost
distance, and Output cost backlink.
2. Add the Raster to Polyline tool to ModelBuilder. The Raster to Polyline tool is in the
Conversion Tools toolbox in the From Raster toolset.
3. Open the Raster To Polyline tool.
4. Click the Input raster drop-down arrow and select the Output cost path variable.
5. Leave the Field parameter as VALUE.
6. Type new_route for the Name of the feature class and click Save.
7. Accept the defaults for all other parameters and click OK.
II. Run Raster to Polyline

Steps:
1. Click the Auto Layout button, and then click the Full View button .
2. Rename the new_route output variable to Output route.
3. Right-click the Output route variable and click Add To Display.
4. Run the Raster to Polyline tool.
• Examine the new_route layer that is added to our ArcMap display. The raster path
has been converted to a polyline.
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Map with the polyline representing the new route
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Watershed delineation Using Hydrology Tool
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4.1.1 Introduction to hydrology in GIS
GIS is capable of combining large volumes of data from a variety of sources, it is a useful
tool for many aspects of water resources investigation and is emerging as a significant
support tool for hydrologic modeling. In GIS we typically simplify hydrological systems
by assuming overland flow (no water absorbed by soils) and channeled flow (flow
converges). Typically, we derive flow direction, check for sinks, calculate flow
accumulation and derive channel network and catchments.
4.1.2 Case Study
Imagine that you have just been hired by the Dugda Bora office of water resource. During
the briefing on your first day of work, you assign to derive flow direction, check for sinks,
calculate flow accumulation and derive channel network and catchments select in. You are
quite unfamiliar with Hydrology analysis in GIS so you will have to catch up quickly. The
aim of this exercise is to make you familiar with the basics of GIS hydrology tool and, in
particular, to introduce you to ArcHydro Tool.
Our input data set are:

DEM as input, to automatically delineate a drainage system and quantify the
characteristics of the system
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4.1.3 Description
In this exercise, you will able to identify sinks, determine flow direction, calculate flow
accumulation, delineate watersheds, and create stream networks. The hydrologic modeling
tools in the ArcGIS Spatial Analyst extension toolbox provide methods for describing the
physical components of a surface.
4.2 DEM Data Preparation
In this exercise, you will become familiar with the generation of river rout files and
watershed files using DEM data. The raster data DEM that was saved in your working
directory will be used in this exercise to delineate the river route and water shed.
4.3 Fill
In GIS we typically simplify hydrological systems by assuming overland flow (no water
absorbed by soils) and channeled flow (flow converges) so we cheek for sinks, sinks are
A local minimum (depression) in a surface representation.
In GIS Two basic strategies use as to remove sinks:
(1) Find the nearest adjacent cell with elevation the same as or lower than the sink hard
code a flow direction to it (radial search)
(2) Increase the elevation of the sink to that of a neighbouring cell check neighbouring cell
then drains (sink filling) (ArcGIS approach)
Steps:
1. Add the DEM data from your working directory

2. Display the Arc Tools window if it is hidden.
3. Expand the toolbox of Spatial Analyst
4. Expand the toolbox of Hydrology
5. Open the Fill tool then the Fill window will appear.
6. In the Fill window, set the necessary factors as follows
• Input surface raster: DEM
• Location of output surface raster
• Name of the output surface raster: Fill
7. Click the OK button.
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Time needed for the process depends on the size of the DEM data you use. A new raster
data Fill will be added into the data frame. The new raster data looks just like the base data
of DEM.
4.4 Flow direction

Flow direction: Inferred direction of water flow given a surface representation. We will
use flow direction as a starting point, the 8-point pour algorithm specifies the following
eight
possible directions, sometimes 255 would indicate sinks (they are none since the grid has
been filled).
1 = east 2 = southeast
4 = south 8 = southwest
16 = west 32 = northwest
64 = north 128 = northeast
Steps:
1. In the same toolbox of Hydrology
2. Open the Flow Direction tool.
3. The Flow in the Flow Direction, window set the necessary factors as follows:
4. Direction window will appear.
• Input surface raster: fill Location of output surface raster in your working
directory
• Name of the output surface raster: flowdir
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The process of flow direction calculation is much faster than the process of filling; within
several seconds the process will complete, a new raster data will be added into the data
frame.
4.5 Flow Accumulation
Total flow accumulated at a given point on a surface equivalent to the drainage area
upstream of a given point. Flow accumulation is then calculated as the sum of upstream
elements draining to a cell for every cell count how many neighbors drain to it. When we
calculate flow accumulation for a cell, we can also calculate catchment boundary for that
cell.
• From the legend of the layer flow accumulation, you will find that the values in nodes
of this raster data layer changes in a range from 0 to over 30,000; the value here
indicates the number of nodes upstream. Therefore, it is possible to estimate that
nodes with relatively large value are main rivers. Cells with high flow accumulation,
greater than a user-defined threshold value, are considered part of a stream network.
Steps:
1. In the same Hydrology toolbox
2. Open the Flow Accumulation tool.
3. The Flow Accumulation window will appear.
4. In the Flow Accumulation window, set the necessary factors as follows:
• Input flow direction raster: flowdir
• Location of output surface raster you’re working directory/ Geodatabase
• Name of the output surface raster: flowacc
6. The process of flow accumulation calculation is also relatively fast, it takes several
seconds.
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• When the process has completed, anew raster data flowacc will be added into the data
frame.
4.6 River Route Delineating
4.6.1 Reclassification
Steps:
1. Click on spatial Analyst tool
2. Release the Reclass tool under spatial Analyst The reclassify window will appear
3. Select Flowacc as input raster
4. Click Classify... button.
• The Classification window will appear. The classification here should be set depending
on your purpose of river route delineation. Very small values don’t actually represent a
real river route, but give you an indication of how many nodes are upstream. Also,
different values represent different ranks of rivers. Therefore, you might have to try
changing the setting for classes several times to complete the procedure of
reclassification. In this exercise we simply set the Classes as 3 and the Break Values for
each class as 500, 5000 and the maximum value of your target layer. Click the OK button.
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I. Changing the properties

1. Open the Properties of layer Reclass flow1
2. Open the Symbology tab
3. Set no color for Class 1; light blue for Class 2 and red for Class 3.
4. Close the Properties window.
5. Zoom in to a scale you can easily check the result.
6. You will find your classification result
4.6.2 Stream to feature
Steps:
1. In the same Hydrology toolbox
2. Open the Stream to Feature tool.
3. The Stream to Feature window will appear
4. In the Stream to Feature window, set the necessary factors as follows:
• Input stream raster: Reclass flow1
• Location of output surface raster in your working directory or Geodatabase
• Name of the output surface raster: River
6. The process of stream to feature conversion takes few minutes
4.6.3 Selection by Attribute

Steps:
1. Click the Selection menu
2. Click Select By Attributes.
3. The query builder (Select by Attributes) window will appear.
4. Make sure the layer is the target layer
5. Input the following expression into the textbox of query builder:
“GRID_CODE”>=2 >
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4.6.4 Export the result

Steps:
1. Right-click the layer
2. Click Data
3. Click Export Data
4. In the Export Data window, make sure the contents of Export are selected features
5. Set the output location to working directory or geodatabase.
6. Type the name of output shape
8. After the new layer is added into the data frame, inactivate the layer of River.
4.7 River Basin Delineating
Steps:
1. In the same Hydrology toolbox open the Basin tool. The Basin tool window will
appear.
2. In the window, set the necessary factors as follows:
• Location of Output: you’re working directory or Geodatabase
• Name of Output: basin
4. The delineate result will be added into the data frame
5. Open the Properties window of the new layer
6. Click the Symbology tab
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7. Set the Show as Unique

8. Click the Add All Values button
9. Select a Color Scheme as you like
11. The water shed (river basin) calculation result will be shown.
4.7.1 Basin to Polygon

