‫‪An introductory course to English grammar‬‬

‫‪Norman Stageberg‬‬

‫مكتبة ‪NBS‬‬
‫متخصصه باللغه االنكليزيه‬

‫كركوك‪ /‬شارع المحافظه‪/‬عمارة العجائب‬

‫‪1‬‬
Chapter one :The morpheme
-Morphemes

The morpheme is a short segment of language that meets three criteria :

1- It is a word or part of a word that has meaning .

2- It can be divided into smaller meaningful parts .
3- It recurs in different verbal environments with stable meaning .

-Types of Morpheme :
1- Free morphemes: are minimum free forms with meaning that can
stand alone with other helper elements

Free morphemes are divided into:

A-Lexical (open class) includes nouns ,verbs ,adverbs ,..etc .

B-Functional (closed class) includes conjunctions ,prepositions ,…etc.

2-Bound Morphemes : are the affixes that are attached to the end of the
words ,these cannot stand alone .Bound morphemes are two types :

1- Inflectional morphemes include ( -s , -ing , -ed, -er…..).

2- Derivational morphemes include affixes like (ence ,ment, …).

2
The Base
Is the lexeme ( or set of lexemes ) which a word formation rule takes and
turns into constituents of the new lexemes created by the rule.

Bases are very numerous , and most of them in English are free
morphemes, e.g. : Womanly, endear and lighten , but some are bound like
cide in suicide , patricide and infanticide, also ora in oral , oracle , oration ,
and oratory.

Affixes .

Affixes

An affix is a bound morpheme that changes the basic meaning of the

root, they are either derivational or inflectional, they can occur before or
after or within a base. From the point of view of their position in relation to
the root.

Affixes are generally classified into three types :

Prefixes

Prefixes are those bound morphemes that can occur before a base as in
insure , subway , preway , antifreeze , and imperfect. Prefixes in English

The word recapture has the structure re– plus capture ; the prefix
( re– ) is attached not to the root ( capt ) but to the base ( capture ).

Infixes

These affixes are positioned within a word as opposites to prefixes and

suffixes as in : give gave grind
ground bite bit..

3
Suffixes
Suffixes are bound morphemes that occur after a base such as shrinkage ,
failure , and dreamed . They are more numerous than prefixes, they may
pile up to the number of three or four, whereas prefixes are commonly
single, except for the negative ( un – ) before another prefix. In
( normalizers ) we perhaps reach the limit with four , the base ( norm )
plus the four suffixes ( -al , -ize , -er , and -s )

Inflectional Affixes
In grammar, inflection or inflexion is the modification of a word to express
different grammatical categories such as tense, grammatical mood,
grammatical voice, aspect, person, number, gender and case. Conjugation
is the inflection of verbs. The inflected form of a word often contains both a
free morpheme (a unit of meaning which can stand by itself as a word), and
a bound morpheme (a unit of meaning which cannot stand alone as a
word). For example, the English word "cars" is a noun that is inflected for
number, specifically to express the plural; the content morpheme "car" is
unbound because it could stand alone as a word, while the suffix "s" is
bound because it cannot stand alone as a word. These two morphemes
together form the inflected word "cars". Words that are never subjected to
inflection are said to be invariant; for example, "must" is an invariant item:
it never takes a suffix or changes form to signify a different grammatical
category. Its category can only be determined by its context.

Languages that have some degree of inflection are synthetic languages.

These can be highly inflected, such as Latin, or weakly inflected, such as
English. Languages that are so inflected that a sentence can consist of a
single highly inflected word (such as many American Indian languages) are
called polysynthetic languages. Languages in which each inflection conveys

4
only a single grammatical category, such as Finnish, are known as
agglutinative languages, while languages in which a single inflection can
convey multiple grammatical roles (such as both nominative case and
plural, as in Latin and German) are called fusional. Languages such as
Mandarin Chinese that never use inflections are called analytic or isolating.

In English most nouns are inflected for number with the inflectional plural
affix -s (as in "dog" ? "dog-s"), and most English verbs are inflected for tense
with the inflectional past tense affix -ed (as in "call" ? "call-ed"). English also
inflects verbs by affixation to mark the third person singular in the present
tense (with -s), and the present participle (with -ing). English short
adjectives are inflected to mark comparative and superlative forms (with
-er and -est respectively).

