Lighthouse of Angkor

Dr U.
DOKRAS PhD Stockholm
LIGHTHOUSE of ANGKOR
Dr UDAY DOKRAS Ph D Stockholm, SWEDEN

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Dr U. DOKRAS PhD Stockholm
CONTENTS page 3
CHAPTER I-Angkor The Surprising Discovery page 4

CHAPTER II-Angkor -SPIRITUAL LIGHTHOUSE-To
Hinduism and Buddhism page 10
CHAPTER III-The Role of Astronomy at Angkor Wat page
20
CHAPTER IV The Bas FRelief Galleries at Angkor page 35
CHAPTER V
THE STORY OF ASTROLOGY IN ANGKOR WAT &
OTHER KHEMER TEMPLES page 74
CHAPTER VI-Role od n Astronomy in ANGKOR page 106
CHAPTER VII- What is an Aedicule in architecture? Page
114
CHAPTER VIII- The SPIRES of ANGKOR VAT page 130
ABOUT THE AUTHOR page 228
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INTRODUCTION
Writing is a continuous process. As soon as 10-12 essays get written
on the same domain, I put them together as a book. So many books
are born, yet they are all collections of my and my daughter Srishti’s
essays.
The Angkor Wat as well as the Khmer Architecture is a never
ending supply of knowledge to many authors, researchers and story
tellers ( like me) who churn out dozens of serious and semi -serious
articles on this ENIGMA called ANGKOR.
However, the word encompasses several items not just this temple or
that, this king or that but entire gamut of Sanskritization of these
far away lands. Far away, from the birthplace of Sanskrit- the
Hindu Country of what today is India and what in the olden days
was called BHARAT. I collaborate and try to collaborate with
various writers who ask me who I am? So I tell them that I am the
ultimate perfect person to write about the Sanskrit speaking S.E.
Asian countries. A Brahmin and a practicing Hindu – I am what
Jayavarman II and others were!
This gives me a wonderful advantage, insight and a quick grasp of
the subject. I thank the readers who have held me in love and
affection by becoming almost a million who read and appreciate my
work. But million, billion are just numbers the real love is in
devoting your time to appreciate mine. “A reader lives a
thousand lives before he dies . . . The man who never
reads lives only one.” -George R.R. Martin producer of Game of
Thrones. May you live a million, my dear reader.
Dr. UDAY DOKRAS
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CHAPTER I
Angkor The Surprising Discovery
The largest religious structure on earth has puzzled and enchanted visitors for centuries. How did it come to be? Jonathan Glancey
investigates. By Jonathan Glancey14th March 2017
The first Western visitor to Angkor
One hundred years after the fall of Angkor, in app.1550 or 1951, which when
King Satha Ang Chan went for a hunt he stumbled upon the ruins of the
Angkor Wat temple complex in the jungles. It is a known fact that Sâtha
became fascinated with Angkor having made it his capital (1571-
1576) commanding the partial restoration of the town.
António da Madalena a Portugese frair visited and stayed in

Angkor giving a detailed and faithful description of the town, in
particular of its many fountains and conduits that contributed to
make it “…the finest, the best regulated, and the cleanest of all
[cities] in the world.” Madalena’s narration to his friend Diogo do
Couto was lost for some years drawing a veil over the fascinating
city with its temples and palaces in these words :
“On one of the sides of this town there were incomplete

monuments which seem to have been the palaces of kings, because
the workmanship, sump- tuousness and grandeur immediately look
royal in their numerous cornices, leaf decoration, figures and other
ornamentation which delight the eye and witness to the skill of
their sculptors.”
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Henri Mouhot's diary
Bernard-Philippe Groslier became the first European to visit Angkor after a

long interregnum. In 1952-1953, he undertook his first excavations at Angkor, at
the Palais Royal of Angkor Thom. This was followed by a second season under the
EFEO at the Palais Royal and Rolous (Hariharalaya) in 1958. While the Franciscan
friar António da Madelena praised the beauty of the religious complex "like no other
monument in the whole world" he correctly attributes an Indian origin to the Khmer
architecture. In 1604, Dominican friar Gabriel Quiroga de San Antonio believed it
could be a temple of the of the lost tribes of Israel in these words:
It “is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a

pen, particularly since it is like no other building in the world. It has towers and
decoration and all the refinements which the human genius can conceive of.”
By the time of Madelena’s visit, the once mighty Khmer Empire that had built Angkor
and its temple dedicated to Vishnu – mistaken by visitors even today for a walled and
towered city – had fallen. Three centuries later, Europeans were baffled by what they
found at Angkor. Henri Mouhout, a young French naturalist and explorer who died
here in 1861 and whose writings, published posthumously, encouraged successive
waves of archaeologists to Cambodia in pursuit of a lost ancient civilization, could
make neither head nor tail of what he saw.
“One of these temples – a rival to that of Solomon and erected by some ancient
Michelangelo might take an honorable place beside our most beautiful buildings,” he
wrote. “It is grander than anything left to us by Greece or Rome, and presents a sad
contrast to the state of barbarism in which the nation is now plunged.”
The zenith of their once dynamic empire that, founded in 802, fell in 1431 when the
rival King of Thailand Ayutthaya kingdom sacked Angkor. The seat of the remnant
Khmer kingdom moved to Phnom Penh, Cambodia’s capital today.
Stranded in the jungle

Thanks to the forensic aerial mapping conducted since 2007 by Damian Evans and
Jean-Baptiste Chevance, using ground-sensing radar developed by Nasa we recognize
that Angkor Wat was the epicentre of a sprawling city at least as big as Berlin. At its
zenith during the reign of Jayavarman VII (1181-1218), it was the mighty heart of the
largest empire of its time.
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Angkor Wat has a massive moat surrounding the central temple complex – seen from the air, the entire site is
remarkable for its precise 90-degree angles
Mind boggling Angkor
Helen Churchill Candee's classic 1024 AD tale of Asian adventure Angkor-