Steps:
1. Expand the Conversion toolbox
2. Expand From Raster
3. Open the Raster to Polygon tool.
4. The Raster to Polygon window will appear.
5. In the window, set the necessary factors as follows:
• Input raster: basin
• Field (optional): Value (this setting is performed by ArcGIS automatically)
• Location of Output: you’re working directory or Geodatabase
6. Name of Output: BasinPloygon
• Within a very short while the process will be complete and the new layer Basin
Ploygon will be added into the data frame. Those polygons with a very small
area are actually slivers. You can confirm them by selecting one of them and
zoom in to it. You can clip the basin based on the boundary.
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Delineated Basin with stream feature
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Watershed delineation using Arc Hydro Tools
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5.1 About ArcHydro tool
The Arc Hydro tools are a set of public domain utilities developed on top of the Arc Hydro
data model. They operate in the ArcGIS environment. Some of the functions require the
Spatial Analyst extension.
The tools are accessed through the Arc Hydro Tools toolbar, where they are grouped by
functions into six menus, and seven buttons.
Menus
• Terrain Preprocessing: functions dealing with Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

processing. They are mostly used once in order to prepare spatial information for
later use.
• Terrain Morphology: functions dealing with non-dendritic terrain’s preparation

for further processing.
• Watershed Processing: functions dealing with watershed and sub watershed

delineation, and basin characteristic determination. They operate on top of the
spatial data prepared in the terrain preprocessing stage.
• Attribute Tools: functions allowing generating key attributes (fields) in the Arc
Hydro data model. Some of the tools require the existence of a geometric network.
• Network Tools: functions allowing generating or manipulating properties of

geometric (hydro) network.
• ApUtilities: functions allowing managing Arc Hydro project properties. In

general, they will be seldom used.
Buttons and Tools
• Flow Path Tracing
• Interactive Flow Path Tracing
• Point Delineation
• Delineare using EPA Web Service
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• Batch Point Generation
• Assign Related Identifier
• Global Point Delineation
• Trace by NextDownID Attribute
The tools have two key purposes. The first purpose is to manipulate (assign) key attributes
in the Arc Hydro data model. These attributes form the basis for further analyses. They
include the key identifiers (such as HydroID, DrainID, NextDownID, etc.) and the
measure attributes (such as LengthDown). The second purpose for the tools is to provide
some core functionality often used in water resources applications. This includes DEM-
based watershed delineation, network generation, and attribute-based tracing.
The functionality of Arc Hydro tools is expected to grow over time. They have been
implemented in a way that allows easy addition to their functionality, either internally (by
adding additional code) or externally, by providing additional functionality using key Arc
Hydro data structures.
5.2 Description
Different hydrologic modeling involves delineating streams and watersheds, and getting
some
basic watershed properties such as area, slope, flow length, stream network density, etc.
Traditionally this was (and still is!) being done manually by using topographic/contour
maps.
With the availability of digital elevation models (DEM) and GIS tools, watershed
properties
can be extracted by using automated procedures. The processing of DEM to delineate
watersheds is referred to as terrain pre-processing. We will use Arc Hydro tools to process
a DEM to delineate watershed, sub-watersheds, stream network and some other watershed
characteristics that collectively describe the drainage patterns of a basin. Thus, the purpose
of this training is in order to give a high light about how to delineate watersheds using
ArcGIS software.
The prime Objective of this Exercise is to create watershed boundaries from raster digital
elevation model datasets and analyze stream networks characteristics within those
boundaries
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Computer Requirements You must have a computer with windows operating system, and
the following programs installed:
1. ArcGIS
2. Arc Hydro tool
5.3 Getting Started
• Create Hydro Personal Geodatabase

• First create a Personal Geodatabase:
Steps
1. Go to ArcCatalog.
2. Create Folder
3. Right-click on the folder and select New->Personal Geodatabase.
4. Rename the Geodatabase. (WSA)
5. Create and save folder

6. Create and save project., Start ArcMap.
• Display the Arc Hydro toolbar.
Steps
1. Set the Target locations (paths where the data will be saved) by selecting Set Target
Locations… from the ApUtilities menu on the ArcHydro toolbar.
2. Choose the Hydro configuration (HydroConfig), check the Map Level checkbox (to
apply the changes to this data frame) and set the paths to your folder, as displayed in
Figure below.
3. Click OK
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• Add the files and x.shp to the data frame using the Add Data button.
• Save the ArcMap document in your working directory.
5.3.1 Set Projection
Steps:
1. Project the image using the specified zone and hemisphere. If the image is new
and not projected you should do it as follows.
2. Go to Arc tool box → data management tools → projection and transformation
→ Raster → Project raster.
3. When ‘define projection’ window popup adds an image by locating in your folder
that you same it’s in.
4. Locate your data under’ Input data set → ‘specify the ‘coordinate system’ in to
projected coordinate system→ northern hemisphere → UTM → UTM
_WGS1984_Zone 37N proj. → Add → OK.
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Watershed delineation in ARCGIS environment with an extension of Arc hydro software

that which can be downloaded freely from ESRI website and it can be easily installed in
to your ARCGIS software ware involves the following procedures.
5.3.2 Fill
This function fills the sinks in a grid. If cells with higher elevation surround a cell, the
water is trapped in that cell and cannot flow. The fill sinks function modifies the elevation
value to eliminate these problems; [3].
Steps
1. Go to Terrain Preprocessing > DEM Manipulation > Fill Sinks.
2. The output of the Hydro DEM is Fil. The default name of the output cans be
overwritten by the user.
3. Click “Fill All” button and then Click OK.
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5.3.3 Flow Direction
This function computes the flow direction for a given grid. The values in the cells of the
flow direction grid indicate the direction of the steepest descent from that cell [3].
This step defines the direction of the steepest descent for each terrain cell. Similar to a
compass, the 8-point pour algorithm specifies the following eight possible directions:
1 = east, 2 = southeast,
4 = south, 8 = southwest,
16 = west, 32 = northwest,
64 = north, 128 = northeast.
Steps
1. Go to Terrain Preprocessing > Flow Direction
2. Confirm that the input of the Hydro DEM is Fil. The output of the Flow Direction
Grid is Fdr.
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3. Click OK
5.3.4 Flow Accumulation
This step determines the number of upstream cells from any given cell. Upstream drainage
area at a given cell can be calculated by multiplying the flow accumulation value with the
cell area. This function computes the flows accumulation grid that contains the
accumulated number of cells upstream of a cell, for each cell in the input grid [3].
Steps
1. Go to Terrain Preprocessing > Flow Accumulation.
2. Confirm that the input of the Flow Direction Grid is Fdr. The output of the Flow
Accumulation Grid is Fac.
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5.3.5 Stream Definition
This function computes a stream grid which contains a value of stream for all the cells in
the
input flow accumulation grid that have a value greater than the given threshold. All other
cells in the stream grid contain no data. The step classifies all cells with flow accumulation
greater than the user-defined threshold as cells belonging to the stream network [3]
Steps
1. Go to Terrain Preprocessing > Stream Definition
2. Confirm that the input of the Flow Accumulation Grid is Fac. The output of the
Stream Grid is Str.
3. Click OK
• Accept the default stream threshold to initiate streams with an upstream drainage
of 4851 cells.
Note: that the information tip serves as a guide for the user in specifying the threshold by
stating the total drainage area as number of cells or as sq.km, depending on the location of
the cursor.
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5.3.6 Stream Segmentation
This step divides the stream into segments. Stream segments or links are the sections of a
stream that connects two successive junctions, a junction and an outlet, or a junction and
the drainage divide. This function creates a grid of stream segments that have a unique
identification. Either a segment may be a head segment, or it may be defined as a segment
between two junctions. All the cells in a particular segment have the same grid code that
is specific to that segment [3].
Steps
1. Go to Terrain Preprocessing > Stream Segmentation
2. Confirm that the input of the Flow Direction Grid is Fdr and Stream Grid is Str.
The output of the Stream Link Grid is StrLnk.
3. Click OK.
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5.3.7 Catchment Grid Delineation
This step delineates a sub-basin for every stream segment. It determines the outline of the
catchments within the SRTM data area using the stream definition files. This function
creates a grid in which each cell carries a value (grid code) indicating to which catchment
the cell belongs. The value corresponds to the value carried by the stream segment that
drains that area, defined in the stream segment link grid [3].
Steps:
1. Go to Terrain Preprocessing > Catchment Grid Delineation
2. Confirm that the input of the Flow Direction Grid is Fdr and Link Grid is StrLnk.
The output of the Catchment Grid is Cat.
3. Click OK
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5.3.8 Catchment Polygon Processing

This step converts sub basin in the grid representation into the vector representation. This
function converts a catchment grid into a catchment polygon feature. The watershed
polygon processing operation vectorized the grid- based sub- basins into polygon sub-
basins [3].
Steps:
1. Go to Terrain Preprocessing → Catchment Polygon Processing
2. Confirm that the input of the Catchment Grid is Cat. The output of the Catchment
is Catchment.
3. Click OK
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5.3.9 Drainage Line Processing
This step converts stream in the grid representation into the vector representation. This
function converts the input stream link grid into a Drainage line feature class. Each line in
the feature class carries the identifier of the catchment in which it resides [3].
Steps:
1. Go to Terrain Preprocessing > Drainage Line Processing
2. Confirm that the input of the Stream Link Grid is StrLnk and Flow Direction Grid
is Fdr.
3. The output of the Drainage Line is DrainageLine.
4. Click OK
5.3.10 Adjoint Catchment Processing

This step aggregates the tributary sub-basins at every stream confluence. This function
generates the aggregated upstream catchments from the “Catchment” feature class. For
each catchment that is not a head catchment a polygon representing the whole upstream
area draining to its inlet point is constructed and stored in a feature class that has an
“Adjoint Catchment “tag. This feature class is used to speed up the point delineation
process [3].
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Steps:
1. Go to Terrain Preprocessing > Adjoint Catchment Processing.
2. Confirm that the input of the Drainage Line is DrainageLine and Catchment is
Catchment.
3. The output of the Adjoint Catchment is AdjointCatchment.
4. Click OK
5.3.11 Drainage Point Processing
This step is used to create a drainage point at the most downstream point in the catchment
(center of a grid cell with the largest value in the flow accumulation grid for that
catchment) [3].
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Steps:
1. Go to Terrain Preprocessing > Drainage Point Processing
2. Confirm that the input of the Flow Accumulation Grid is Fac, Catchment Grid is
Cat, and Catchment is Catchment.
3. The output of the Drainage Point is DrainagePoint.
4. Click OK
5.3.12 Point Delineation
This helps to delineate a watershed for a user specified point (interactive) based on the
preprocessed DEM [3]
Steps:
1. Click on the Point Delineation icon in the ArcHydro toolbar to activate the
tool.
2. Confirm that the input of the Flow Direction Grid is Fdr, Stream Grid is
Str,Catchment is Catchment, Adjoint Catchment is Adjoint Catchment, and
Watershed is Watershed.
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3. The output of the Watershed Point is Watershed Point.