1. {- s pl.} cars, children, mice noun plural

2. {-s sg ps} boy’s noun singular possessive

3. {-s pl ps} boys’, men’s noun plural possessive

4. {-s 3d} vacates present third-person singular

5. {-ing vb} shouting present participle

6. {-d pt} chewed, wrote past tense

7. {-d pp} chewed, driven, swum past participle

8. {-er cp} smaller, sooner comparative

9. {-est sp} smallest, soonest superlative

The words to which these affixes are attached are called stems. The stem
includes the base or bases and all the derivational affixes. Thus the stem of
playboys is playboy and that of beautified is beautify.

5
The inflectional suffixes differ from the derivational suffixes in the following
ways.

1. They do not change the part of speech.

Examples: master, masters (both nouns)

laugh, laughed (both verbs)

cold, colder (both adjectives)

2. They come last in a word.

Examples: shortened, industrializing, cities

3. They go with all stems of a given part of speech.

Examples: he eats, drinks, plays, entertains.

4. They do not pile up only one ends a word.

Examples: working flakes, higher, written.

Inflection is the process of adding inflectional morphemes (smallest units of

meaning) to a word, which indicates grammatical information (for example,
case, number, person, gender or voice, mood, tense, or aspect). Derivation
is the process of adding derivational morphemes, which create a new word
from existing words, sometimes by simply changing grammatical category
(for example, changing a noun to a verb).[2]

Words generally are not listed in dictionaries (in which case they would be
lexical items) on the basis of their inflectional morphemes. But they often
are listed on the basis of their derivational morphemes. For instance,
English dictionaries list readable and readability, words with derivational
suffixes, along with their root read. However, no traditional English
dictionary lists book as one entry and books as a separate entry nor do they
list jump and jumped as two different entries.

6
Derivational suffixes:
With derivational suffixes, the new word has a new meaning, and is usually
a different part of speech. But the new meaning is related to the old
meaning - it is "derived" from the old meaning.

We can add more than one suffix, as in this example:

derive (verb) + ation → derivation (noun) + al → derivational (adjective).

“ inflectional ‫ هي كل االضافات االخرى التي تدخل على الكلمات ماعدا‬/‫م‬

7
.Difficulties in Morphemic Analysis-

1. The first difficulty is that you have your own individual stock of
morphemes. For example, Tom may think of automobile as one morpheme
meaning “car",whereas Dick may know the morphemes auto (self) and
mobile (moving), and recognize them in other words like autograph and
mobilize

‫أول صعوبة تتمحور في كون أنه يكون عندي معنى مخصص لِـ معاني الكلمـآت فمجرد ما أشوف‬
‫الكلمة أفسرها بمفهومي اللي مخزن عندي‬

‫ فأعطى مثال أنه في شخصين لما أعطوهم كلمة‬automobile ‫وآحد فهمها على أن معناها سيارة و‬
‫ عاملها على أنها كلمة و وحده وحده‬one morpheme 2 ‫و اآلخر فهمها على أنها مكونة من‬
morphemes ‫ اللي هي‬auto + mobile ‫و معناها التحـرك و اإلنتقال من مكان آلخر‬

2. The second difficulty is that persons may know a given morpheme but
differ in the degree to which they are aware of its presence in various
words. For example, the agentive suffix (spelled –er, -or, -ar)meaning “one
who, that which”, and recognize it in words like singer and actor but what
about in professor and sweater .

‫ثآني صعوبة تتمحور في كون أن معناني المورفيم عند الشخص يكون فاهمها على نمط محدد محدد‬
‫دون ما تكون على إطالع أوسع بمعانيها المختلفة لما تقع في بيئات مختلفة‬

‫ فأعطى مثال على الـ‬suffixes ‫ مثل‬er- ‫ يكون معناها الشخص الذي فعل مثل كلمة‬teach ‫كفعل‬
‫ معناها يُدرِّ س أما لما يتصل بها‬suffix ‫ اللي هو‬er- ‫ راح يصير معنى الكلمة‬teacher ‫فتصير‬
‫المُدرّ س‬

3. Another problem results from the fact that phors die as language
changes. For example, the morpheme –prehend– in apprehend used to
mean “to arrest or seize”, but in comprehend the phor seems to be dead,
and the meaning of the word today is merely ‘understand’.