The Magnificent - Wonder
City Of Ancient Cambodia further attracted attention to Angkor. "The tale of it is
incredible; the wonder which is Angkor is unmatched in Asia." So begins Helen
Churchill Candee's classic tale of Asian adventure. Today, readers can again
experience the mystery of Cambodia's vast jungle temples through her eyes. Helen
Churchill Candee is best known for surviving the sinking of the RMS Titanic.
Candee was traveling in Europe in the spring of 1912, completing research for The
Tapestry Book, when she received a telegram from her daughter, Edith, advising that
Candee's son, Harold ("Harry"), had been injured in an accident. From Paris, Candee
hurriedly booked passage home on the new luxury ocean liner, the RMS Titanic. On
the voyage, she socialized with other prominent travelers, such as President Taft's
military aide, Major Archibald Butt, Col. Gracie, and the painter Francis Davis Millet.
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Since baggage and personal items were not allowed aboard the lifeboats, Candee gave
two precious items, an ivory cameo miniature of her mother and a small flask of
brandy, to a male friend, New York architect Edward Austin Kent who had pockets.
These were later retrieved from his floating remains and, in 2006, sold at auction for
around $80,000 for the locket and $40,000 for the flask. Candee was able to
board lifeboat 6 but fell and fractured her ankle in the process. Also aboard was first
class passenger Margaret Brown (aka "the unsinkable Molly Brown"); both women
manned the oars of the lifeboat.
Candee subsequently gave a short interview about her experiences to the Washington
Herald and wrote a detailed article on the disaster for Collier's Weekly. This cover story
was one of the first in-depth eyewitness accounts of the sinking published in a major
magazine. The article hinted at a romantic involvement with an unidentified male
passenger, believed to be an amalgam of two of her escorts en route, New York
architect Edward Austin Kent and London investor Hugh Woolner.
Candee's Titanic injury required her to walk with a cane for almost a year, but by
March 1913, she was able to join other feminist equestriennes in the "Votes for
Women" parade down Pennsylvania Avenue (Washington, D.C.), riding her horse at the
head of the procession that culminated at the steps of Capitol Hill.
During World War I, Candee worked as a nurse in Rome and Milan under the auspices
of the Italian Red Cross, which decorated her for her service. One of her patients in
Milan was Ernest Hemingway.
After the war, she traveled to Japan, China, Indonesia, and Cambodia, and her
adventures became the basis for two of her most celebrated books: Angkor the
Magnificent (1924) and New Journeys in Old Asia (1927). Candee was honored by the
French government and the King of Cambodia for these works; she was also
commanded to give a reading of Angkor to King George V and Queen
Mary at Buckingham Palace.
Helen Candee, son Harry, their guide, and "Effie" the elephant at Angkor Wat (1922)
Angkor the Magnificent was the first major English-language study of the ruins of
the ancient Khmer temple Angkor Wat and its environs. Called the "Lost City" or the
"Wonder City", Angkor Wat is considered one of the great man-made wonders of the
world. Largely unknown to Westerners until the publication of Candee's book, its
subsequent popularity laid groundwork for the modern tourist market in
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Cambodia. On Candee's initial southeast Asian trips in 1922-23 she was accompanied
by her son, Harry, with whom she trekked through the then dangerous jungles with
their native guide, riding atop the great elephant she named "Effie". On later visits, the
author was joined by her friend and collaborator, illustrator Lucille Douglass.
Although The Tapestry Book was the most lucrative book Candee wrote, Angkor the
Magnificent was the most acclaimed.
The success of Angkor and New Journeys led to a prosperous secondary career for
Candee as a lecturer on the Far East, while her work as a journalist continued apace.
She was briefly Paris editor for Arts & Decoration (1920–21) and remained on that
publication's editorial advisory staff for several years.
In 1925, Candee was among the nine founding members of the Society of Woman
Geographers. As late as 1935-36, when she was almost 80, Candee was still traveling
abroad, writing articles for National Geographic magazine. She walked with kings,
presidents, the wealthy and the powerful. entertaining, educating and influencing
them. This independent woman championed feminine equality and fought tirelessly for
woman's rights. And, as a single woman, she traveled the Far East with a keen eye for
detail, an inquisitive mind, and a sensitivity for local culture. Helen Candee's
travelogue remains one of the most evocative English language accounts of the ancient
Khmer capital. This expanded hardcover edition marks the first reissue of her
complete 1924 work with more than 100 antique illustrations, an index and
bibliography. For the first time in print, this edition also features an original biography
of Helen Candee by historian Randy Bryan Bigham, and a reprint of Candee's original
account of the Titanic disaster itself. In 2012, Evans, a faculty member of the
Department of Archaeology at the University of Sydney and founding member and
deputy director of the Greater Angkor Project, and Chevance, an archaeologist with the
École française d’Extrême-Orient, founded in 1900, discovered the ‘lost city’ of
Mahendraparvata on the plateau of Phnom Kulen. Twenty-five miles north of Angkor,
this planned city with its grid of boulevards had been hidden by vegetation for
centuries. Founded by the warrior-priest monarch Jayavarman II in 802, it was the
‘template’ of Angkor and its great temple. Since 2012, Mahendraparvata has proved to
be even bigger than Evans and Chevance had first thought.
This drawing of the temple’s façade was made by Henri Mouhout, a French explorer who visited the site in
the mid 19th Century and could not believe his eyes
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The discovery of this city was only possible thanks to Lidar, a form of aerial laser
scanning that, mounted in helicopters, sees through the ground below, identifying
streets and buildings where all the human eye can see is fields and forests.
Jayavarman VII was the ruler of the Khmer Empire from 1181 to 1218 and is widely
regarded as its most powerful leader – he oversaw the completion of the temple.
The sheer scale of Angkor is mind-bending. From its moated temple with its lotus-bud
towers, its courtyards and galleries, friezes of warriors, kings, demons, battles and
three thousand heavenly nymphs, all shaped in thirty-seven years by 300,000 workers
and 6,000 elephants, or so inscriptions say, from millions of sandstone slabs floated
down from Phnom Kulen, Angkor stretched for miles around.
Urban planning
This, perhaps, was the first low-density a vast-reaching metropolis, flouting an
ambitious network of roads and canals, reservoirs and dams carved from the forest.
What’s more, Khmer cities were connected to one another, so the “built-up” area of
Angkor seems to have been bigger than anyone today, much less barefoot 16th
Century Portuguese friars, has been able to figure. An enormous and intricate
irrigation system mapped by Evans and Chevance provided Angkor with food – rice for
the main part – and yet the ever-increasing scale of this engineered and well populated
landscape was, it seems, its undoing.1
“Angkor overreached itself. It was not simply military invasion from what is now
Thailand that hastened the fall of the Khmer Empire, but the imperious ambition of
rulers and cities. What proved to be overpopulation caused unsustainable
deforestation, the degradation of topsoil and the overworking of the irrigation system
that would have required a huge workforce to keep it in a permanent state of good
repair.For all the raised roadways with rest houses sited every 15km (9 miles) and
hospitals built by Jayavarman VII, who used ambitious architecture and grand plans
to keep the peace as well as to express the confidence and culture of the Khmer
Empire, the jungle would reclaim these mighty works.”
Angkor today, along with such romantic temples as Jayavarman VII’s Ta Prohm,
where enormous cotton silk trees and their fairy-tale roots appear to hold the
architecture in wild embrace, and known to cinema goers through the film Lara Croft:
Tomb Raider (2001), is threatened anew not by invading armies but by mass tourism.
Already, brash new ‘luxury’ air-conditioned tour-group hotels, featuring swimming
pools, hot tubs and spas, dominate the once small French Colonial town of Siem Reap,
no longer a walk, but now an air-conditioned coach ride from Angkor Wat.
Such is the use of water by the millions of tourists heading this way each year that the
water table of the area under sandy soil is threatened. Its decline is damaging the very
stones of the 12th-Century temple; meanwhile, visitors take photographs of
themselves and shout into theirΩΩ mobile phones.
As laser-mapping technology becomes more readily available, perhaps archaeologists

might help to divert some of the millions heading to Angkor Wat to elsewhere in
Cambodia and Southeast Asia. Even so, what Angkor has that will keep drawing the
crowds is the world’s biggest temple – and one that remains enigmatically
magnificent.2
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________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.Mahendraparvata: an early Angkor-period capital defined through airborne laser scanning at

Phnom Kulen, Jean-Baptiste Chevance,Damian Evans,Nina Hofer,Sakada Sakhoeun and
Ratha Chhean,Published online by Cambridge University Press: 15 October 2019
2. https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20170309-the-mystery-of-angkor-wat
In an article titles-What does the new imaging technology unveil about Angkor?
Lasers reveal ancient Cambodian cities hidden by jungle near Angkor Wat , Lacy Cooke
states that” a thrilling new discovery, archaeologists used laser imaging technology
to reveal ancient cities hidden by jungle in Cambodia. The LiDAR data provides
information on waterways, iron smelting locations, and even another temple, Preah
Khan. The discovery reveals that the cities near Angkor Wat were much larger than
previously thought.
Angkor Wat was built during the reign of King Suryavarman II of the Khmer Empire in
the early to middle 1100s, and it was part of one of the biggest ancient cities.
Archaeologists suspected there had to be more to the area, and research has been
underway for several years. The new data appears to confirm these suspicions.
Archaeologist Damian Evans said to AFP, “The LiDAR quite suddenly revealed an
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entire cityscape there with astonishing complexity. It turned out we’d been walking
and flying right over the top of this stuff for ten years and not even noticing it because
of the vegetation. What we had was basically a scatter of disconnected points on the
map denoting temple sites. Now it’s like having a detailed street map of the entire
city.”
Back in 2012, scans revealed an ancient temple city close to Angkor Wat called
Mahendraparvata, and the new scans will assist archaeologists on the ground as they
continue to explore that area. It had been difficult for archaeologists to determine the
extent of this area because the empire constructed many of the ancient buildings with
wood that’s since rotted. Made of stone, the temples endure. Archaeologists saw
evidence of both Hinduism and Buddhism in the temples; both religions were part of
the Khmer Empire during different time periods.”
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CHAPTER II
Angkor -SPIRITUAL LIGHTHOUSE
To Hinduism and Buddhism
King Suryavarman II/Angkor Wat

History mentions many ancient lost cities of the world that were drowned, abandoned, or
merely lost in the wilderness. Many of these were eventually forgotten with the passage of time
until some wanderer or historian accidentally or intentionally discovered the ruins. Thanks to
these people, we came to know of these hidden beautiful places in the world.
There is no end to the list of the lost cities of the ancient world. But, to make things easier for
you, we have listed some of the lost cities of the world that were eventually discovered.
Lost Cities Of The World
Exploring places that were once significant centers of trade, economy, and culture but lost their
significance with the passing centuries tells us mysterious stories of the bygone days. Here is the
list of the lost cities of the world, starting with domestic sites followed by international hidden
gems. Read on to know the interesting facts about the lost cities of the world:
1. Kalibangan – Rajasthan
2. Lothal – Gujarat
3. Dwarka – Gujarat
4. Sanchi – Madhya Pradesh
5. Vijayanagara – Hampi
6. Mohenjo-daro – Sindh
7. Taxila – Rawalpindi
8. Caral – Barranca
9. Machu Picchu – Cusco
10. Calakmul – Campeche
11. Lagunita – Yucatán
12. Göbekli Tepe – Örencik
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13. Troy – Çanakkale

14. Mesa Verde – Colorado
15. Skara Brae – Orkney
16. Pompeii – Campania
17. Leptis Magna – Khoms
18. Helike – Achaea
19. Heracleion – Alexandria
20. Petra – Ma’an Governorate
21. Angkor Wat
22. Borobudur
Many boasted of huge and gigantic constructions., some of whom still stand.
The hampi, the Sanchi Atupa city, Alexandria, Helike – Achaea, Heracleion or Alexandria, the
Petra or Ma’an Governorate, the Angkor Wat and the Borobudur all boasted of pinnacular
constructions, amazing heights and gigantic stature of the civil work. Why was that so:
1. To talk of the Glory of the empire

2. The Glory of the builder( King)
3. Tal keep the subjects in awe
4. To develop a sense of pride in them
5. To attract them towards the polity and to keep them subjugated
THE LIGHTHOUSE AT ALEXANDRIA