4. Click OK
5. Click on the Drainage Line of the main stream approximately on the same location.
6. In the Snap Point Dialog box, Select Yes – snap and a proper Snap Distance, to
ensure that the point you selected will snap to the drainage line at that point.
7. In the Point Definition Dialog box enter Watershed as Name.
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This Exercise demonstrates how to delineate watershed. The described watershed

delineation methodology can be used for many spatial analysis functions such as;
identifying the area for hydrologic modeling, storm analysis, and flood analysis.
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Network Analysis
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6.1.1 Case Study
Assume that you have a meeting somewhere far from your resident for 3 days, and you
know that there is a huge traffic jam on the area so you think to line out the shortest path
which takes to your destination based on your travel time. In addition, you want to have a
room (hotel) after finishing the meeting for those three days so you want to know the
distance that can be reached from a facility within a specified amount of time. These
questions can be answered by network analysis.
Your input data set are:
Road To identify the shortest path for your destination
Hotel location To construct service area polygon
6.1.2 Description
In this Exercise you will find the best route for the given order of stops based on travel
time and you will create a series of polygons representing the distance that can be reached
from a facility within a specified amount of time. These polygons are known as service
area polygons.
6.2 Concept of Network Analysis
A network is essentially a set of lines known as segments or edges connected or joined by
a set of vertices known as nodes or junctions. A GIS stores these edge and junction features
with their attributes. ArcGIS Network Analyst provides network-based spatial analysis
tools for solving complex routing problems. It uses a configurable transportation network
data model, allowing organizations to accurately represent their unique network
requirements.
A Network dataset is a GIS dataset that is designed to support network analysis. It typically
consists of lines representing the routes of flow in the network, augmented with other
features (such as junction points), topology, and attributes that model network-relevant
properties such as impedance and capacity of flow.
What does it solve?
• Best route
• Closest facilities
• Service Area
• Origin destination cost matrix
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6.3 How to create Service area

1st You have to start with some basic points
• While you are preparing layers for network analyst cheek whether the coordinate
system of the features is in projected coordinate system to calculate geometry of
layers in attribute table.
6.3.1 Topology
• If you want network analyst to calculate and measure distances using drive time you
must have to remove overlays of polylines.
Steps:
1. Go to Edit
2. Start editing
3. Click Edit Vertices and delete Vertices
4. Take other vertices to other line
5. Right click on that vertices and finish sketch
• Next you have to consider the end point of each line is the beginning of another
lines.
Steps:
1. Go to split and Click on the junction of that line
2. Do the same for all roads
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Note: If the coordinate system of the line is in GCS you have to convert in to projected
coordinate System. Otherwise in attribute table it is impossible to calculate the geometries
for features
6.4 Adding fields to the attribute table and filling necessary data’s
6.4.1 Length
I. Adding a field to a table (Length)
Steps:
1. Open the table (right-click on the layer, Open Attribute Table)
2. Click on Options from the lower part of the spreadsheet window
3. Type = “Float”→ Ok
4. Click Add Field.
5. Write the name of the new field as Length. The New field will be added as the last
column.
II. Calculate geometry of length in meter

Steps:
1. Open the attribute table of the Remote areas
2. Right click on the heading of “area” column you have crated
3. Click on Calculate geometry option
4. Click Yes to the incoming warning popup window
5. From the calculate Geometry Dialog box, proceed to the Units option and select M by
using the dropdown arrow
6. Click OK
7. Analyze the result and close the attribute table
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6.4.2 Speed Mode

I. Adding a field to a table (Speed Mode)
Steps:
3. Type = “short intiger” → Ok
4. Click Add Field.
5. Write the name of the new field as Speed Mode. The New field will be added as the
last column.
II. Calculate the speed
In these case
• Major roads have high speed
• Local roads have medium speed
• Other roads have low speed
➢ To give the speed for the roads first we have to differentiate the roads by
selection
Step:
An attribute table can be queried (i.e. each for records) using select by attribute menu.
1. Highlight the Topology Road map in the TOC
2. From the Selection menu select “Select By Attribute”
3. In the Layer field select Topology Road
4. From the Fields list double click “Road Type”
5. Click on “=” sign on the tab
6. Click on Get Unique Values tab
7. Click on “Major roads”
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8. When finished the dialogue box should be filled out as below. Click the verify tab
and ensure that the syntax is correct.
9. Click on Apply tab and Close
6.4.3 Time
I. Adding a field to a table (Time)
Steps:
3. Type = “Double” → Ok
4. Click Add Field.
5. Write the name of the new field as Minute. The New field will be added as the last
column.
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II. Calculate the minute

Steps:
1. Right click on the Minute field name and Click field Calculator
2. In the field calculator window appeared, write the formula to compute the area by
double clicking length then dividing sign again double click on speed mode after
clicking multiplying sign then type 60
6.5 Creating Network Analyst Dataset in ArcMap

Step:
1. Go to customize then toolbar and click Network Analyst
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2. Go to your output location and right click on Topology Roads then click New
Network Dataset.
3. Tick No
4. Click Next and Click next
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5. Click Next
6. Set the unit value and Click Next
6.6 Creating Service Area Polygons

1. Go to Network Analyst; Click New Service Area
2. Then service area was generated
3. Click Network Analyst Window
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4. We have to choose facilities around which we are going to create service area polygon
5. Right click on facility and load locations
6. Select Hotels from Load From Draw dawn arrow
7. Click Ok
8. Or create A new network location

9. Go to Network Analyst tool and click Create Network Location Tool
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10. The facilities are selected

11. Right click on service area then Property
12. Go to the polygon Generation
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13. Uncheck Trim polygon and Select Disks
14. Click Analysis Setting

15. Write 300 400 500 in Default Breaks to create a polygon around Created Network
location.
16. Apply and Ok

17. The last step is click Solve
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18. To export the polygon and save separately
19. Right click on polygon then go to data and export data
6.7 Finding shortest route between two locations

Steps:
1. Go to Network Analyst tool and click draw dawn arrow
2. Select New Rout
3. Click this to Create Network Location Tool
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4. After creating two network location
5. Click Solve
Shotest path Service Area Polygon
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Geostatistical Analyst
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7.1.1 Case Study
Let as assume that one of you hired at Ethiopian metrology agency, you are responsible
for monitoring rainfall amount in Oromia. Rainfall is measured at monitoring stations
throughout the country. The rainfall levels are known for all the stations, but the rainfall
values for other (unmonitored) locations in oromiya are also of interest. Hover, due to cost
and practicality, monitoring stations cannot be placed everywhere. So, the agency gives
you a task to do optimal predictions possible by examining the relationships between all
the sample points and producing a continuous surface, standard errors (uncertainty) of
predictions, and probabilities that critical values are exceeded by using Geostatistical
Analyst.
7.1.2 Description
In this exercise, you will able to produce two continuous surfaces (maps) predicting the
values of rainfall for every location in the oromiya region from the rainfall point samples
(measurements). The first map that you create will simply use all the default options to
introduce you to the process of creating a surface from our sample points. The second map
that we produce will allow us to incorporate more of the spatial relationships that are
discovered among the points. When creating this second map, you will use the exploratory
spatial data analysis (ESDA) tools to examine your data. You will also be introduced to
some of the geostatistical options that we can use to create a surface, such as removing
trends and modeling spatial autocorrelation. By using the ESDA tools and working with
the geostatistical parameters, you will be able to create a more accurate surface. The third
surface you create will assess the probability that a critical rainfall threshold value.
Your input data set are;
Dataset Description
Oromia Zone Outline of oromiya region with zone layer
Oromia Town Major Oromia town and their Rain fall point sample in (mm)
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7.2 Creating a surface using default parameters
• Start ArcMap and enable Geostatistical Analyst To begin, start ArcMap and enable the
Geostatistical Analyst extension.
Steps:
1. Start ArcMap.
2. Click Cancel on the ArcMap - Getting Started dialog box.
• This dialog box may not open if you've previously opted not to show it.
3. On the main menu, click Customize > Extensions.
4. Check the Geostatistical Analyst check box.
5. Click Close.
I. Add the Geostatistical Analyst toolbar
Steps:
1. On the main menu, click Customize → Toolbars → Geostatistical Analyst.
• The Geostatistical Analyst toolbar is added to your ArcMap session. The extension
and toolbar only need to be enabled and added once; they will be active and present
the next time you open ArcMap.
2. We will add our data to ArcMap and alter its symbology.
Steps:
1. Click the Add Data button on the Standard toolbar.
2. Navigate to the folder where datas are found.
3. Double-click the Rain_fall.gdb geodatabase to see its contents.
4. Press the Ctrl key and choose the oromia_Town and oromia_Zone datasets.
5. Click Add.
6. Right-click the oromia_Zone layer legend (the box below the layer's name) in the table
of contents and click No Color.
7. Double-click the Oromia_Town layer's name in the table of contents.
8. In the Layer Properties dialog, click the Symbology tab.
9. In the Show box, click Quantities and click Graduated colors.
10. In the Fields box, set the Value to Rain_Fall. Choose the White to Black color ramp.
11. Click ok
12. On the main menu, click File > Save.
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II. Create a surface using the default options

Steps:
1. Click the Geostatistical Analyst arrow on the Geostatistical Analyst toolbar and click
Geostatistical Wizard.
The Geostatistical Wizard dialog box appears.