8
‫ثالث نقطة بخصوص أن بعض الكلمات ( المورفيم ) يموت و يندثر بسبب تغير اللغة لكنه على‬
‫الرغم من ذلك البعض منه يظل موجود و مستخدم كمعنى‬

‫‪4. Additive meaning is a problem in itself. For example: the‬‬

‫‪morphemepose(place) in ‘pose a question’ and interpose (place between),‬‬
‫‪the meaning is clear but not valid in suppose, repose.‬‬

‫النقطة األخيـرة هي أن بعض اإلضافات في الكلمة يكون لها معنى محدد مشترك لما تتصل بكلمات‬
‫محددهـ لكن لما تتصل بكلمات أخرى يختلف معناها تمامًا‬

‫‪9‬‬
Suffixal Homophones
A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but
differs in meaning. Some suffixes, both inflectional and derivational have
homophonous forms.

1. The inflectional morpheme {-ERcp } has two homophones:

- Derivational morpheme {-ER n}, as in hunter, fisher. It is often called the

agent –er and conveys the meaning of “that which performs the action of
the verb stem”. It may also attach to nonverbal stems as in: teenager, New
Yorker; conveying the meaning of “that which is related to”. Both belong to
the same morpheme.

- Derivational morpheme {-ER rp}, which appears at the end of words and
conveys the meaning of repetition as in glitter, mutter.

2. The verbal inflectional suffix {-ING vb} has two homophones:

- Nominal derivational suffix {-ING nm} as in meetings and weddings.

- Adjectival morpheme {-ING aj} as in a charming woman.

There are two tests to distinguish the verbal {-ING vb} from the adjectival {-
ING aj}: The verbal {-ING vb} can usually occur after as well as before the
noun it modifies as in:

I saw a burning house.

I saw a house burning.

The adjectival {-ING aj} can be preceded by a qualifier (very) or by the

comparative or superlative (more and most), whereas the verbal {-ING vb}
cannot as in:

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It is a very comforting thought.

This is a more exciting movie.

* I saw a rather burning house.

The adjectival {-ING aj} can occur after the verb ‘seems’, but the verbal {-
ING vb} cannot as in:

The snake seems interesting.

* The snake seems crawling.

3. The verbal inflectional {-D pp } has a homophone in the adjectival

derivational {-D aj } as in: Helen was excited about her new job; she was a
devoted mother• The adjectival {-D aj } can be preceded by a qualifier
(very, rather, quite) or (more & most)•The test of the verb (seem) is
applicable to adjectival {-D aj }, but not to verbal {-D pp} *The very departed
guests had forgotten their dog.

*The guests seem departed.

4. The adverbial derivational suffix {-LY av} is added to most adjectives to

form adverb of manner as kindly, happily has as a homophone the
derivational suffix {-LY aj} that is distributed as follows:

a. It is added to monosyllabic nouns to form adjectives that are inflected

with –er, -est: love, lovely; friend friendly; man, manly.

b. It is added to nouns to form adjectives that are not inflected with –er,
-est: king, kingly; mother, motherly.

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‫‪c. It is added to few adjectives, giving alternate adjectival forms that are‬‬
‫‪also inflected with –er, -est: dead, deadly; live, lively; kind, kindly; sick,‬‬
‫‪sickly.‬‬

‫‪-Immediate constituent(IC).‬‬
‫تحليل الجمله الى عناصرها االساسيه‬

‫‪. It is the process of cutting off the word until reaching free form‬‬

‫الهدف من هذه الجزئية أنه يتم تفكيك أجزء الكلمة لوحدآت عدة إبتدا ًءا من األصل و حتى أصغر الوحدآت المضافة‬
‫و هو ما يعرف ِبـ ‪segmentation‬‬

‫فالكلمة نقسمها بحيث نجردها من كل ملحقاتها فنستخرج الـ ‪base- stem- prefix-infix-suffix‬‬

‫مثال ‪ :‬كلمة ‪cheerful‬‬

‫مكونة من جزئين‪ morphemes 2‬األول األصل ‪ base‬و هو ‪ + cheer‬السآفكس ‪ful‬‬

‫‪We have three recommendations on IC division :‬‬

‫‪ -1‬ل ّما يكون في الكلمة وآحد من الـ ‪ INFLECTIONAL suffixes‬فدآئ ًما أول تقسيم راح يكون بين اإلنفلكشن‬
‫سآفكس و بين الكلمة الرئيسة‬