Giving the example of the lighthouse at Alexandria from my book of the same name, I reproduce the
following passages
After its construction by Alexander the Great, the city of Alexandria quickly became the center of Greek
learning. Under the rule of Ptolemy I the city became both a well of knowledge and extremely prosperous
harbor. However, the city needed both a symbol and a mechanism to guide the many trade ships into the
busy harbor. Thus Ptolemy authorized the building of the Pharos( as the Light House will be called off
and on in this Book) in 290 B.C., and when it was completed some twenty years later, it was the first
lighthouse in the world and the tallest building in existence, with the exception of the Great Pyramid.
Description
The lighthouse was built on an island off the coast of Alexandria called Pharos. Its name, legend says, is a
variation of Pharaoh's Island. The island was connected to the mainland by means of a dike - the
Heptastadion - which gave the city a double harbor. The lighthouse was constructed of marble blocks
with lead mortar and was composed of three stages: The lowest square, 55.9 m (183.4 ft) high with a
cylindrical core; the middle octagonal with a side length of 18.30 m (60.0 ft) and a height of 27.45 m
(90.1 ft); and the third circular 7.30 m (24.0 ft) high. The total height of the building including the
foundation base was about 117 m (384 ft), the same as a 40-story modern building. On top of the tower
was a cylinder that extended up to an open cupola where where the fire that provided the light burned. On
the roof of the cupola was a large statue of Poseidon, while the lower portion of the building contained
hundreds of storage rooms. The interior of the upper two sections had a shaft with a dumbwaiter that was
used to transport fuel up to the fire. Staircases allowed visitors and the keepers to climb to the beacon
chamber. There, according to reports, a large curved mirror, perhaps made of polished metal, was used to
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project the fire's light into a beam. It was said ships could detect the light from the tower at night or the
smoke from the fire during the day up to one-hundred miles away. The lighthouse's designer was a
famous architect, Sostrates of Knidos. Legend states that being proud of his work, Sostrates, desired to
have his name carved into the foundation. Ptolemy II, the son who ruled Egypt after his father, refused
this request wanting his own name to be the only one on the building. Sostrates had the inscription:
SOSTRATES SON OF DEXIPHANES OF KNIDOS ON BEHALF OF ALL MARINERS TO THE
SAVIOR GODS
chiseled into the foundation, then covered it with plaster. Into the plaster was chiseled Ptolemy's name.
As the years went by the plaster aged and chipped away revealing Sostrates' declaration.
How long did it take to construct: The Lighthouse of Alexandria, sometimes called the Pharos of
Alexandria, was a lighthouse built by the Ptolemaic Kingdom between 280 and 247 BC which has been
estimated to be 100 metres in overall height. One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, for many
centuries it was one of the tallest man-made structures in the world. Badly damaged by three earthquakes
between AD 956 and 1323, it then became an abandoned ruin. It was the third longest surviving ancient
wonder (after the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the extant Great Pyramid of Giza) until 1480, when
the last of its remnant stones were used to build the Citadel of Qaitbay on the site. In 1994, French
archaeologists discovered some remains of the lighthouse on the floor of Alexandria's Eastern Harbour.
The Ministry of State of Antiquities in Egypt has planned, as of late 2015, to turn submerged ruins of
ancient Alexandria, including those of the Pharos, into an underwater museum.
he lighthouse was constructed in the 3rd century BC. After Alexander the Great died, the first Ptolemy
(Ptolemy I Soter) announced himself king in 305 BC, and commissioned its construction shortly
thereafter. The building was finished during the reign of his son, the second Ptolemy (Ptolemy II
Philadelphus). It took twelve years to complete, at a total cost of 800 talents, and served as a prototype for
all later lighthouses in the world. The light was produced by a furnace at the top, and the tower was said
to have been built mostly with solid blocks of limestone.
Strabo reported that Sostratus had a dedication inscribed in metal letters to the "Saviour Gods". Later
Pliny the Elder wrote that Sostratus was the architect, which is disputed. In the second century AD the
satirist Lucian wrote that Sostratus inscribed his name under plaster bearing the name of Ptolemy. This
was so that when the plaster with Ptolemy's name fell off, Sostratus's name would be visible in the
stone.There are numerous rumors as to how the lighthouse fell. One story states that the lighthouse was
demolished through trickery. In 850 A.D. the Emperor of Constantinople, a rival port, devised a clever
plot to get rid of the Pharos. He spread rumors that buried under the lighthouse was a fabulous treasure.
When the Caliph at Cairo who controlled Alexandria heard these rumors, he ordered that the tower be
pulled down to get at the treasure. It was only after the great mirror had been destroyed and the top two
portions of the tower removed that the Caliph realized he'd been deceived. He tried to rebuild the tower,
but couldn't, so he turned it into a mosque instead. This story, however, is hard to believe since there are
texts stating that the lighthouse was still up and running in 1115 A.D. thus it couldn't have been destroyed
in 850. The most likely cause of the collapse was that in AD 956, an earthquake shook Alexandria, but
caused little damage to the Lighthouse. It was later in 1303 and in 1323 that two stronger earthquakes
causes the structure to collapse, sinking into the ocean. Finally in 1480 A.D. when the Egyptian
Mamelouk Sultan, Qaitbay, decided to fortify Alexandria's defense, he built a medieval fort on the same
spot where the Lighthouse once stood, using the fallen stone and marble.1
Scholars have called the Lighthouse of Alexandria the only practical wonder since it served a utilitarian
purpose. We have plenty of information about it, but some are conflicting accounts. The story of the
lighthouse begins with Alexander the Great.
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According to Plutarch, Alexander had a dream in which he was told to seek the small island of Pharos,
located just off the coast of ancient Egypt. He chose Ptolemy I Soter, one of his army's generals, to settle
the island. Ptolemy decided that Pharos needed something to identify it, both symbolically and literally --
its coast was difficult to navigate.
Some scholars credit the idea for the lighthouse to Ptolemy and others attribute it to the mouseion, a
governmental brain trust [source: Smithsonian]. Around 285 B.C., construction began. A man
named Sostrates of Knidos was instrumental to the process. By some accounts, he was the financial
backer for the project -- the lighthouse cost about 800 talents, bars of silver, equal to roughly three million
dollars [source: Princeton]. Other accounts identify him as the lighthouse's architect.
Even if we can't be sure of the lighthouse's architect, we are certain of its architecture. It was built with
marble and mortar and composed of three stories. The first level was rectangular, the second octagonal
and the third cylindrical. Perched atop the third story was a statue -- either of Zeus or Poseidon, god of the
sea. Records from Moorish travelers in the tenth century A.D. say that the lighthouse was 300 cubits high,
which converts to about 450 feet (137 meters).A spiral ramp led to its entrance. Carts and workhorses
could be led up to the first level to the hundreds of storage rooms. To access the upper levels, one had to
use the spiral staircase. Dumbwaiters lifted supplies to the highest tower.
German sculptors work on a sand replica of the pharos during a sand sculpting competition in
Ships could supposedly see the lighthouse from a hundred miles away [source: PharosLighthouse.org].
During the day, light was reflected from the sun with a concave metal disc; at night, light came from a
bonfire, fueled by firewood or dried animal dung. The lighthouse survived through more than
22 earthquakes before it came toppling down in 1303. The people of Pharos loved their lighthouse dearly -- it
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was a source of power and revenue for the island. They attempted to repair and restore the lighthouse
throughout the ninth and thirteenth centuries when it became clear that it could no longer be saved.
Today, a fort stands on its site. The identity of Pharos became so enmeshed with the lighthouse that the
lighthouse became alternately known as the Pharos of Alexandria. "Pharos" is also the root of the word
"lighthouse" in several languages. And our knowledge of the lighthouse continues to grow after a 1994
archaeological scuba expedition found sunken remnants of the lighthouse.
‫الـمـنـــارة‬
Al-Manarah
The Lighthouse of Alexandria
Dr. Uday Dokras

LASTING LEGACY
Supposedly, Sostrates was so proud of his creation that he asked to inscribe his name on the lighthouse.
Ptolemy II, who had succeeded his father by the project's completion, refused Sostrates' request. Sostrates
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inscribed his name anyway and covered it with a plaster inscription bearing Ptolemy's name. Over time, the
plaster weathered away, revealing his legacy.2 The Alexandria Lighthouse was built by the Ptolemaic
Kingdom sometime between 280 and 247 BC.
Similarly the Angkor wat and the Borobudur stupa were constructions done to create a lasting legacy.
Golden age of Khmer Civilization
Golden age of Khmer Civilization began they say with Suryavarman II – and the Angkor Wat temple
he laid the foundation to. The 12th century was a time of conflict and brutal power struggles.
Under Suryavarman II (reigned 1113–1150) the kingdom united internally and the large temple of
Angkor was built in a period of 37 years: Angkor Wat, dedicated to the god Vishnu.
In the east, his campaigns against Champa, and Dai Viet, were unsuccessful, though he
sacked Vijaya in 1145 and deposed Jaya Indravarman III. The Khmers occupied Vijaya until 1149,
when they were driven out by Jaya Harivarman I. Suryavarman II sent a mission to the Chola
dynasty of south India and presented a precious stone to the Chola emperor Kulottunga Chola I in
1114.
Another period followed in which kings reigned briefly and were violently overthrown by their
successors. Finally, in 1177 the capital was raided and looted in a naval battle on the Tonlé Sap
lake by a Cham fleet under Jaya Indravarman IV, and Tribhuvanadityavarman was killed.
Jayavarman VII – Angkor Thom
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Portrait statue of Jayavarman VII/Bronze replica of one of the twenty-three stone images sent by King
Jayavarman VII to different parts of his kingdom in 1191/Bayon, the state temple located at the center of
Jayavarman VII's capital, Angkor Thom
King Jayavarman VII (reigned 1181–1219) was generally considered Cambodia's greatest king.
He had already been a military leader as a prince under the previous kings. After the Cham had
conquered Angkor, he gathered an army and regained the capital. He ascended the throne and
continued the war against the neighbouring eastern kingdom for another 22 years, until the
Khmer defeated Champa in 1203 and conquered large parts of its territory. According to Chinese
sources, Jayavarman VII added Pegu to the territory of the Khmer Empire in 1195.
Jayavarman VII stands as the last of the great kings of Angkor, not only because of his
successful war against the Cham, but also because he was not a tyrannical ruler in the manner of
his immediate predecessors. He unified the empire and carried out noteworthy building projects.
The new capital, now called Angkor Thom (literally: "Great City"), was built. In the centre, the
king (himself a follower of Mahayana Buddhism) had constructed as the state temple the
Bayon,with towers bearing faces of the boddhisattva Avalokiteshvara, each several metres high,
carved out of stone. Further important temples built under Jayavarman VII were Ta Prohm for
his mother, Preah Khan for his father, Banteay Kdei, and Neak Pean, as well as the reservoir
of Srah Srang. An extensive network of roads was laid down connecting every town of the
empire, with rest-houses built for travelers and a total of 102 hospitals established across his
realm.
18
Jayavarman VIII – the last blooming