2. Click Kriging/CoKriging in the Methods list box.
3. Click the Source Dataset arrow and click Oromia_Town.
4. Click the Data Field arrow and click the Rain attribute.
5. Click Next.
6. Click Ordinary Kriging; notice that Prediction Map is selected as the output type.
• Since the method to map the Rainfall surface is selected, we could click Finish to
create a surface using the default parameters. However, steps 7 to 11 will expose
us to other dialog boxes. In each step of the wizard, the interior panels (windows)
can be resized by dragging the dividers between them.
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7. Click Next.
• The semivariogram/covariance model is displayed, allowing you to examine
spatial relationships between measured points. You can assume that things that are
closer together are more alike than things that are farther apart. The semivariogram
allows you to explore this assumption. The process of fitting a semivariogram
model to capture the spatial relationships in the data is known as variography.
8. Click Next.
• The crosshairs show a location that has no measured value. To predict a value at
the crosshairs, we can use the values at the measured locations. We know that the
values of the closest measured locations are most alike to the value of the
unmeasured location that you are trying to predict. The red points in the image
below are going to be weighted (or influence the unknown value) more than the
green points since they are closer to the location you are predicting. Using the
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surrounding points and the semivariogram/covariance model fitted previously, you

can predict values for the unmeasured location.
9. Click Next.
• The cross-validation diagram gives you an idea of how well the model predicts the
values at the unknown locations.
10. Click Finish.

• The Method Report dialog box summarizes information on the method (and its
associated parameters) that will be used to create the output surface.
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11. Click OK.

• The predicted Rainfall map is added as the top layer in the table of contents.
12. Double-click the layer in the table of contents to open the Layer Properties dialog box.
13. Click the General tab and change the layer's name to Default Kriging and click OK.
14. Click the Save button on the Standard toolbar to save your work.
• Notice that the interpolation continues into the other region because the extent of
the layer is the same as the extent of the input data (oromia_Town).
15. To restrict the prediction surface to within Oromia region, right-click the Default
Kriging layer and click Properties.
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16. Click the Extent tab.

17. Click the Set the extent to arrow, click the rectangular extent of Oromia_zone, and
then click OK.
18. Right-click the Layers data frame in the table of contents, click Properties, then click
the Data Frame tab.
19. Click the Clip Options arrow, choose Clip to shape, and then click the Specify Shape
button.
20. On the Data Frame Clipping dialog box, click the Outline of Features button, click the
Layer arrow, and then click Oromia_zone.
21. Click OK, and then click OK again.
• The predicted surface is clipped so it does not display data beyond the borders of
the region but covers all areas within the region, as shown below.
22. Drag the oromia_town layer to the top of the table of contents.
23. Right-click the Default Kriging layer in the table of contents and click
Validation/Prediction.
• This opens the GA Layer to Points geoprocessing tool with the Default Kriging
layer specified as the input geostatistical layer.
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24. Input geostatistical layer should be automatically set to Default Kriging. For Point
observation locations, navigate to the geodatabase that contains the data, and click the
oromia_Town dataset. Leave the Field to validate on empty as we just want to generate
Rainfall predictions for the Oromia towns, not validate the predicted values against
measured values. For Output statistics at point locations, navigate to the folder we
created for the output, and name the output file Oromia_Town_Rainfall.shp. Leave the
Append all fields from input features checked as we want to be able to see the names
of the cities in the output feature class.
• The GA Layer To Points geoprocessing tool dialog box should look like this:
25. Click OK to run the tool.

26. Once the tool has run, click the Add Data button on the Standard toolbar.
27. Navigate to the data, click Oromia_Town_Rainfal.shp, and then click Add.
28. Right-click the Oromia_Town_Rainfall.shp layer and click Open Attribute Table.
• Note that each town now has a predicted Rainfall value, as well as a standard error
value (which indicates the level of uncertainty associated with the Rainfall
prediction for each city).
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7.3 Exploring your data

To make better decisions when creating a surface, you should first explore your dataset to
gain a better understanding of it. When exploring your data, look for obvious errors in the
values that may drastically affect the output prediction surface; examine how the data is
distributed; and look for global trends, directional influences, and so forth.
✓ Geostatistical Analyst provides many data exploration tools. In this exercise, you will
explore your data in three ways:
• Examine the distribution of your data.
• Identify the trends in your data, if any.
• Understand the spatial autocorrelation and directional influences.
I. Examine the distribution of your data using the Histogram tool
• The interpolation methods that are used to generate a surface give the best results if
the data is normally distributed (a bell-shaped curve). If our data is skewed (lopsided),
we might choose to transform the data to make it normal. Thus, it is important to
understand the distribution of our data before creating a surface. The Histogram tool
plots frequency histograms for the attributes in the dataset, enabling you to examine
the univariate (one-variable) distribution for each attribute in the dataset. Next, we will
explore the distribution of Rainfall for the Oromia_town layer.
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Steps:
1. Click the Oromia_zone layer; drag it under the Oromia_Town layer in the TOC.
2. Click the Oromia_Town layer to select it.
3. On the Geostatistical Analyst toolbar, click Geostatistical Analyst > Explore Data >
Histogram.
4. On the Histogram dialog box, click the Attribute arrow and choose OZONE.
5. Select one histogram bars by clicking and dragging the pointer over them. The sample
points within this range are selected on the map.
6. Click the Clear Selected Features button on the Tools toolbar to clear the selected
points on the map and histogram.
7. Click the Close button located in the upper corner of the Histogram dialog box.
II. Create a normal QQ plot
The quantile-quantile (QQ) plot is used to compare the distribution of the data to a standard
normal distribution, providing another measure of the normality of the data. The closer the
points are to the straight (45-degree) line in the graph, the closer the sample data follows
a normal distribution.
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Steps:
Normal QQPlot.
2. Click the Attribute arrow and choose Rain.
• A general QQ plot is a graph on which the quantiles from two distributions are plotted
versus each other. For two identical distributions, the QQ plot will be a straight line.
Therefore, it is possible to check the normality of the ozone data by plotting the
quantiles of that data versus the quantiles of a standard normal distribution. From the
normal QQ plot above, you can see that the plot is not very close to being a straight
line. The main departure from this line occurs at low values of rainfall distribution if
the data does not exhibit a normal distribution in either the histogram or normal QQ
plot, it may be necessary to transform the data to make it conform to a normal
distribution before using certain kriging interpolation techniques.
3. Click the Close button located in the upper corner of the Normal QQPlot dialog box.
III. Identify global trends in our data
If a trend exists in your data, it is a nonrandom (deterministic) component of a surface that
can be represented by a mathematical formula. For instance, a gently sloping hillside can
be represented by a plane. A valley would be represented by a more complex formula (a
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second-order polynomial) that creates a U shape. This formula may produce the
representation of the surface you want. However, many times the formula neither produces
a surface that is too smooth to accurately depict the phenomenon because no hillside is a
perfect plane nor is any valley a perfect U shape. Local variation can be added to the
surface by modeling the trend using one of these smooth functions, removing it from the
data and continuing your analysis by modeling the residuals, which is what remains after
the trend is removed. When modeling the residuals, you will be analyzing the short-range
(local) variation in the surface. The Trend Analysis tool enables you to identify the
presence/absence of trends in the input dataset and identify which order of polynomial fits
the trend best.
Steps:
Trend Analysis.
2. Click the Attribute arrow and choose RAIN.