‫مثل كلمة ‪preconceived :‬‬

‫الكلمة مكونة من ‪:‬‬
‫‪ ( pre -‬يعتبر ‪)A derivational prefix‬‬
‫‪+‬‬
‫الكلمة األصل ‪conceive‬‬
‫‪ ( -ed‬يعتبر ‪) An inflectional suffix‬‬
‫فأول تقسيم بيكون من خالل فصل اإلنفلكشن عن الكلمة كلها يصير عندنا‬
‫‪preconceive + ed‬‬
‫ثآني تقسيم نفصل بين البريفكس و الكلمة الرئيسة فيصير‬
‫‪pre + conceive + ed‬‬
‫و الرسم للطبقات ‪ layers‬وآضح تدرجه‬

‫‪12‬‬
 bound ‫ أو‬free ‫ نوعيـن إ ّما‬morpheme ‫ للمورفيم‬-2

‫ فال‬bound ‫ هو اللي يمكن يستند بذاته و مستقل و تام المعنى ( مثل الكلمات اللي في القاموس ) أما الـ‬free ‫الـ‬
) affixes ‫يمكن يستند لوحده بل يتصل بأأجزاء أخرى لتكمل معناهـ ( مثل الـ‬

free morpheme ‫فهنا يقول أنه غال ًبا البد من وجود على األقل وآحد‬

: ‫فلما نقسم أجزاءهـ‬

enlargement

: ‫لنقسمها تقسيم يكون فيه المعنى تام‬

enlarge + ment

‫ تحولت الكلمة من فعل إلى اسم‬derivational suffix ‫ هنا تعتبر الفعــل لما أتصل فيها الـ‬enlarge
enlargement

en + large ‫بعد ما قسمت الكلمة لجزئين أجي أقسم الفعل األساس بنالقي أنه ممكن يتقسم لِـ‬

en+ large+ ment ‫بالتالي ينتج لنا‬

Allomorph
An allomorph is a linguistics term for a variant form of a morpheme. The concept
occurs when a unit of meaning can vary in sound (phonologically) without changing
meaning. It is used in linguistics to explain the comprehension of variations in sound
for a specific morpheme.

English has several morphemes that vary in sound but not in meaning. Examples
include the past tense and the plural morphemes.

For example, in English, a past tense morpheme is -ed. It occurs in several allomorphs
depending on its phonological environment, assimilating voicing of the previous
segment or inserting a schwa when following an alveolar stop:

? as /?d/ or /?d/ in verbs whose stem ends with the alveolar stops /t/ or /d/,
such as hunted /h?nt?d/ or banded /b?nd?d/

13
? as /t/ in verbs whose stem ends with voiceless phonemes other than /t/, such
as fished /f??t/

? as /d/ in verbs whose stem ends voiced phonemes other than /d/, such as
buzzed /b?zd/

These three phonemic forms of –Dpt are not interchangeable. The occurrence of one
or another of them depends on its phonological environment. This pattern of
occurrence is called complementary distribution, abbreviated CD.

An allomorph is an alternative manifestation of a morpheme (a set of meaningful

linguistic units). Allomorphs vary in shape or pronunciation according to their
conditions of use, but not as to meaning

Examples

Here are some examples of allomorphs. In English, the negative prefix in has several
allomorphs:

• In-capable

• Il-logical

• Im-probable

• Ir-reverent

-Phonological Conditioning .

14
Some words function in the same way but they are different in
pronunciation .

The regularity of phonological conditioning is restricted. There are several

irregular forms that donut show the predictable direction of
morphophonemic changes. We can always explain reasonably why such
variant forms as the /t/~/d/~/id/ occur for past tense and /s/~/z/~/iz/ for
plural morpheme.

But such explanation is not possible in the case of the plural form of child –
children, and sheep – sheep. These forms are not phonologically
conditioned, i.e. the proximity of a sound does not affect these forms. en is
peculiar to children, oxen and brethren. Such changes are said to be due to
morphological conditioning.

Ex/Book ----- / -s / , cars /-z/ , bushes /-iz/ .

-Lexical Conditioning.

The situation where a phonetic or phonological feature is present in only

some items and not in others which appear to be similar in structure.