After the death of Jayavarman VII, his son Indravarman II (reigned 1219–1243) ascended the
throne. Like his father, he was a Buddhist, and he completed a series of temples begun under his
father's rule. As a warrior he was less successful. In the year 1220, under mounting pressure from
increasingly powerful Đại Việt, and its Cham alliance, the Khmer withdrew from many of the
provinces previously conquered from Champa. In the west, his Thai subjects rebelled,
establishing the first Thai kingdom at Sukhothai and pushing back the Khmer. In the following
200 years, the Thais would become the chief rivals of Kambuja.
Flip flop of religions: Indravarman II who was a Buddhist was succeeded by Jayavarman
VIII (reigned 1243–1295). a follower of Hindu Shaivism and an aggressive opponent of
Buddhism. He again reverted many Buddhist temples to Hindu temples. Jayavarman VIII's rule
ended in 1295 when he was deposed by his son-in-law Srindravarman (reigned 1295–1309) who
was a Theravada Buddhist. In August 1296, the Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan arrived
at Angkor and his account informs us that the towers of the Bayon were once covered in gold.
LIGHTHOUSE to the EMPIRE
The seeds, however, were sown by the man with a grandiose vision and even bigger
ambitions-Jayavarman II (reigned c. 802–850) was a 9th-century king
of Cambodia/Kambojadesa, widely recognized as the founder of the Khmer Empire, the
dominant civilisation on the Southeast Asian mainland until the mid 15th century. He was a
powerful Khmer king who overthrew the rule of the Shailendra Dynasty from Java. Historians
formerly dated his reign as running from 802 AD to 835 AD. Jayavarman II founded many
capitals such as Mahendraparvata, Indrapura (Khmer), Amarendrapura, and Hariharalaya. Before
Jayavarman II came to power, there was much fighting among local overlords who ruled
different parts of Cambodia. The country was not unified under one ruler. No inscriptions by
19
Jayavarman II have been found. Future kings of the Khmer Empire described him as a warrior
and the most powerful king from that time frame that they can recall. His reign began with the
grandiose consecration ritual conducted on sacred Mount Mahendraparvata, now known as Phnom
Kulen. At that ceremony Prince Jayavarman II was proclaimed a universal monarch (Kamraten jagad ta
Raja in Cambodian) or God King (Deva Raja in Sanskrit). These two titles were taken simultaneously or
preceded each other is not clear. I sjubscribe to the theoreu that he became DEVARAJA King of the Gods
and was ;posthumously made Chakravartin. ( See my paper titled Chakravartin on academia.edu) and
whether jagad ta Raja was something that followed the DEVRAJA title or separate title he toon later on
is not clear. ( whether he took theat title itself is contentious).
The Sdok Kok Thom Inscription, (1052AD) one of the world’s ancient testaments. recovered at a ruined
temple of the same name in Thailand close to the Cambodian border is a the 340-line chronicle that
unlocks the early history of the Khmer Empire. The founding of an empire, the settling of frontier lands, a
king’s gifting of gold pitchers and black-eared stallions to a Brahmin priest – these and other remarkable
stories come down to us in it. 1
His coronation on Mount Kulen and later building activities were all made to galvanize the
people. Especially so since he came from another place.. He could have been of aristocratic birth,
“For the prosperity of the people in this perfectly pure royal race, great lotus which no longer has
a stalk, he rose like a new flower,” declares one inscription. Various other details are recounted
in inscriptions: he married a woman named Hyang Amrita; and he dedicated a foundation at
Lobok Srot, in the southeast.
._______________________________________________________________________
Stories in Stone: The Sdok Kok Thom Inscription & the Enigma of Khmer History Kindle Edition
by John Burgess (Author) Format: Kindle Edition
20
Once established in the Angkor region, he appears to have reigned not only in Hariharalaya,
located just north of the Tonle Sap lake, but also at a place that inscriptions call Amarendrapura.
It has not been positively identified, though some historians believe it to be a now lost settlement
at the western end of the West Baray, the eight kilometer-long holy reservoir that was built about
two centuries after his death. No single temple is positively associated with Jayavarman, but
some historians suggest he may have built Ak Yum, a brick stepped pyramid, now largely
ruined, at the southern edge of the West Baray. The temple was a forerunner to the mountain-
temple architectural form of later Khmer kings.
This king of kinds business and also the King of Gods (Vishnu) business was extended by the
following dynasties. It is quite probable that Angkor was designed as a modest sized temple but
succeeding King added more and more.
21
The many LIGHTHOUSES of the South East Asian skies
22
23
CHAPTER III
The Role of Astronomy at Angkor Wat
Angkor Wat is surrounded by a 200-m.-wide moat, crossed by a bridge on the west. At the end of the
bridge is a 200-m. long entrance structure: three central towers flanked on the north and south by a long,
pillared corridors that end in entrance gateways opening flat on the ground. An enclosing wall stretches
from these gateways around the temple compound.
The temple is built with incredible accuracy. Dated Khmer inscriptions begin with an elaborate
description of the location of the planets, sun, and moon in both the solar zodiac signs and lunar
constellations on the day the event in the inscription took place. This system also mentions whether the
date in question was in the waxing or waning half of the lunar month, and on which day of the week.
Astronomy is listed more than once among the subjects taught to Khmer kings. Based on the evidence of
stone inscriptions then, it would have been clear even to the most casual reader that astronomy played an
important role in the elite strata of Khmer society.
There is a 352-m. western causeway that leads from the main entrance of the temple (just cited) to the
central three galleries. The outer (third) gallery is decorated with bas-reliefs and dedicated to the history
of the king. The next (second) gallery has bare walls and was dedicated to the god Brahma and the moon.
The last (first) gallery surrounds the central tower and was dedicated to Vishnu as a Supreme Deity. We
do not know the name of the image of Vishnu that was once in the central tower. Both the first and second
galleries of the temples have towers over their corner pavilions, the third gallery has corner pavilions
without towers.
24
Synopsis
The temple of Angkor Wat was constructed in the first half of the twelfth century by King Suryavarman II
(r. 1113-ca. 1150). Astronomy enters into the meaning, format, and bas-relief decoration of the temple in
three different ways. First of all, when the measurements of Angkor Wat are translated into the cubit unit
used in the temple's construction, lunar and solar calendrical cycles are revealed in axial and
circumference lengths. Secondly, there are several solar and lunar alignments between western points
along the axis and the towers in the central galleries. Both the calendrical dimensions and the alignments
were definitive elements in determining the format of the temple. In addition to actual sight lines, the
solstice sun casts light onto specific segments of the bas-reliefs and corridors, planned so as to literally
illuminate the selected segments with solar meaning. Finally, the composition and content of the panels of
bas-reliefs further define solar and lunar periodicity. In particular, the scene of the Churning of the Sea of
Milk (Milky Way) has been chosen here to demonstrate its calendrical function. In the end, we find that
the king himself, in conjunction with the solar god Vishnu in the central sanctuary, is an integral part of
the solar and lunar symbolism revealed in the measurements, alignments, and bas-reliefs.
The temple of Angkor Wat at the site of Angkor in northwestern Cambodia was started in 1113 CE when
King Suryavarman II rose to power. Suryavarman died around 1150, at which time all work on the temple
came to a halt. In this brief span of 37 years, the king endowed a monument that is now recognized as one
of the world's most notable architectural achievements.
Several excellent and erudite papers and research articles have been written on the Astronomy of
Angkor including several of mine.
1. Time, Space, and Astronomy in Angkor Wat
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2889330_Time_Space_and_Astronomy_in_Angkor_W
at
2. Amelia Carolina Sparavigna. Solar Alignments of the Planning of Angkor Wat Temple Complex.
Philica, Philica, 2016, pp.591. ffhal-01312473f
3. THE ROLE OF ASTRONOMY IN THE “ANOMALOUS” ORIENTATIONS OF TWO

KHMER STATE-TEMPLES Giulio Magli School of Civil Architecture, Politecnico di Milano,
Italy Giulio.Magli@polimihttps://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1601/1601.01473.pdf
4. The Solar Numbers in Angkor Wat

Subhash Kak, Indian Journal of History of Science, vol. 34, 1999, pp. 117-126
https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/9811040
5. Stencel, R., Gifford, F., & Morón, E. (1976). Astronomy and Cosmology at Angkor
Wat. Science, 193(4250), 281–287. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1742346
6.
7. Archaeoastronomy in the Khmer Heartland, GIULIO MAGLI, Politecnico di Milano, Italy,
https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/sdh/article/view/22846/29089
25
8. Solstice Alignments at Angkor Wat and Nearby Temples-Connecting to the Cycles of