• Each vertical stick in the trend analysis plot represents the location and value of each
Rainfall measurement. The data points are projected onto the perpendicular planes, an
east–west and a north–south plane. A best-fit line (a polynomial) is drawn through the
projected points, showing trends in specific directions. If the line were flat, this would
indicate that there is no trend. However, if we look at the green line in the image below,
we can see it starts out with high values, decreases as it moves toward the center of the
x-axis. Similarly, the yellow line is decreasing.
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3. Click the Rotate Locations scroll bar and scroll left until the rotation angle is 90
degrees.
IV. Explore spatial autocorrelation and directional influences

Steps:
Semivariogram/Covariance Cloud.
2. Click the Attribute arrow and choose Rain.
• The semivariogram/covariance cloud allows you to examine the spatial autocorrelation
between the measured sample points. It is generally assumed that things that are close
to one another are more alike. The semivariogram/covariance cloud lets you examine
this relationship. To do so, a semivariogram value, which is the difference squared
between the values of each pair of locations, is plotted on the y-axis relative to the
distance separating each pair of measurements, which is plotted on the x-axis.
• Each red dot in the semivariogram/covariance cloud represents a pair of locations.
Since locations that are close to each other should be more alike. In the semivariogram
plot, the locations that are closest should have small semivariogram values. As the
distance between the pairs of locations increases, the semivariogram values should
also increase. However, a certain distance is reached where the cloud flattens out,
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indicating that the values of the pairs of points separated by more than this distance
are no longer correlated.
• Looking at the semivariogram, if it appears that some data locations that are close
together have a higher semivariogram value than we would expect, we should
investigate these pairs of locations to see if there is a possibility that the data is
inaccurate.
3. Click the Select Features by Rectangle button on the Tools toolbar, then click and drag
the pointer over some points with large semivariogram (y-axis) values on the
Semivariogram/Covariance Cloud dialog box to select them.
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• The pairs of sample locations that are selected in the semivariogram are highlighted
on the map, and lines link the locations, indicating the pairing. As it might be expected
from the default kriging prediction map, the lines with high semivariogram values for
a particular distance between the points in a pair are those that correspond to the largest
gradient in the Rainfall values.
4. Check Show search direction.
5. Click and move the directional pointer to any angle.
• The direction the pointer is facing determines which pairs of data locations are plotted
on the semivariogram.
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Soil Erosion Assessment using
Revised Universal Soil Loss
Equation (RUSLE)
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8.1.1 Case Study
Let us Assume that you have hired on disaster and risk management bureau of Ethiopia,
you are asked to develop a soil loss estimation map using Revised universal soil loss
estimation equation at micro level watershed of Dire Dawa which is located in Eastern
Ethiopia encompass some part of eastern hararghe Zone as well some southern part of
shinle zone of Somalia regional state.
8.1.2 Description
In order to execute RUSLE model, we have to drive six parameters of the RUSLE model
which are directly derived or estimated from the following data:
✓ Rainfalls – R factor;
✓ Digital elevation model (DEM) – LS factor;
✓ Satellite Images or Land use and land cover- C and P factors.
✓ soil databases – K,
The implementation of the RUSLE model consists of three main steps. The preprocessing
of the data consists of data formatting. This step includes
• reprojection of data, clipping of the data according to the area of interest, some
attribute correction and rasterizing;
• indicators’ estimates are then realized according to theoretical formulae or according
to attribute assignment rules;
• the soil loss estimate is calculated using formula.
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Soil Land Cover/ NDVI

Rainfall Digital Elevation
Model
Pre processing
Reprojection, Clipping, attribute correction
Rainfall Digital Elevation Land Cover / NDVI

Model
Formula (2) Formula (4) Formula (3) Value assignment
R factor LS factor C factor K factor P factor
Formula (1)
Soil Losses A
8.2 Context of Erosion and RUSLE modeling
Erosion processes include all the drafting and transportation mechanisms of sediments at
the Earth’s surface. They are either physical or chemical. Erosion agents can be
meteorological, hydric, gravity-related or human. Knowledge, estimation and
management of erosion are key factors in the management of economic (agronomic quality
of soils, economic vulnerability), environmental (river discharge, biodiversity loss) and
social (water drinking supply, risks to lives and goods) issues.
There are many erosion models, which may or may not include the spatial dimension of
processes, to qualify and quantify erosion. One of the most commonly used spatial models
is the empirical model relying on the Universal Soil Loss Equation. This model has the
advantages:
✓ Of exploiting accessible geographical parameters (climate, land cover, topography);
✓ Of being operated using GIS software;
✓ Of being adaptable to the degree of knowledge of the area studied: it can thus be
exploited quantitatively or qualitatively depending on the validation given to each
parameter;
✓ Of being able to provide quantitative estimates of soil loss.
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The model had been revised since its first release. The Revised Universal Soil Loss
Equation (RUSLE) relies on the same equation but the methods to obtain the different
parameters have been improved.
The RUSLE model, initially used to quantify soil losses over agricultural parcels, provides
estimates of sediment displacement within each cell of the model due to hydric processes
(rainfall and surface runoff). The soil losses are expressed in [Mass] · [Surface Unit] -
1
· [Time period]–1 such as ton/ha/year.
The RUSLE equation is the following:
A= R × K × LS × C × P
✓ A is the soil loss expressed in the same unit as the K factor [Mass] · [Surface unit] –1
and for the period selected for the R period. Theoretically, the soil loss varies between
0 and infinity; in practice, splash and sheet erosion correspond to A values between 0
and 5 ton/ha/year and erosion inside lavakas (hole) or gully erosion can easily exceed
1,000 ton/ha/year;
✓ R is the rainfall aggressiveness factor. R varies between 0 and infinity; under
tropical climates, R factor mean values reach 1500-–1900 MJ·mm·(ha·h·year)–1, and
can exceed 3,000 MJ·mm·(ha·h·year)–1 [4]
✓ K factor characterizes soil erodibility. This dimensionless factor is experimentally
obtained and provides soil loss capacity in ton per surface per R unit for each soil.
Usually, R varies from 0 to 0.7 (t·acre·year)/(ha·MJ·mm);
✓ L is the slope length expressed in length unit;
✓ S is the slope gradient. For convenience, S factor is estimated jointly with L factor in
a unique LS factor. LS is dimensionless and varies between 0 and infinity;
✓ C is the vegetation cover factor. It is also a dimensionless factor that varies between 0
and 1;
✓ P factor qualifies agricultural and soil protection practices. P is dimensionless
and varies between 0 and 1.
8.2.1 Limits of the method considered
The use of the RUSLE equation to model erosion must take into account some limits
inherent to the methodology and to each parameter:
• the choice of the RUSLE equation is often driven by the availability of the spatial
parameters required over a selected region;
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• erosion modeling using RUSLE provides soil losses estimates in t/ha/year. If erosion
modeling relies on scientifically uncalibrated parameters or if the model results are
not validated by comparison with field survey measurements, it is better to use the
results as a relative or qualitative assessment of erosion risk (low to high erosion);
• access to certain modeling parameters, such as the P factor, may turn out to be
difficult;
• the parameters used (soil map, topography, land use) are often available at different
scales and precisions that could lead to inaccuracies related to the least precise spatial
parameters;
• RUSLE equation considers each parameter with the same weight, whereas some
parameters may have greater influence than others according to local conditions
However, RUSLE modeling shows a good correlation between the location of erosion
zones compared to field observations. The modeling allows also for comparison of
different sites as well as temporal monitoring.
8.3 Climatic factor: rainfall aggressiveness R Factor
Rainfall aggressiveness is a factor that determines the capacity of rainfall events to
displace soil. The R factor therefore takes into account total rainfall and the occurrence of
rainfall peaks capable of causing soil displacement.
Based on 30 years of rainfall records, [5] consider that rain aggressiveness is not limited
to intense rainfall events. It must include the cumulative effect of moderate rainfalls. The
authors therefore consider that soil losses during a rainfall event are proportional to the
total energy of the precipitations (E) expressed in MJ·mm·(ha·h)–1 multiplied by the
maximal intensity of the rain event measured over 30 min (I30) expressed in mm·h–1.
Rain aggressiveness R expressed in MJ·mm·(ha·h·period)–1 for a given period of time is
modelled as follows [6]:
with:
• (EI 30) i= EI30 for the rain event i;
• j is the number of rain events;
• N is the period considered (a month, a year, several decades, etc.).
Nevertheless, the use of this formula to assess the spatial repartition of erosion requires
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accurate rainfall measurements covering the entire area of interest, which is often difficult
to obtain. Furthermore, the authors propose several approximations methods of the R
factor according to the parameters available. [7] developed an approximation based on the
following equation:
R= K × P × 0.5
with:
• P is mean annual rainfalls in MJ·mm·(ha·h·year)–1;
• K is an adjustment coefficient. We use a k value of 1.73 in this Manual, proposed by
[4].
However, if we access metrological data from local metrological station the above stated
equation might not work for Ethiopia case the reason that of rainfall kinetic energy and
intensity data are not available in most cases. Therefore, the erosivity factor R was
calculated according to the equation given by Hurni [8], derived from a spatial regression
analysis for Ethiopian conditions, the model adapted by Hurni for Ethiopian conditions is
based on the available mean annual rainfall data (P) where
R = - 8. 1 2 + (0. 562 x P)
8.3.1 Calculation of the average annual Precipitation
The average annual rainfall corresponds to the amount of precipitation in mm received on
average in each mesh of the model. In this implementation, the average annual rainfall is
estimated by summing the mean monthly precipitation according to the formula.
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Therefore, average annual rainfall should be reprojected and clipped on the area covered
by the other datasets. The geographic intersection of all the datasets corresponds to the
shapefile layer that covers the most restricted area.
I. Creating Random point
Steps:
1. With ArcMap open, and Open up the Arc Toolbox, Data
management→sampling→Create random point
2. On the output location set your file destination geo database