Here , there is difference in the form then it leads to a difference in the

pronunciation:

Ex/ goose - geese ( here we have vowel change)

Replacive allomorph.

15
It is a linguistic element that replaces or substitutes for something else. The
term is particularly used in the label replacive morph or replacive
morpheme to enable irregular forms such as men from man and sang or
sung from sing to be described in morphemic terms, despite falling outside
the straightforward rules for forming noun plurals or past verb forms by the
addition of inflections.

Chapter Two: Words :

- A Definition of Word

‫هدفهم هنا إيجاد تعريف محدد لمعنى الكلمة لكنه في الوآقع ال يوجد تعريف وآحد لها‬

‫و بين اللغة المكتوبة و المنطوقة يوجد ترابط لفهم الكلمة‬

‫و أعطى تعريف أحد العلماء للكلمة بأنه الجملة مكونة من مجموعة من الكلمات المترابطة و بين كل‬
‫جمة و أخرى فاصل أو توقف يفصلها عن اللي تلي‬

-Simple and Complex words:

1- Simple words :a simple word consists of a single free morpheme .

Ex/slay , flea .

2-Complex word :it contains bound and free morpheme .

Ex/ex clude .

-Compound words :
Compound words consist of two or more free morphemes

Ex/ greenhouse (this word has two free forms).

16
‫‪Compound words can be distinguish from grammatical structures in the‬‬
‫‪followings ways :‬‬

‫‪ -1‬الكلمات المركبة ما نقدر نفصل بين أجزائها من خالل إدخال أي عنصر أو كلمة أخرى‬
‫أما النوع الثاني فممكن ذلك‬
‫مثـآل ‪:‬‬
‫‪She is a sweetheart‬‬
‫هذه ‪ compound word‬ألنه ما أقدر أفصلها‬

‫أما لو قلت‬
‫‪she has a sweet heart‬‬
‫‪she has a sweet, kind heart‬‬
‫‪she has the sweetest heart‬‬
‫‪she has a sweeter heart than her sister‬‬

‫فهذهـ ‪grammatical structure‬‬

‫‪ -2‬لما جزء الكلمة ال يمكن مشاركته في الـ ‪grammatical structure‬‬

‫مثل الفرق بين ‪ baseball‬و ‪ hard ball‬لما أخذنـآ جزء من الكلمة اللي هو ‪hard‬‬

‫‪It was a baseball‬‬

‫هنا خطـأ ألنها ‪ compound‬فما نقدر نضيف ‪very‬‬
‫أما‬
‫‪It was a very hard ball‬‬
‫فالجملة صحيحة إذا ‪GS‬‬
‫من خالل الفرق بين اللغة المكتوبة و المنطوقة ‪3-‬‬
‫إذ أنه باللغة المنطوقة يكون في تحديد و تشديد لجزء محدد و منه يتضح نوع الكلمة‬
‫‪ :‬مثال عليها‬
‫‪high chair‬‬
‫‪ :‬فحسب نطقها بيختلف معناها‬
‫‪ a chair for children‬ممكن تكون بمعنى كرسي لألطفال‬
‫‪ a chair that is high‬و ممكن معناها‬

‫‪17‬‬
 ‫و كلهم يكتبوا على أنهم كلمتيــــــن‬

Chapter three :Process word formations

‫تناول موضوع عمليات تكوين الكلمات‬

1- compounding

It is a process of joining of two or more words into a single word.

Ex/alongside- breakfast.

2- invention: New words are totally invented such as Kodak , nylon .

3- Clipping:

+means cutting of the beginning or the ending of a word just leaving a part
to stand for the whole (as a single word)..

- when a word consists of more than one syllable we will reduce it to

become a shorter form.

e.g. ( gasoline→ gas, professor→ prof, advertisement→ ad, laboratory→

lab)

4-Acronyms:

+they are words formed from the initial (first) letters of a set of the word..

- All the Acronyms are pronounced as a single word.

e.g. (Compact Disk→CD- Video Cassette Recorder→ VCR- NATO- NASA)

5- Borrowing:

18
+means just taking over (using ) some words from another language..

- The English language has adopted a lot of loan words (borrowing).

e.g. ( Alcohol→ Arabic, piano→ Italian, boss→ Dutch, yoghurt→ Turkish

6- Back formation:

+It is a word of one type is reduced to form another word of different type.
they usually (the words in this process) nouns changing into becomes
verbs.. (n)→ (v)

e.g. (teacher→ teach, writer→ write, emotion→ emote.)