Time,William F. Romain, https://journal.equinoxpub.com/JSA/article/view/10647
9. Astronomical Myths in India1 Mayank Vahia Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Homi
BHabha Road, Mumbai 400 005, INDIA
vahia@tifr.res.inhttps://www.tifr.res.in/~archaeo/papers/Astronomy%20and%20Sanskrit%20liter
ature/Astronomical%20Myths%20in%20India.pdf
10. Equinox at Angkor Wat (ព្រឹត្តិការណ៏សមរាព្ត្ីនៅអង្គ រ),Sophia,

https://www.localguidesconnect.com/t5/General-Discussion/Equinox-at-Angkor-Wat
11. Solstice Azimuths as Design Elements at Angkor Wat and Nearby Temples, William F Romain
12. Astronomy and Cosmology at Angkor Wat,Parag

Mahajani https://www.scribd.com/document/162933027/Astronomy-and-Cosmology-at-Angkor-
Wat
And other’s referred to, quoted from and mimicked in this article. So, this attempt is just to simplify the
matter of how astronomy was used to build the temples and what role it played in order to behave as an
observatory. A condition created for posterity to marvel at.
PlanetQuest: The History of Astronomy
Angkor Wat
26
Background:
One of the most spectacular structures of astronomical significance that has ever been built is the temple
of Angkor Wat in what is now Cambodia.
Angkor Wat is the most famous temple at Angkor, a former capital of the Khmer empire. It was built by
King Suryavarman II in the 12th century, and is as immense as it is beautiful. Surrounded by a rectangular
moat 1.5 kilometers (0.9 mile) long and 1.3 kilometers (0.8 mile) wide, the structure itself consists of two
rectangular walls enclosing three nested rectangular galleries that culminate in a central spire surrounded
by four smaller towers. The straight lines of its moat, walls and galleries are oriented along the north-
south, east-west directions, and unlike most temples in the area its entrance faces west, being approached
by way of a long bridge that spans the moat.
The origins of the temple lie in what may be the world's oldest religious text, the Rigveda, one of the
four Veda Samhitas of Hindu literature. This text describes the gods of heaven and earth, including the
earthly god Vishnu, "The Preserver." It is to Vishnu that Angkor Wat is consecrated, and with more than
mere symbolic intent. Hindu temples were built to be earthly abodes for the gods. The central sanctuary
was the most sacred place, directly inline with the vertical axis of the central spire that provided the
connection between the realms of heaven and Earth. The surrounding architecture of the temple would
then mirror Hindu cosmology, being essentially a mandala in stone—a diagram of the cosmos itself.
Furthermore, the Khmer civilization had by the time of Angkor Wat's construction incorporated the idea
that a king would, after his death, be transmuted into one of the gods. Hence, it was at Angkor Wat that
Suryavarman II, after his death, was believed to reside as Vishnu.
Astronomical significance:
Astronomy and Hindu cosmology are
inseparably entwined at Angkor Wat. Nowhere
is this more evident than in the interior
colonnade, which is dedicated to a vast and
glorious carved mural, a bas-relief illustrating
the gods as well as scenes from the Hindu epic
the Mahabharata. Along the east wall is a 45-
meter (150-foot) scene illustrating the
"churning of the sea of milk," a creation myth
in which the gods attempt to churn the elixir of
immortality out of the milk of time. The north
wall depicts the "day of the gods," along the
west wall is a great battle scene from Photo courtesy of www.andybrouwer.co.uk
the Mahabharata, and the south wall portrays
the kingdom of Yama, the god of death. It has
been suggested that the choice and arrangement of these scenes was intended to tie in with the seasons—
the creation scene of the east wall is symbolic of the renewal of spring, the "day of the gods" is summer,
the great battle on the west wall may represent the decline of autumn, and the portrayal of Yama might
signify the dormancy, the lifeless time of winter.
27
The architecture of Angkor Wat also has numerous

astronomical aspects beyond the basic mandala plan that is
common to other Hindu temples. As many as eighteen
astronomical alignments have been identified within its walls.
To mention but three of them: when standing just inside the
western entrance, the Sun rises over the central tower on
the spring (vernal) equinox; it rises over a distant temple at
Prasat Kuk Bangro, 5.5 kilometers (3.4 miles) away, on
the winter solstice; and on the summer solstice it rises over a
prominent hill 17.5 kilometers (10.9 miles) away.
Finally, some researchers have claimed that the very dimensions of many of the structures at Angkor Wat
have astronomical associations. These associations emerge from consideration of the unit of length that
was in use at that time, a unit known as the hat or "Cambodian cubit." There is some question as to how
long a hat was, and indeed its definition may not have been uniformly applied; but a value of 43.45
centimeters (17.1 inches) for the length of a hat is suggested by the structures themselves.
Using this value, archaeologists discovered numerous dimensions of the temple that seem to have
astronomical and cosmological significance—for example, the following:
 The dimensions of the highest rectangular level of the temple are 189 hat in the east-west
direction and 176 hat in the north-south direction. Added together these give 365, the number of
days in one year.
 In the central sanctuary, the distances between sets of steps is approximately 12 hat. There are
roughly 12 lunar cycles, or synodic months (from full Moon to full Moon, say—the basis for our
modern month) in one year.
 The length and width of the central tower add up to approximately 91 hat. On average, there are
91 days between any solstice and the next equinox, or any equinox and the next solstice.
Because of its orbit around the Earth, the Moon's apparent position in the sky relative to the background
stars will appear to shift from night to night. Since it takes the Moon just over 27 days to complete one
orbit (known as its sidereal period), it will during this time appear to move through 27 successive regions
of the sky. In Hindu cosmology, these regions were known as the naksatras, or lunar mansions. In some
contexts there were 27 lunar mansions, while in other contexts an additional naksatra containing the star
Vega was included, giving 28 lunar mansions.
 The central tower at Angkor Wat contains nine inner

chambers. If you total the dimensions of all of these chambers it equals 27 hat in the north-south
direction and 28 hat in the east-west direction, corresponding to the possible number of lunar
mansions. Also, the libraries have lengths measured along their interiors of 16 hat in the east-west
direction, and either 12 or 11 hat in the north-south direction, depending upon whether or not the
doorways are included. Added together, these also give either 28 or 27 hat. Finally, the north-
south width of the libraries measured from the exteriors of the walls is again 28 hat.
Hindu cosmology recognizes four time periods, or Yugas, that are represented in the dimensions of the
temple:
28
 The length of the Kali-Yuga, our current time period, is 2 x 603 years, or 432 thousand years. The
width of the moat that surrounds the temple, measured at the water level, is approximately
432 hat.
 The length of the Dv apara-Yuga is 4 x 603 years, or 864 thousand years. The distance from the
entrance to the inner wall is 867 hat.
 The length of the Treta-Yuga is 6 x 603 years, or 1,296 thousand years. The distance from the
entrance to the central tower is 1,296 hat.
 The length of the Krita-Yuga is 8 x 603 years, or 1,728 thousand years. The distance from the
moat bridge to the center of the temple is 1,734 hat.
Rarely in history has any culture given rise to a structure that so elaborately and expansively incorporates
its concept of the cosmos. Angkor Wat stands as a striking and majestic monument in honor of the
Universe and our place in it.
1. References:
Kelley, D., and E. Milone, Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of
Archaeoastronomy, Springer, New York, 2005.
2.
Krupp, E.C., Skywatchers, Shamans & Kings: Astronomy and the Archaeology of Power, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1997.
3. Space and Cosmology in the Hindu Temple, by Subhash Kak
______________________________________________
Cambodia 2014: Ancient Astronomy, Angkor Wat, City built with astronomic measurements to
mimic the Gods in the Universe.
Aspara in Moon light Central tower of Angkor Wat, Cambodia