3. On the output feature class write the output file name
4. On constraining feature class insert catchment shapefile
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5. Click OK.
II. Extracting Value to Point
Step:
1. Click on Geoprocessing ArcToolbox
2. Click Spatial Analyst Tool → Extraction → Extract multi values to point
3. Insert the created random point named “Input point feature”

4. On the input raster tab insert rainfall raster data
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5. Click Ok
III. Spatial Interpolation
Steps:
1. With ArcMap open, and New created point (rainfall) data added from your working
directory.
2. Open up the ArcToolbox spatial Analyst Tools→Interpolation→Kriging
3. Confirm that the input point features rainfall

4. Make your Z-Value field precipitation or rain fall data in mm
5. Save your result file to your workspace and name it something useful
6. Click OK. This process takes a few minutes and finally you should see your rainfall
GRID in your TOC.
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8.3.1.1 Rainfall aggressiveness R factor calculation

The rainfall aggressiveness R factor is calculated according to the formula
R= K × P × 0.5
i.e. from the average annual rainfall that is reprojected and clipped over the area of interest.
Steps:
1. Open the previously created file
2. In the Spatial Analysis tool Under ArcTool box: Click on: Map Algebra→ Raster
Calculator…
3. In the Raster Calculator: Enter the following expression:
1.73 * "rainfall "*0.5
4. Save the file
8.4 LS factor calculation

The 𝐿 and 𝑆 factors represent the effects of slope length (𝐿) and slope steepness (𝑆) on the
erosion of a slope. In general RUSLE model calculation, the L and S factor are calculated
by different equations. The L factor (slope length factor) is the ratio of soil loss from a
slope length relative to the standard erosion plot length of 22.1m. The actual slope length
is the horizontal distance (excludes slopes) of the plot being modeled and is converted to
the slope length factor by the following equation:
Where
λ: is the actual slope length and m is the slope length exponent that is the ratio of rill to
interill erosion.
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The S factor (slope steepness factor) is the ratio of soil loss relative to a 9% slope, which
is the standard slope that experiment plots use. The slope steepness factor is calculated as
a function of slope as shown below:
Where
𝑆 is the slope factor, and 𝜃 is the slope angle.
Depending on the measured slope gradient, a different equation for 𝑆 must be used.
Choosing 𝑆 allows the RUSLE to be more finely tuned for different terrains. This is
important because the topographic factor (and the RUSLE entirely) is very sensitive to the
slope factor 𝑆.
In this Manual, LS is calculated by the USPED (Unit Stream Power Erosion and
Deposition) method, which is using the raster calculation between flow accumulation and
slope of watershed, because it is obvious that it can be done with the tools included in a
normal GIS ArcMap installation.
In comparison to the RUSLE, the USPED is a physically based model that incorporates
a spatial component. In the RUSLE, 𝐿 is dependent on linear distance 𝜆𝑖, which is the
horizontal length from the start of sediment transport to point 𝑖 on the slope. Thus, they
are inherently a single dimensional function. The USPED instead uses the area of upland
contributing flow at distance 𝑖. In the USPED model, the area is substituted in place of the
former slope length. The L calculation for point 𝑖 on a slope is shown in Equation:
where,
𝐿 is the slope length factor at some point on the landscape,
𝜆 is the area of upland flow,
m is an adjustable value depending on the soil’s susceptibility to erosion, and is the unit
plot length.
The calculation of S value is shown in Equation
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where,
S is the slope in degrees, is the slope gradient constant, and is an adjustable
value depending on the soil’s susceptibility to erosion. Designations for exponents and
values can be found in the literature.
Using USPED method, the LS factor is calculated in the GIS program according to the
following steps:
Step:
1. Calculate Flow Direction from clipped Watershed DEM layer Using Flow
Direction Tool,
2. Calculate Flow Accumulation with Flow Accumulation Tool using flow direction
data as the input raster,
3. Calculate slope of watershed in degrees using Slope Tool using clipped
watershed DEM as the input layer, and
4. Copy and paste the LS-factor formula below into Raster Calculator:
Power (“flow accumulation” *[cell resolution]/22.1,0.4) *Power (Sin (“slope of
degree” *0.01745))/0.09, 1.4) *1.4.
8.5 Vegetation cover: C factor

C factor introduces the effect of fixation of soil particles by vegetation [9] as well as the
effect of vegetation and crops cycles. C factor was first measured as the ratio of the soil
loss of cropland under defined conditions to the corresponding soil loss on similar
cropland under continuous fallow conditions [10], This factor varies over the interval (0;
1)
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To take into account natural environments, the C factor is likened to the degree of soil
cover by vegetation. The variation of the soil loss potential of a defined soil under different
vegetation covers is then better adjusted (from bare soil to soil under dense vegetation).
[11].
Several methods exist to evaluate the C factor exploiting remote sensing imagery and
calculation of a vegetation index (NDVI, vegetation fraction) or through the estimate of
the mean vegetation cover according to a land cover map. This last method is presented
here. It consists of associating an estimated value of vegetation cover for each class of land
use.
The C factor can be calculated from satellite images through NDVI (Normalized
difference vegetation Index). Since the C factor ranges from 0 (full cover) to 1 (bare land)
and the NDVI values range from 0 (full cover) to 1 (bare land). The calculated NDVI value
inversed using Van der Kniff, 1999 equation:
C= EXP ((-2 * NDVI / (1-NDVI))
Steps:
1. Open the NDVI created file
Calculator…
3. In the Raster Calculator: Enter the following expression:
C= EXP ((-2 * NDVI)/ (1-NDVI))
C factor can be also estimated by the association of a C value to each class of land use.
The chosen values are those proposed and presented below. [12].
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Land cover type C factor

Forest and near forest vegetation, dense mangroves 0.001
Savana 0.04
Shrublands on ultrabasic soils 0.25
Swamp 0.28
Bush and open vegetation 0.72
Bare soils 1
Water 1
8.6 Soil Erodibility (K) Factor

The Soil Erodibility (K-factor) refers to the liability of the soil to “suffer” erosion due to
the forces causing detachment and transport of soil particles. Erodibility varies with soil
texture, aggregate stability, shear strength, infiltration capacity and organic matter and
chemical content of the soil [13]. The erodibility factor, K value is ease with which a soil
can be eroded. In the USLE model the ‘K’ factor is determined from the soil erodibility
nomograph from values of percent of silt and very fine sand; percent of organic matter
content; topsoil structure grade; and permeability grade. This nomograph is derived from
the following equation [9]:
K= 2.1 × M 1.14 x 10-6 x (12 – MO) + 0.0325 x (b-2) + 0.025 × (C-3)
Where:
• M is the sum of silt and fine sand in percent;
• MO is the organic matter in percent;
• b is soil texture;
• c is the permeability rate of the soil.
Though in reality, especially at local level, these data are often difficult to find and may
not be suitable for extrapolation from one area to another. For these reasons Hurni (1985)
derived K values based on easily observable soil colors.
Soil erodibility value estimated based on soil color.
Soil Color Black Brown Red Yellow
K-factor 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
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I. Adding a field to a table (K_Value)

Steps:
3. Type = “Double” → Ok
4. Click Add Field.
5. Write the name of the new field as K_value. The New field will be added as the
last column.
6. Fill the K-Value table based on color properties stated on the Above table
II. Rasterizing
Steps:
1. Open the Arc toolbox → Conversion Tools → To raster → Polygon to Raster.
2. In the window of Polygon to Raster
• Input raster: Allocation to Soil
• Value: Allocate to the new created and filled column
• Output raster features: on selected file destination
• Cell size: Set Appropriate cell size compared to others.
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8.7 Soil conservation practices: P factor