7-Echoism:

+the sound has the meaning of the word..

e.g. (Oh, wow, hay, Yeah)

-Chapter four :parts of speech :Form class

19
‫‪Part of Speech: Form Classes‬‬
‫‪ derivational‬و الـ ‪ inflection‬الفصل يتضمن كيفية معرفة الكآلس أو جزء أو نوع الكلمة من خالل الـ‬
‫المتصل فيها‬

‫‪ Nouns, Verbs,‬و اللي كانت خاصة ِبـ ‪ paramedic forms‬ألنه في الفصل السابق (‪ )11‬أخذنا الـ ‪4‬‬
‫‪Adjectives, and Adverbs‬‬

‫‪ Pronoun Paradigm‬خاص بالضمـآئر و هو ‪ paradigm‬و قلنا أنه في نوع آخر للـ ‪-‬‬

‫هذا النوع محدود و صغير الكآلس حقه (‪)closed and relatively small‬‬

‫وو يطلق عليه ‪structure classes‬‬

‫بعدها ذكر تاريخ نشأت القاعدات من خالل األزمنة و الخلفية التاريخية السابقة خاصة مع الآلتينيـة‬

‫هو المسمى الذي يطلق على الشيء المرئي و المسموع و المحسوس و المفهوم ‪َ noun‬فـ تعريف االسم‬

‫و أعطى مثال على ذلك الكلمة اإلنجليزية و أيش يطلق عليها بالآلتينية‬

‫‪1-Nouns‬‬

‫‪Nouns are names of persons, places, objects and ideas. Examples are :‬‬

‫‪persons: student, Walid, mother‬‬

‫‪animals: cat, frog, horse‬‬

‫‪places: library, street, Egypt‬‬

‫‪things: desk, table, chair‬‬

‫‪ideas: friendship, love, honesty‬‬

‫‪2-Verbs‬‬

‫‪20‬‬
Verbs are words that express action. They also indicate when the action takes place
through the tense used

examples: bark, read, write, talk, play, decide

3- Adjectives
Adjectives are words that describe a noun or a pronoun. An adjective could define the
number, color, state, or kind of a noun or pronoun

Number: five, ten , thirty

Color: green, red, brown
State: old, tidy, respectable
Kind: Italian, comical

‫تأتي الصفات عادة في اللغة االنجليزية قبل االسماء‬

red rose, hot tea, beautiful girl :‫مثال‬

:‫ مثال‬verb be ‫و لكنها ممكن ان تأتي بعض االفعال مثل‬

she is beautiful
He is smart
We are happy
linking verbs ‫او بعد االفعال التي تعبر عن الحاالت او كيف تبدو االشياء‬

The food tastes good

The perfume smells nice
He looks sad

Adverbs -4‫ا‬

21
Adverbs are words that describe a verb giving additional information about when,
where, or how the action occurred

When: yearly, often, yesterday, always, usually

Where: away, down, outside, up
How: loudly, correctly, fast,

Chapter five :Inflectional paradigm

A paradigm is a set of related forms having the same stem but different
affixes .Paradigm are also formed by the words to which the inflectional
affixes are attached .

1- Noun paradigm :
The Noun Paradigm Includes (S) Plural , Possessive And Plural Plus
Possessive Together
EX / man – men (-s plural)
Ex/ woman’s( POSSESSIVE )
Ex/ Women’s(possessive + plural).

2-Verb Paradigim . : in the verb paradigm , threre are five forms of

the verb :
1- The stem : such as “show”
2- The third person singular : shows
3- Present particple :showing .
4- Past tense : showed .
5- Past particple : showed .

22
Each from has its own uses:

1. The stem It occurs after to, after auxiliaries, and in the present tense,
except for the third person singular.

to sit, can go, we eat

2. The present third-person singular It is used with the pronouns he, she, it,
and with singular words or with groups for which these pronouns will
substitute.

That freshman cuts his class every Wednesday. He cuts his class every
Wednesday Each is expected to do his duty. Somebody has left a note for
you. Winning the championship cuts no ice with me.

3. The present participle {-ING vb} form

It combines with seven of the eight forms of be—am, is, are, was, were, be,
been —to make verb phrases.