with full Moon.
29
Angkor Wat was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yasodharapura
present-day Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple.
Breaking from the Shaivism tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. As
the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a significant religious center
since its foundation. The Khmer's adhered to the Indian belief that a temple must be built according to a
mathematical system in order for it to function in harmony with the universe. Distances between certain
architectural elements of the temple reflect numbers related to Indian mythology and cosmology.
The sheer size of the place leaves visitors in awe and the complex designs illustrate the skills of long gone
priest architects. Every spare inch has been carved with intricate works of art. The scale of Angkor Wat
enabled the Khmer to give full expression to religious symbolism. It is, above all else, a microcosm of the
Hindu universe. As a brilliant example of the synthesis of astronomy and architecture at Angkor Wat, the
solar axes of the temple lead directly to the central sanctuary, a sanctum sanctorum devoted to the
supreme solar god, Lord Vishnu. Vishnu manifests as one of the solar months, and the sun itself is
thought to be his emanation.
Although the Sun gains stature through its conjunction with the center of Angkor Wat, Vishnu, and the
king, it is worth noting that lunar alignments are also recorded along the western and eastern axis of the
temple. As the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor
Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate
the king's power and to honour and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above.
The solar and lunar alignments at Angkor Wat were alignments with the gods, alignments that tied the
nation to the heavens above, and alignments that imbued the king with the power to rule by divine
association.
Here are concrete astronomical observations you can see at Angkor Wat:
1. The rising sun aligning on equinox days with the western entrance of the state temple, Angkor Wat.
2. The movements of the moon can be observed from a variety of positions within the temple, and lunar
cycles may have been recorded in the three sets of libraries in the interior court.
3. The bas reliefs of the third gallery can be understood in relation to the movements of the sun, which
establish their counterclockwise direction.
4. The measurements of the temple appear proportional to calendric and cosmological time cycles.
The Temple is built as a concept of making these temples an observing platform, in other words an
Observatory.When you settle your feet at a specific location, the Universe, in a sense revolves around
you. With some patience and time you can start to notice patterns and Recursions that you can calculate
and even predict. In conclusion for me, the most amazing aspects of the ancient Khmer Civilization
was their understanding of their place in the cosmos, and how the placement of the temples mirrored so
many of the celestial movements.
Angkor Wat did not rise up from a tabula rasa- the theory that individuals are born without built-
in mental content, and therefore all knowledge comes from experience or perception. The Khmer
architect-priests, also fully trained as astronomers, had been building temples since the sixth century. This
building activity culminated in the move to Angkor around 900, and in the final architectural perfection of
Angkor Wat. Never again would Khmer architecture reach the same level of attainment and precision.
Only 70 years after the death of Suryavarman, all monumental building activity at Angkor stopped and by
the mid-fifteenth century, the site was abandoned due to economic reasons and the repeated invasions of
Thai armies.
30
We know that long before the Khmers moved their capital southward to Phnom Penh, they had turned
away from the gods that populated the stone and brick temples of Angkor. The people of Cambodia were
converting to Hinayana Buddhism in large numbers during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. As
devotees of this widely-practiced form of Buddhism, they rejected the ancestral and regional gods that
once filled the temples and unified the nation. With this rejection, the Brahmanical (Hindu) architect-
priests lost their constituency. This decline in priestly support caused a slow but inexorable loss of
knowledge. Decade after decade, the priests diminished in number and the practice of building
astronomical alignments and data into the temples receded in memory. It is likely that by the time the
Khmers moved to Phnom Penh, the architectural coding that lay hidden in Angkor Wat for eight centuries
was already forgotten With the move of the Capital to Phnom Penh, Angkor and its secrets remained
dormant until brought into the consciousness of the western world in the mid-nineteenth century by
French explorers.
“When I first translated the measurements of Angkor Wat from meters into the original cubit length used
in the construction of the temple, my suspicions about the role of astronomy were startlingly confirmed.
The axes of the outer enclosing wall around Angkor Wat equal 365.24 cubits repeated 12 times. In other
words, the exact length of the solar year in days and in solar months is defined by the north-south and
east-west axes of the temple grounds. The circumference of the enclosing wall is 354.36 cubits repeated
24 times. That is equivalent to the exact length of the lunar year in days, and to the 12 waxing and 12
waning halves of the lunar month each year. (Because the phenomena of the waxing and waning moon is
a dominant lunar feature, the half-months were individually named since the inception of astronomy in
India. This practice was passed on to Cambodia from India long before the Angkor period.)”
As the analysis of the measurements of Angkor Wat unfolded over the next ten years of my research, it
became more and more apparent that the circumferences of the temple were primarily dedicated to the
moon while the axes of the galleries, enclosures, and individual chambers tended to focus on the sun. This
is one of many patterns that characterize the temple's measurements. Another such pattern is the steady
progression from measurements embodying the largest time cycles around the periphery of the temple to
measurements focusing on smaller time cycles in the central galleries. A full exegesis of these patterns is
not possible in the short space of this essay, however, it is worth noting that the measurements of Angkor
Wat are highly systematized and logical. They include all time measurements known to the Cambodians
in the twelfth century.
“As a brilliant example of the synthesis of astronomy and architecture at Angkor Wat, the solar axes of
the temple lead directly to the central sanctuary, a sanctum sanctorum devoted to the supreme solar god,
Lord Vishnu. Vishnu manifests as one of the solar months, and the sun itself is thought to be his
emanation. As we walk along the solar axes toward the god Vishnu, we encounter two major solar
alignments.”
First of all, if we stand at the beginning of the bridge into Angkor Wat on the solstice days, at the
intersection of the triad of western staircases, we will see the sun rise directly over the two end gateways
of the main western entrance. Although observation has not been studied from this juncture on the
31
equinox days, the central entrance tower acts as an architectural pivot for the north-south oscillation of the
sun, and by its central position between the solstice gateways, is a symbol for the two equinoxes. As we
shall see, there is reason to believe that Suryavarman was crowned king of Cambodia at the time of the
spring equinox.
On the morning of the vernal equinox day (roughly March 21st each year), once we have passed through
the main western entrances and stand facing the interior grounds of the temple, we encounter a
spectacular solar alignment. At 6:35 a.m., the sun can be seen rising dead-center over the top of the
central tower of the temple - about 500 m. away - when observed from the top of the first northern
staircase of the western causeway. Three days later, the sun can be seen rising over the central tower for
the second and last time, from the center of the western causeway at a point just a few meters south of the
first observation position. We know that the Khmers celebrated their new year for three days. The new
year began on the spring equinox, but the first day of the new year in an actual count did not begin until
three days after the equinox. This three-day new year period is both reflected and corroborated in these
two consecutive spring equinox alignments that occur just after entering Angkor Wat.
The sun was thought to begin its yearly journey on the vernal equinox day. Therefore, as the Khmers at
Angkor watched the sun rise up from the central tower, it would seem as though the god Vishnu inside
the sanctuary were emanating upward and outward as the solar orb. It is highly likely that music,
chanting, and ritual invocation inaugurated the new year at this annual event.
The central image of Vishnu - lost long ago - may have been sculpted in the likeness of King
Suryavarman. Statements in the stone inscriptions refer to images in the likeness of real people, not just
kings. The statue of Vishnu would have been sculpted with royal jewelry and clothing, and the name of
this image - also lost to us - would have been combined with the name of the king according to Khmer
tradition. If Suryavarman was not exactly an incarnation of Vishnu, he still partook of some aspect of
Vishnu's sacred nature. The name of the sun god is Surya, and "Suryavarman" translates as "protected by
the sun." With the union of the king and Vishnu in the central sanctuary of Angkor Wat, the king becomes
an unspoken third component in the spring equinox alignment.
Angkor Wat - like all royal pyramid-temples - was at the conceptual center of the king's capital. The city
and the nation extended outward from the union of the king and his deity in the main sanctuary of this
temple. For all 37 years of the reign of King Suryavarman then, the Khmer nation was particularly joined
to the sun god and to Vishnu, through the temple of Angkor Wat and the king. More than just the king
alone, the entire nation was "protected by the sun." The solar measurements and solar alignments at
Angkor Wat were concomitantly much more meaningful as their influence and importance extended from
the hub of the nation outward.
Although the sun gains stature through its conjunction with the center of Angkor Wat, Vishnu, and the
king, it is worth noting that lunar alignments are also recorded along the western axis of the temple. If we
look again at the dimensions noted above, we see that the western causeway measures out two ways of
defining the lunar month. These are the actual days in a synodic month (29.53), and the maximum number
of days of lunar visibility (28) - numerically equivalent to the maximum number of lunar constellations
crossed by the moon each month. This causeway that was used for lunar observation thereby records
lunar measurements at the same time. The causeway's overlay of multiple functions is typical of the
measurement patterns at Angkor Wat.
Finally, there is a bas-relief of the Churning of the Sea of Milk on the east side of the third gallery that is
actually a calendar in disguise. The story behind the churning of the Milky Way begins with the gods
losing battle after battle to their enemies, the asuras. Worried that they would be hopelessly decimated,
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the gods supplicated Lord Vishnu to help them churn up the elixir of immortality from the Milky Way.
Once they drank the elixir, they could never "lose" a battle again. But the task of churning the Milky Way
was of epic proportions. Ironically, once Vishnu agreed to their request, the gods had to trick the asuras
into joining in the churning effort by promising them a part of the elixir.
Mount Mandara, a mountain to the east of the central, cosmic mountain, Mount Meru, was uprooted and
brought to the Milky Way to act as a churning pivot. The snake Vasuki who lives in the Milky Way was
wrapped around the pivot, with the gods pulling on the north side of the snake and the asuras on the south
side. Vishnu took his place at the center to help with the churning, and also emanated both one asura form
and one god form to further help on each side of the snake. His avatar or incarnation as Kurma, the
legendary tortoise, placed itself under the base of the churning pivot so it would not sink. With everyone
in place, the great churning event began.
Many auspicious objects were churned up from the Milky Ocean, including the goddess of good fortune.
But when the elixir finally emerged, the gods and asuras began to battle over its possession. Lord Vishnu,
in his wisdom, took the elixir away with him for safekeeping, but when the battle ended the elixir
remained forever out of reach. Both the gods and the asuras were destined to be mortal. Once the battle
was over and the dust had settled, Indra was crowned king of the gods and the story ends.
Astronomical or geophysical realities are woven like invisible threads throughout the preceding narrative.
For example, the cosmic mountain, Mount Meru, is conceived as the axis of the earth. The Khmers knew
the earth was a round sphere moving through space because they had inherited that knowledge from
India, where it was first recorded in the sixth century CE. The gods reside at the north celestial pole,
including the summit of Mount Meru - the location of Indra's royal palace. The summit has been flattened
to accommodate the palace. At the south celestial pole, on the opposite end of Mount Meru, are the
asuras. When Mount Mandara is used as a churning pivot, the gods pull the pivot to the north and the
asuras pull it to the south, creating a north-south oscillation. This accounts for the north-south oscillation
of the sun and moon each year, while the axis of the earth, Mount Meru, remains stable (precession
notwithstanding, "stable" is a good descriptive word for the axis in comparison to the oscillation of the
sun and moon). In most Khmer - and indeed, in most Asian depictions of the cosmic mountain, the sun
and moon are shown in space at some distance to the right and left of the mountain's peak. This seems to
be either a conscious or unconscious memory of the astronomical significance of the mountain in the
churning scene. For whether it is logical or not, due to human fallibility the pivot of the churning scene
tended to become identified with Mount Meru. This obfuscation is more commonly found than the actual
recognition of Mount Mandara as the churning pivot.
According to evidence from Thai records and Khmer inscriptions, the churning of the Milky Way was
performed at the coronation of Khmer (and occasional Thai) kings. The inauguration ceremony of a new
king took place at the vernal equinox. Therefore, the coronation of King Suryavarman most likely
occurred at the equinox day in March (the year remains in question) soon after he came to power.
Although King Suryavarman was crowned before the central tower of Angkor Wat was anywhere near
finished, future equinox risings of the sun at dead center on the top of the main tower would forever recall
the exact moment when Suryavarman became king. The equinox, the sun, the temple, Vishnu, and the
king were therefore joined in a moment of history that was to be recalled, year after year, at the spring
equinox sunrise over Angkor Wat.
The calendrical meaning of the churning relief is equally inseparable from its association with the spring
equinox coronation of King Suryavarman. In fact, the number of gods and asuras in the relief count out
the days between the winter and summer solstices, and the three-day equinox celebration at the beginning
of the new year is symbolized by the central pivot. The god Bali, the king of the asuras holds the heads of
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Vasuki on the south side of the relief. During the winter solstice, the rising sun illuminates Bali
completely. This agrees with the 24-hours of sunlight at the south pole at this time of year. Meanwhile,
the monkey-god Sugriva who holds the tail of Vasuki on the north end of the relief panel remains in
darkness at the winter solstice, in a shadow cast by a pillar. Since the gods reside above the north pole of
the earth, they would be in darkness at this time of year. On the summer solstice, the sunlight and shadow
effect is reversed for Bali and Sugriva, as it should be to match the light and dark at the north and south
poles, respectively. On the equinox days, the center of the scene with Vishnu and Mount Mandara is
bathed in full sunlight. Some solar alignments that can be observed in the planning of the Angkor Wat
temple complex in Cambodia. This complex was originally constructed in the early 12th century as a
Hindu temple for the Khmer Empire and gradually transforming into a Buddhist temple. To illustrate the
solar alignments we use SunCalc.net software and Photographer’s Ephemeris on Google Earth satellite
images.( Amelia Carolina Sparavigna. Solar Alignments of the Planning of Angkor Wat Temple
Complex. Philica, Philica, 2016, pp.591. ffhal-01312473f)
the temples by themselves were not isolated units but were ideally linked with pre-existing monuments,
constructing a series of visually recognizable, dynastic lines which are particularly evident in the case
of the Mebons, the island temples. It is thus the hope of the author that the present research can contribute
to clarify historical aspects of the Khmer architecture and king's succession. On the opposite side, the
same results show that claims about the existence of scores of inter-connecting, almost esoteric lines
between the Angkor monuments must be taken with the utmost care, if not definitively refused.
(ARCHAEOASTRONOMY IN THE KHMER HEARTLAND Giulio Magli School of Architecture,
Urban Planning and Construction Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Italy)
A deva is flying down to steady the pivot of Mount Mandara and is most likely representative of the god
Indra before he was crowned king. Only an important god could be placed in this high position, above the
other gods. This figure also provides an alternate count of one extra day when needed to complete the
calendar.
In Indian texts, the coronation of Indra occurs just before the coronation ceremony outlined for an earthly
king, at the time of the spring equinox. This bas-relief itself, in fact, appears to symbolize the coronation
of King Suryavarman and the churning event that was enacted at that time.
In summary, the solar axis of Angkor Wat takes us visually and physically in a straight line from the main
entrance to the central tower. As we walk along the numerical symbol for the solar year, we would see the
sun and moon oscillate from north to south and back again, on either side of the axis. Once the axis
reaches the central galleries, it visually ascends upward at an ever-increasing angle until it merges with
the vertical height of the central tower. On the vernal equinox day, as the sun appears to rise up from the
top of the tower, it is joined to us along the axis of the temple.
Vishnu lies hidden inside the tower, looking very much like the king of Cambodia in both his
physiognomy and his refined jewelry and clothing. Thus, the merging of Vishnu and the king at the
symbolic center of the Khmer nation was especially celebrated at the symbolic center of the solar year,
when the sun is midway between its northern and southern extremes. When this profound solar, divine,
and royal union was given its architectural expression in the central tower of Angkor Wat, astronomy and
architecture were joined in homage to divinity and royalty. As mentioned earlier, the tower is the axis of
the temple and by extension, the axis of the Khmer nation. The king and Vishnu are joined at this same
axis, likened to the axis of the earth in the cosmological design of Angkor Wat. That very equinoctial axis
slices through the center of the sun's oscillating movement each year. At dawn on the vernal equinox day,
the union of the king and Vishnu at the heart of the Cambodian nation was celebrated with the rising sun
at the heart of the annual solar journey, and at the heart of Angkor Wat. Astronomy was thus inextricably
34
conjoined to the most profound expression of the meaning of kingship and divinity accorded in Khmer
sacred architecture. The solar and lunar alignments at Angkor Wat were alignments with the gods,
alignments that tied the nation to the heavens above, and alignments that imbued the king with the power
to rule by divine association. As the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the
sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and
corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honor and placate the deities manifest in the
heavens above. Rarely has a temple achieved such an overwhelming conjunction of time, space, and
kingship through the perfect union of architecture and astronomy.
https://dsal.uchicago.edu/huntington/seasia/angkor.html
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CHAPTER IV
Angkor Wat – The Bas-Relief Galleries