The P factor corresponds to conservation practices and represents the effect of specific
cultivation practices whose aim is to reduce the quantities and the speed of runoff to limit
the effects of erosion. This factor is defined as the ratio of soil losses according to a given
conservation practice to the soil losses of a crop arranged in rows aligned with the slope.
It varies between [0; 1]. It is commonly defined from a correspondence table including the
cultivation practices.
Conservation practices P factor
Up and down slope 1.0
Cross slope 0.75
Contour farming 0.50
Strip cropping, cross slope 0.37
Strip cropping, contour 0.25
P factor estimates rely on the knowledge level and the availability of sufficient databases
concerning cultivation practices of the area of interest. Under natural conditions, the P
factor is set to 1 [4].
In this manual, the ratio is kept at 1, indicating straight-row farming.
8.8 soil loss A calculation from the RUSLE equation
The calculation of soil losses A according to the RUSLE formula corresponds to the
multiplication of each previously prepared factor (R, LS, K and C).
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Steps:
1. Open the previously created file
Calculator…
3. In the Raster Calculator: Enter the previous created files (R, LS, K and K)
4. Save the file
The result is a raster file with values range between 0 and 1,496 t/ha/year.
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Algorithm for Automated
Mapping of Land Surface
Temperature Using LANDSAT
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9.1.1 Case Study
Assume you have hired at federal ministry of agriculture (MOA). You are assigned to
develop a Land Surface Temperature for Dire Dawa region using a Landsat image to be
an input factor for climate change, urban land use/land cover, heat balance studies
9.1.2 Description
In this Exercise you will shows how to calculate Land Surface Temperature (LST) using
the Landsat 8 bands. In particular, band 10 as the thermal band, and bands 4 and 5 to
calculate the Normal Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). The first step is to download
Landsat 8 (OLI-TIRS) image from a particular location, unzip it, and check certain
information needed (within the metadata or Landsat Tool software) to execute this
procedure. To calculate the LST, you will use the USGS formulas this example simply
performs the calculations without going into detail about the fundamentals. The Land
Surface Temperature can be estimated or calculated using the Landsat 8 thermal bands. It
simply requires applying a set of equations through a raster image calculator (ArcMap,
ArcGIS Pro, QGIS). You can get necessary information’s from Landsat meta data, you can
also open your meta data using the different software (Lansat Tool, SCP Plugin in QGIS..).
Landsat tools version 1.0.0 (http://WWW.ukscience.org/_Media/LSTools_setup.zip) were
used to explore detail meta data.
Satellite Image To produce LST map

Dire Dawa Region To Extract final LST result
9.2 Calculation of TOA (Top of Atmospheric) spectral radiance.
The first step of the algorithm is the input of Band 10. After inputting band 10, in
the background, the tool uses formulas taken from the USGS web page for retrieving the
top of atmospheric (TOA) spectral radiance (𝐿𝜆), Using the radiance rescaling factor,
Thermal Infra-Red Digital Numbers can be converted to TOA spectral radiance.
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Lλ = ML * Qcal + AL
Where:
Lλ = TOA spectral radiance (Watts/ (m2 * sr * μm))
ML = Band-specific multiplicative rescaling factor from the metadata
(RADIANCE_MULT_BAND_x, where x is the band number).
AL = Band-specific additive rescaling factor from the metadata (RADIANCE_ADD_BAND_x,
where x is the band number).
Qcal = Quantized and calibrated standard product pixel values (DN) corresponds to band
10.
TOA = 0.0003342 * “Band 10” + 0.1
Therefore, the equation must be solved using the Raster Calculator tool in ArcMap.
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9.3 Conversion of Radiance to At-Sensor Temperature.
After the digital numbers (DNs) are converted to reflection, the TIRS band data should be
converted from spectral radiance to brightness temperature (BT) using the thermal
constants provided in the metadata file [14]. The following equation is
BT = (K2 / (ln (K1 / L) + 1)) − 273.15
where:
K1 = Band-specific thermal conversion constant from the metadata

(K1_CONSTANT_BAND_x, where x is the thermal band number).
K2 = Band-specific thermal conversion constant from the metadata
(K2_CONSTANT_BAND_x, where x is the thermal band number).
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L = TOA
Therefore, to obtain the results in Celsius, the radiant temperature is adjusted by adding
the absolute zero (approx. -273.15°C) [15].
BT = (1321.0789 / Ln ((774.8853 / “TOA”) + 1)) – 273.15
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9.4 Calculate the NDVI
Landsat visible and near-infrared bands were used for calculating the Normal Difference
Vegetation Index (NDVI). The importance of estimating the NDVI is essential since the
amount of vegetation present is an important factor and NDVI can be used to infer general
vegetation condition [16]. The calculation of the NDVI is important because, afterward,
the proportion of the vegetation (𝑃V) should be calculated, and they are highly related
with the NDVI, and emissivity (𝜀) should be calculated, which is related to the 𝑃V
NDVI = (Band 5 – Band 4) / (Band 5 + Band 4)
Formula applied in Raster Calculator
NDVI = Float (NIR – R) / Float (NIR + R)
where:
NIR = near-infrared band (Band 5)
𝑅 = red band (Band 4)
9.5 Calculate the proportion of vegetation Pv
𝑃v is calculated Using
Pv = Square ((NDVI – NDVImin) / (NDVImax – NDVImin))
A method for calculating 𝑃v [17]. suggests using the NDVI values for vegetation and soil
(NDVImax = 0.5 and NDVImin= 0.2) to apply in global conditions [18].
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However, since the NDVI values differ for every area, the value for vegetated surfaces,
0.5, may be too low. Global values from NDVI can be calculated from at-surface
reflectivity, but it would not be possible to establish global values in the case of an NDVI
computed from TOA reflectivity, since NDVImin and NDVImax will depend on the
atmospheric conditions [18].
Pv = Square ((“NDVI” + 1) / (1 +1))
Usually the minimum and maximum values of the NDVI image can be displayed directly
in the image (both in ArcGIS, QGIS, ENVI, Erdas Imagine), otherwise you must open the
properties of the raster to get those values.
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9.6 Calculate Emissivity ε
The land surface emissivity (LSE (𝜀)) must be known in order to estimate LST, since the
LSE is a proportionality factor that scales blackbody radiance (Planck’s law) to predict
emitted radiance, and it is the efficiency of transmitting thermal energy across the surface
into the atmosphere [18]. The determination of the ground emissivity is calculated
conditionally as suggested in [19]:
𝜀𝜆 = 𝜀V𝜆𝑃V + 𝜀𝑠𝜆 (1 - 𝑃V) + 𝐶𝜆
where
𝜀V and 𝜀𝑠 = the vegetation and soil emissivities, respectively,
𝐶= the surface roughness (𝐶 = 0 for homogenous and flat surfaces) taken as a constant
value of 0.005 [20].
The condition can be represented with the following formula [17]:
𝜀𝑠𝜆, NDVI < NDVI𝑠,
𝜀𝜆= 𝜀V𝜆𝑃V + 𝜀𝑠𝜆 (1 - 𝑃V) + 𝐶 NDVI𝑠 ≤ NDVI ≤ NDVIV,
𝜀𝑠𝜆 + 𝐶 NDVI > NDVIV.
When the NDVI is less than 0, it is classified as water, and the emissivity value of 0.991
is assigned. For NDVI values between 0 and 0.2, it is considered that the land is covered
with soil, and the emissivity value of 0.986 is assigned. Values between 0.2 and 0.5 are
considered mixtures of soil and vegetation cover is applied to retrieve the emissivity. In
the last case, when the NDVI value is greater than 0.5, it is considered to be covered with
vegetation, and the value of 0.973 is assigned.
ε = 0.004 * Pv + 0.986
Simply apply the formula in the raster calculator, the value of 0.986 corresponds to a
correction value of the equation.
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9.7 Calculating the Land Surface Temperature
The last step of retrieving the LST or the emissivity corrected land surface temperature
𝑇𝑠 is computed as follows [21]:
where
𝑇𝑠 is the LST in Celsius (∘C, (2)),
BT is at-sensor BT (∘C),
𝜆 is the wavelength of emitted radiance (for which the peak response and the average of
the limiting wavelength (𝜆 = 10.895) will be used), [22]:
𝜀𝜆 is the emissivity calculated in the above analysis, and
[23]
Where
𝜎 is the Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10-23 J/K),
ℎ is Planck’s constant (6.626 × 10-34 J s),
𝑐 is the velocity of light (2.998 × 108 m/s)
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LST = (BT / (1 + (0.00115 * BT / 1.4388) * Ln(ε)))
Finally apply the LST equation to obtain the surface temperature map.
As a result of the process developed, there is a map of the Land Surface Temperature, it
should be noted that it is not equal to the air temperature.
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Supervised Image
classification Using support
Vector Machine (SVM)
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10.1.1 Case Study
Assume you have hired at Harar municipality. You are assigned to develop a Land use
Land Cover with a high accuracy using Deep learning Algorithm. the developed land use
will be as an input for different urban planning issues. Due this you prefer to use Open CV
(Machine learning) SVM classification to result a high accuracy classified image.
10.1.2 Description
In this Exercise you will learn how to create a training sample, classifier definition file and
finally resulting a high accurate classified LULC map of Harar. In this analysis you will
use high resolute Aerial photograph to classify LULC using support vector machine. In
SVM any Esri-supported raster is accepted as input, including raster products, segmented
rasters, mosaics, image services, or generic raster datasets. Segmented raster’s must be 8-
bit rasters at least with 3 bands. To create the training sample file, use the Training Sample
Manager from the Image Classification toolbar. The Segment Attributes parameter is
enabled only if one of the raster layer inputs is a segmented image.
Aerial photograph To produce Land use Land cover map
10.2 Concept of Image classification and SVM