I am writing a letter. He/ She is writing a letter. They are writing letters.
He/ She was writing a letter. They were writing letters. He must be going
now. She must have been sleeping.

It is also used as a subjectless verbal, that is, when it is not the main verb
and does not have a subject.

His passion used to be playing golf.

However, they are in common use as subjectless verbals, as in

Owing a cabin in the north woods, Jack was very popular during the
summer vacation period. Not knowing what to say, Marilyn maintained a
discreet silence.

A few verbs—referring to mental activities—are seldom heard in the {-ING

vb} such as own, need, prefer, know, hear, like, remember, and
understand.

23
*Jack is owing a cabin in the north woods. *She was not knowing what to
do.

The present-participle verbal {-ING vb} morpheme should not be confused

with the nominal {-ING nm} morpheme or the adjectival {-ING aj}
morpheme.

4. The past Tense {-D pt} The most usual forms of the past tense end in the
allomorphs /-t/, /-d/, and /əәd/, as in passed, pleased, and parted.

It takes other irregular numerous forms, e.g., shrunk, led, began, rode,
found, know, swore, shook.

5. The past participle {-D pp} It has numerous forms. The most frequently
occurring end in the same three sounds mentioned in the past tense; /-t/,
/-d/, and /-əәd/, but here they are allomorphs of {-D pp}. The past
participle is used with have, has, had, having to from verbal phrases.

She has selected a stunning gown. He had never flown in a helicopter. It is

also used with the forms of be to form the passive. The orchestra was
selected by the committee. The missing man had been found. The past-
participial verbal {-D pp} morpheme should not be confused with the
adjectival {-D aj} morpheme.

-Suppletion

It is a process that has affected some of the forms within the paradigm of
particular verbs. Let’s look at the five-part verb go.

go goes going went gone The form went seems out of place. It out to be
*goed, or at least a word that begins with /g/. But the entire stem /go-/ has
been replaced by a wholly different stem /wɛnt/. The total change within a
paradigm is called suppletion, and the new form is a suppletive form.
/wɛnt/ = /go > wɛn/ + /t/

In English, the verb be has eight paradigmatic forms:

be am/is/are being was/were been

24
The stem is be and the forms am, is, are, was, were are suppletive forms.

3-Comparable paradigm .
Comparable paradigm forms “er” comparative and “est” superlative ,
in addition to the stem .
Ex/Sweet (stem) - sweeter (comparative) ,- sweetest (superlative).

Note/
In theses paradigms the stem does not receive any changes in its
forms , changes usually happen in the inflections of the stem .

25
Chapter Six: Parts of speech structure classes .

-Qualifiers

A qualifier is a word or phrase (such as very,rather,too) that precedes an

adjective or adverb, increasing or decreasing the quality signified by the
word it modifies.
Ex/ That is very kind of you .

-Prepositions

Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns
(sometimes also in front of gerund verbs).
Ex/ George sat between the two deans .

-Determiners

A determiner is a word that patterns with a noun .it precedes the noun and
serves as a single that a noun is soon to follow .
Ex/ the man .

Ex/ the new teacher .

26
 ‫‪Auxiliaries‬‬

‫‪ -1‬أول نوع اسمه ‪Modal Auxiliaries‬‬

‫و هي اللي يجي بعدها الفعل بالمصدر دون أي تصريف مثل ‪can, could, may, might, will, would ...etc‬‬

‫‪Ex/ I can run fast.‬‬

‫‪ :‬و لها عدة خصائص‬

‫‪ -1‬في زمن المضارع البسيط إن كان الفاعل ضمير متكلم مفرد ‪third person singular‬‬
‫الـ ‪ Aux‬ما راح يآخذ ‪ -s‬أبدً ا‬
‫مثال ‪She may go to see you in the morning :‬‬
‫الفاعل ‪َ she‬فـ ‪ may‬ال تآخذ ‪s‬‬
‫لو قلت ‪She mays go to see you in the morning :‬‬
‫فالجملة خطـأ‬
‫‪ can, may,‬أو المضارع ‪ could,might, would‬مالهم تصريف ثالث فقط أقدر أجيب منهم الماضي مثل ‪2-‬‬
‫‪will‬‬