layout and location
Based on material from

https://helloangkor.com/attractions/angkor-wat-the-bas-relief-galleries/
https://yatrikaone.com/cambodia/angkor-wat/angkor-wat-bas-reliefs/
What material is Angkor Wat built entirely out of? The main materials used to
construct Angkor Wat were sandstone and laterite (a clayey soil and rock material rich
in iron and aluminum). Sandstone was used as the main material for visible parts of
the temple. Perhaps the most important narrative represented at Angkor Wat is the
Churning of the Ocean of Milk(below), which depicts a story about the beginning of
time and the creation of the universe. ... The relief depicts the moment when the two
sides are churning the ocean of milk. What bas-relief means?
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bas-relief \bah-rih-LEEF\ noun. art : sculptural relief in which the projection from the
surrounding surface is slight and no part of the modeled form is undercut; also :
sculpture executed in bas-relief. How do you use bas-relief? What is bas-relief and alto
relief?
Types of Relief Sculpture

There are three basic types of relief sculpture: (1) low relief (basso-relievo, or bas-relief),
where the sculpture projects only slightly from the background surface;
(2) high relief (alto-relievo, or alto-relief), where the sculpture projects at least half or
more of its natural circumference from the background, and may in parts be wholly
disengaged from the ground, thus approximating sculpture in the round.
[Sculptors may also employ middle-relief (mezzo-relievo), a style which falls roughly between
the high and low forms]; (3) sunken relief, (incised, coelanaglyphic or intaglio relief), where the
carving is sunk below the level of the surrounding surface and is contained within a sharpely
incised contour line that frames it with a powerful line of shadow. The surrounding surface
remains untouched, with no projections. Sunken relief carving is found almost
exclusively in ancient Egyptian art, although it has also been used in some beautiful
small-scale ivory reliefs from India.
A brief history
Some of the earliest known bas-reliefs have been found on the walls of caves and are
otherwise known as Petroglyphs. These works are some of the first known artistic
creations of man and were also treated with colours to further accentuate the relief.
Stone buildings and pyramids created by the Egyptians and Assyrians were next to
adopt this style of work and bas-relief sculptures were heavily dominant in Greek and
Roman buildings such as the Parthenon frieze which adorns the upper part of the
Parthenon’s naos and features relief sculptures of Poseidon, Apollo, and Artemis.
The popularity of bas-relief continued into the Medieval times (5th to the 15th century)
where the technique became popular in churches, especially Romanesque places of
worship where it was used to celebrate the lives of important religious events and
figures. This was one of the first moves in to Western culture and allowed bas-relief to
flourish before becoming a staple in luxury design. The Renaissance period (14th to
the 17th century) saw artists such as Donatello combining it with high-relief to create
perspective and during the 19th century, bas-relief sculpture was used to elevate
historic monuments such as the sculpture on the Parisian Arc de Triomphe. Artists
create a bas-relief by sculpting onto a 2D plane to create and accentuate figures and
objects, producing a 3D appearance which can be viewed from all angles with little
distortion. Alternatively, material can also be carved from a 2D plane, a technique
called Graffito.
INVITING THE GALLERY OF BAS-RELIEFS
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The bas-reliefs at Angkor Wat were designed for viewing from right to lefts. One enters
at the west entrance, turns right into the gallery and continue walking
counterclockwise.
LOCATION THEME
Description of the bas-reliefs in this guidebook follows the normal route for viewing
Angkor Wat. They begin in the middle of the West Gallery and continue counter
clockwise. The other half of the West Gallery is at the end of the section. Identifying
characteristics are in parenthesis and the locations of scenes on the bas-reliefs are in
bold type.
Bas-relief
Bas-reliefs are individual figures, groups of figures, or entire scenes cut into stone
walls, not as drawings but as sculpted images projecting from a background.
Sculpture in bas-relief is distinguished from sculpture in haut-relief, in that the latter
projects farther from the background, in some cases almost detaching itself from it.
The Angkorian Khmer preferred to work in bas-relief, while their neighbors
the Cham were partial to haut-relief.
Narrative bas-reliefs are bas-reliefs depicting stories from mythology or history. Until
about the 11th century, the Angkorian Khmer confined their narrative bas-reliefs to
the space on the tympana above doorways. The most famous early narrative bas-
reliefs are those on the tympana at the 10th-century temple of Banteay Srei, depicting
scenes from Hindu mythology as well as scenes from the great works of Indian
literature, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
By the 12th century, however, the Angkorian artists were covering entire walls with
narrative scenes in bas-relief. At Angkor Wat, the external gallery wall is covered with
some 12,000 or 13,000 square meters of such scenes, some of them historical, some
mythological. Similarly, the outer gallery at the Bayon contains extensive bas-reliefs
documenting the everyday life of the medieval Khmer as well as historical events from
the reign of King Jayavarman VII.
A bas-relief in a tympanum at Banteay Srei shows Indra releasing the rains in an