Image classification refers to the task of extracting information classes from a multiband
raster image. The resulting raster from image classification can be used to create thematic
maps. Depending on the interaction between the analyst and the computer during
classification, there are two types of classification: supervised and unsupervised.
SVM classifier is a powerful supervised classification method. It is well suited for

segmented raster input but can also handle standard imagery. It is a classification method
commonly used in the research community. For standard image inputs, the tool accepts
multiple-band imagery with any bit depth, and it will perform the SVM classification on
a pixel basis, based on the input training feature file.
For segmented raster’s that have their key property set to Segmented, the tool computes
the index image and associated segment attributes from the RGB segmented raster. The
attributes are computed to generate the classifier definition file to be used in a separate
133 | P a g e
classification tool. The attributes for each segment can be computed from any Esri-
supported image.
There are several advantages with the SVM classifier tool, as opposed to the maximum
likelihood classification method:
• The SVM classifier needs much fewer samples and does not require the samples
to be normally distributed.
• It is less susceptible to noise, correlated bands, and an unbalanced number or size
of training sites within each class.
10.3 Supervised classification
Supervised classification uses the spectral signatures obtained from training samples to
classify an image. With the assistance of the Image Classification toolbar, you can easily
create training samples to represent the classes you want to extract. You can also easily
create a signature file from the training samples, which is then used by the Spatial Analyst
multivariate classification tools to classify the image.
10.3.1 Adding the Image Classification toolbar
After enabling the Spatial Analyst extension, you can add the Image Classification toolbar
and begin to use its tools to work with your data.
Steps:
1. Click the Customize menu in ArcMap.

2. Click Toolbars →Image Classification. The toolbar is added in ArcMap.
10.3.2 Adding a multiband image for the classification
The Image Classification toolbar allows you to classify a multiband raster. A multiband
Aerial photograph is an example of a multiband raster. To specify a source image for the
classification analysis, add the image to ArcMap. Then choose the image layer in the Layer
drop-down list on the Image Classification toolbar.
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Steps:
1. Add the Image Classification toolbar to ArcMap. Refer to the topic Adding the
Image
2. Classification toolbar for how to add it.
3. On the Standard toolbar, click the Add Data button.
4. On the Add Data dialog box, browse to the image on the disk and click Add.
5. The image is added as a layer in the table of contents. The layer points to all the bands
on the disk.
6. On the Image Classification toolbar, click the Layer arrow and click the image layer
you just added.
7. This specifies the source of images for all subsequent image classification tasks. all
the bands associated with the image layer are used in the classification analysis.
10.3.3 Creating Training Samples
To create training samples, use the training sample drawing tools on the Image
Classification toolbar.
Steps:
The steps below show how to create training samples with the Image Classification
toolbar:
1. On the Image Classification toolbar, choose an appropriate image layer in the Layer
list.
2. Click one of the drawing tools on the Image Classification toolbar. Notice that there
are three drawing tools available, for drawing polygons, circles, and rectangles.
3. Select rectangular shape drawing tool
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4. In ArcMap, identify an area that belongs to a known class. Draw a training sample to
enclose it.
• The following image shows a polygon training sample in ArcMap
• Once you finish drawing the training sample, a new class is created in Training
Sample Manager with a default name, value, and color.
3. Open Training Sample Manager and change the class name, value, and color if desired.
4. Repeat steps 2 to 4 to create a few more training samples to represent the rest of the
classes on the image. The following is what Training Sample Manager looks like after
ten samples are created:
10.3.4 Managing training samples
During the process of creating and evaluating training samples, you will need to use the
tools on the Training Sample Manager to maintain the list of classes. For example, you
may need to change the class name, value, and color. Also, classes may need to be merged,
deleted, and reorganized, and so on. See the following on how to perform some common
training sample management tasks.
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Steps:
1. click the first row and hold shift button to select the same class type with different
sample collected area.
2 . In order to merge the selected class, click on merge training sample button
3 . In the Training Sample Manager, click the Save button. A file browser dialog box
appears.
4 . In the file browser dialog box, navigate to the desired location and specify a name
for the feature class or shapefile, then click Save.
10.4 Creating classifier definition file
Steps:
1. open ArcTool box in ArcMap →Click on spatial Analysis tool→ navigate to train
support vector machine classifier Toolset
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2. In the window of Train support vector machine classifier

• Input raster: Allocate to the Arial image to be classified
• Input training sample: Allocate to the created training sample you saved
earlier
• Output features: on selected file destination which create (.ecd) file
3. click OK
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10.5 Executing the classifier definition file

When you have a classifier definition file ready. you can use the classify raster tool to
classify the input image.
Steps:
1. Create training samples if no training samples have been created. Refer to the topic
creating training samples on how to create training samples.
2. Create a signature file for the training samples if it has not been created already.
3. Create a classifier definition file for the training samples if it has not been created
already.
4. On the spatial analysis toolbar under ArcToolbox, click on Classify raster.
5. In the tool dialog box, specify values for the three required parameters.
• Input raster: Allocate to the Arial image to be classified
• Input classifier definition file: Allocate to the created classifier definition you
saved earlier
• Output raster features: on selected file destination create your classified file.
(don’t forget to write .tif) after labeling your output file.
6. Click OK to run the tool.
The output classified raster will be automatically added to ArcMap when the tool
finishes.
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143 | P a g e

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Spatial Analysis and Environmental modeling

Site Selection Analysis Using Raster data ................................................................................. 2

1.1 Study information ........................................................................................................ 3

1.1.1 Case Study ...............................................................................................................................3

1.1.2 Description ..............................................................................................................................4

1.2 Starting ArcMap .......................................................................................................... 4

1.3 Setting your workspace ............................................................................................... 5

1.4 Creating a new toolbox ............................................................................................... 7

1.5 Creating a new model .................................................................................................. 8

1.6 Reclassifying datasets ............................................................................................... 14

1.7 Weight deriving Using ArcGIS “AHP_Extention” ................................................... 19

1.7.2 Using AHP extension ..........................................................................................................21

1.8 Weighting and combining datasets ............................................................................ 24

1.8.1 Weighted Overlay ................................................................................................................24

1.9 Selecting optimal sites ............................................................................................... 26

1.9.1 Extract optimal sites using the Con tool .........................................................................27

1.9.3 Selecting the best site ..........................................................................................................29

Site Selection Analysis Using Vector data ............................................................................... 32

2.1 Study information ...................................................................................................... 33

2.1.1 Case Study .............................................................................................................................33

2.1.2 Description ............................................................................................................................33

2.2 Buffering ................................................................................................................... 33

2.3 Merging Shapefiles ................................................................................................... 34

2.4 Erase .......................................................................................................................... 35

2.5 Clipping ..................................................................................................................... 36

Finding an alternate access route ............................................................................................. 38

3.1 Study information ...................................................................................................... 39

3.1.1 Case Study .............................................................................................................................39

3.1.2 Description ............................................................................................................................39

3.2 Creating a new model ................................................................................................ 40

3.3 Creating the cost dataset ............................................................................................ 41

3.4 Finding the least costly path ...................................................................................... 43

3.5 Raster to Poly line ..................................................................................................... 46

Watershed delineation Using Hydrology Tool ......................................................................... 48

4.1 Study information ...................................................................................................... 49

4.1.1 Introduction to hydrology in GIS .....................................................................................49

4.1.2 Case Study .............................................................................................................................49

4.1.3 Description ............................................................................................................................50

4.2 DEM Data Preparation .............................................................................................. 50

4.3 Fill ............................................................................................................................. 50

4.4 Flow direction ........................................................................................................... 51

4.5 Flow Accumulation ................................................................................................... 52

4.6 River Route Delineating ............................................................................................ 53

4.6.1 Reclassification ....................................................................................................................53

4.6.2 Stream to feature ..................................................................................................................54

4.6.3 Selection by Attribute..........................................................................................................54

4.6.4 Export the result ...................................................................................................................55

4.7 River Basin Delineating ............................................................................................ 55

4.7.1 Basin to Polygon ..................................................................................................................56

Watershed delineation using Arc Hydro Tools......................................................................... 58

5.1 About ArcHydro tool ................................................................................................. 59

5.2 Description ................................................................................................................ 60

5.3 Getting Started........................................................................................................... 61

5.3.1 Set Projection ........................................................................................................................62

5.3.2 Fill ...........................................................................................................................................63

5.3.3 Flow Direction ......................................................................................................................64

5.3.4 Flow Accumulation .............................................................................................................65

5.3.5 Stream Definition .................................................................................................................66

5.3.6 Stream Segmentation ..........................................................................................................67

5.3.7 Catchment Grid Delineation ..............................................................................................68

5.3.8 Catchment Polygon Processing.........................................................................................69

5.3.9 Drainage Line Processing ..................................................................................................70

5.3.10 Adjoint Catchment Processing ..........................................................................................70

5.3.11 Drainage Point Processing .................................................................................................71