‫‪These modal auxiliaries are used to express futurity, volition, probability,‬‬

‫‪permission ...etc‬‬

‫‪ must, ought‬أقدر أجيب منها الماضي و المضارع و البعض ما يجي منهم إال صيغة وحده مثل ‪ Aux‬بعض الـ‬
‫‪or ought to‬‬

‫لكنم من خالل سياق الجملة أقدر أجيب منها الماضي‬

‫‪ had‬بالماضي نستبدلها بِـ ‪َ must‬فـ لو بنستخدم‬

‫‪ : This morning I must to trim the hedge‬مثال‬

‫‪ :‬هذه الجملة بالمضارع لو بأقولها لكن بالماضي بتصير‬

‫‪Yesterday I had to trim the hedge‬‬

‫‪ must‬هذا لِـ‬

‫بعدها الفعل بالتصريف الثالث ‪ should / have‬فنجيب بعدها ‪ ought to‬أما لِـ‬

‫‪ :‬مثال بالمضارع‬

‫‪27‬‬
 You ought to see those strawberries

You ought to have/ should have seen those strawberries

2- Primary Auxiliaries
The primary verbs “DO ,HAVE ,BE” .

1-“To Be”

- Margaret is a brilliant student. (lexical verb)

- Margaret is applying to Yale. (auxiliary verb)

- Anne is happy . (Linking verb) .

2-“To Have”

- Frank has a good job. (lexical verb)

- Frank has just returned from a business trip. (auxiliary verb).

This verb carries many meanings like :

- Eat : I have my dinner .

- Drink: I have a cup of tea .

- Possess : I have a car .

- Face : I have a problem .

To Do

1- “Do” can appear as a (lexical verb)

- Nana does the crossword puzzle in the Sunday paper.

2- Also as (auxiliary verb).

28
- Nana doesn't go out much anymore.

3- It is also used for emphasis : I do study hard these days .

1- Pro-verb

Ex/ Robert cleaned his room but Tom did not do so .

Chapter six :the noun phrase :

..‫العباره االسميه‬

A noun phrase (often abbreviated to NP) is a convenient term for any of :

the following

1. A Noun

e.g. Ahmed, students

2. A Nominal Group

e.g. a blue pen, the students

.Each nominal group has a head and one or more modifiers

Modifiers add to, change or limit the meaning of the head in a phrase. The
.head is the word that determines the type of the phrase

For example, the word “pen” is a noun that can refer to any kind of pens.
When we modify it as in the previous example “a blue pen”, we limit the
noun so that it
.can only refer to a specific kind of pens.

Chapter seven : Basic Sentence patterns :

29
 1- N+be+adj. = Food is good .
2- N+be+Av. =The boy is here .
3- N1+be+N1= My brother is a doctor .

4- 4- N+Lv+Aj=She looks tired .

In the pattern four ,we have special verbs that are called linking
such “seem, appear , feel ,smell , become , remain ,.…etc .they
can occur in the present and in the past .

5-N1+LV+N1=She is remaining an outstanding student .

6-N+intransitive verb= They clapped .

In the pattern six the verb does not need object .But it sometimes
can be followed by an adverb such as
Ex/ They clapped loudly .

7-N1+TV+N2= the girl bought a dress .

In the pattern seven , we have N2 which is the direct object .
Transitive verbs usually take a verb after them .

8- N1+TrV+N2+N3= The mother bought the girl a dress .

Here , in this patter n we have two objects , direct and indirect ,
the animate thing is indirect while the animate is considered as a
direct object thus “dress” in the above sentence is direct object
whereas “the girl” is indirect object .

The verbs that take two objects like “give , send , offer , take ,teach …etc .

Extensive verbs are divided into either transitive or intransitive .

30
A-Transivitive verbs :

1- Mono-tranitive (SV0) : needs only one object

Ex/ She heard the explosion .

2-Ditranistive (SVoiod):She sent him a letter .

3-Complex tranisitive (SVOco) :We elected Tom a chairman .

31
‫هذه الملزمه هي ملخص للفصول االكاديميه التي درسها الطالب خالل مرحلة البكلوريوس وتمت‬
‫االستعانه ببعض المصادر الخارجيه للشرح لتوضيح بعض المواضيع المعقد نوعا ما في الكتاب‬
‫لذالك قد ترى بعض االمثله والتوضيحات غير موجوده في الكتاب المقرر‬

‫تمت بعون هللا‬

‫‪Good Luck‬‬

‫‪32‬‬