attempt to extinguish the fire created by Agni.(pic lrft above).This scene from the outer
gallery at the Bayon shows Chinese expats negotiating with Khmer merchants at an
Angkorean market.(right)
The following is a listing of the motifs illustrated in some of the more famous
Angkorian narrative bas-reliefs:
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 bas-reliefs in the tympana at Banteay Srei (10th century)

o the duel of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva, and the intervention of the
human hero Rama on behalf of the latter
o the duel of Bhima and Duryodhana at the Battle of Kurukshetra
o the Rakshasa king Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa, upon which sit Shiva and
his shakti
o Kama firing an arrow at Shiva as the latter sits on Mount Kailasa
o the burning of Khandava Forest by Agni and Indra's attempt to extinguish the
flames
 bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer gallery at Angkor Wat (mid-12th century)
o the Battle of Lanka between the Rakshasas and the vanaras or monkeys
o the court and procession of King Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat
o the Battle of Kurukshetra between Pandavas and Kauravas
o the judgment of Yama and the tortures of Hell
o the Churning of the Ocean of Milk
o a battle between devas and asuras
o a battle between Vishnu and a force of asuras
o the conflict between Krishna and the asura Bana
o the story of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva
 bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer and inner galleries at the Bayon (late 12th
century)
o battles on land and sea between Khmer and Cham troops
o scenes from the everyday life of Angkor
o civil strife among the Khmer
o the legend of the Leper King
o the worship of Shiva
o groups of dancing apsaras
Battle of Kurukshetra – South Wing of West Gallery – coming from the Hindu epic,
the Mahabharata. The Kauravas are advancing from the left and the Pandavas from
the right both heading to their mutual destruction.
This battle scene is the main subject of the Hindu epic Mahabharata. It recalls the
historic was wars in Kurukshetra, a province in India, and depicts the last battle
between rival enemies who are cousins (see page 54 for a description of this legend).
The armies of the Kauravas and the Pandavas march from opposite ends towards the
center of the panel where they meet in combat. Headpieces differentiate the warriors of
the two armies. The scene begins with infantry marching into battle and musicians
playing a rhythmic cadence. The battlefield is the scene of hand-to-hand combat and
many dead soldiers.
Chief officers and generals (represented on a larger scale) oversee the battle in chariots
and on elephants and horses. The scene builds up gradually and climaxes in a melée.
Bisma (near the beginning of the pane), one of the heroes of the Mahabharata and
commander of the Kauravas, pierced with arrow, is dying and his men surround him.
Arjuna (holding a shield decorated with the face of the demon rahu) shoots an arrow
at Krsna, his half-brother, and kills him. After death, Krisna (four arms) becomes the
charioteer of Arjuna.
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40
Angkor Wat Bas-Reliefs
Narrative and exquisitely carved
Known for its immensity, grandeur, and architectural brilliance, Angkor Wat is the
largest religious monument in the world and one of the most visited. Located in Siem
Reap, Cambodia, this sprawling complex was originally a Vishnu temple built by
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the Khmer King Survarman II in the 12th century. It was later converted into a
Buddhist monument by the kings who came after him.
Angkor Wat also offers a glimpse of the day-to-day life during the heyday of the Khmer
civilization through its intricately-carved numerous bas-reliefs carved on its galleries,
pediments of gopuras, and pillars depicting scenes based mostly on the Hindu epics,
Ramayana and Mahabharata, and ancient Hindu texts, such as the Puranas.
Although there are bas-reliefs on the upper-level galleries and pediments, the bas-
reliefs on the lower-level galleries are extensive and detailed.
Elaborate bass-reliefs on the lower-level gallery
The lower-level galleries are in a rectangular structure built at the periphery of the
lower enclosure. On each side of this structure, there are two sections of continuously
carved bas-reliefs. In total, there are eight sections of bas-reliefs, each with a different
theme. The bas-reliefs are carved on the polygonal walls of the structure, and most of
them have two or three tiers in the vertical direction. Many of the bas-reliefs have
polished appearance, and a few still have traces of original paint, especially red.
Unlike the majority of Hindu temples, which are east-facing and where the visitors
follow the pradakshina patha (clockwise circumambulation path), Angkor Wat is west-
facing and the visitors follow the counter-clockwise path starting from the main
entrance, which is in the middle of the west side gallery.
West Gallery, South Section: Battle of Kurukshetra
The Battle of Kurukshetra is the theme in the southern section of the west gallery.
Based on the Hindu epic Mahabharata, this bas-relief depicts the fighting scene
between the Pandavas and Kauravas. The image below shows the advancing Kaurava
army. On the top-left corner, Bhishma, the commander of the Kaurava army, is seen
lying on the bed of arrows fired by Arjuna.
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Death of Bhishma
Death of Bhishma
The death of Bhishma is a well-known episode in Mahabharata. According to the
story, Bhishma, the grand-uncle of both the Kauravas and Pandavas, leads the
Kaurava army for the first ten days of the battle. As the Kurukshetra Battle rages,
Krishna realizes Bhishma is an obstacle to Pandava’s victory because Arjuna is unable
to beat Bhishma in the battle. To ensure Pandava’s victory, Krishna devises a clever
plan involving Shikhandi, a eunuch, to kill Bhishma. Krishna knew Bhishma took an
oath not to fight the other gender.
As per the plan, Shikhandi accompanies Arjuna in his chariot on the tenth day of the
battle. When the battle starts between Arjuna and Bhishma, Arjuna hides behind
Shikhandi and fires arrows at Bhishma. Unable to fight back because of his oath,
Bhishma lays down his arms. As Arjuna’s arrows pierce through Bhishma’s body, he
falls down making it appear as if he is lying on the bed of arrows. See the image on the
right side.Raging Battle
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Battle of Kurukshetra bas-relief depicting melee of Kaurava and Pandava warriors
The image depicts the fight between the Kaurava and Pandava armies. The Kaurava
warriors are moving from left to right, and the Pandava warriors are from right to left.
The commanders are on the chariots.
South Gallery, West Section: Procession of King Suryavarman II
The Procession of King Suryavarman II is the theme of the western section of the
south gallery. Unlike the other bas-relief themes, this is based on history. It depicts
King Suryavarman II in a procession with his commanders, soldiers, courtiers and
ordinary people. The commanders are on elephants, and the rank of commander is
indicated by the number of parasols surrounding them.
Suryavarman II as the King
Bas-relief of Khmer King

Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat
As you can see from the image, King Suryavarman II is elegantly seated on his throne
with his legs on the seat – a typical Indian way of sitting. He is portrayed with
beautiful jewelry on his body as per the custom in India and Indianised kingdoms in
Southeast Asia. He is wearing bracelets and arm rings on his hands, anklets on his
legs, a beautiful necklace around his neck and an udiyan (waist chain) around his
waist. He is holding with his right hand a strange object believed to be a dead snake,
the significance of which is a mystery.
Surrounding King Suryavarman II are his attendants waving pankahs (fans) with
long handles and chauris (fly-whisks). Notice the parasols around the king. There are
fifteen of them in this bas-relief. The number of parasols indicate the rank of a
commander in his army. The king has the highest number of parasols among the
commanders in the procession implying that he is the commander-in-chief.
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Suryavarman II as the Commander-in-Chief
King Suryavarman II as
the commander-in-chief
Standing majestically on top of the elephant is King Suryavarman II as the
commander-in-chief of his army. His left hand is holding a sword that is pointing
downwards, and his right hand is holding an unknown object (probably a weapon).
Sitting in front of him is the mahout goading the elephant with an ankusha, which is a
pointed tool with a hook used in India and Southeast Asia for training and controlling
elephants.
Notice the parasols surrounding the king. There are fifteen of them in this bas-relief.
The number of parasols surrounding a commander indicates his rank in the army.
The king has the highest number of parasols among the commanders in the
procession implying that he is the commander-in-chief.
A commander riding an elephant in the procession of King Suryavarman II
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The image shows an army commander standing majestically on an elephant. He is

holding a shield with his left hand and an unknown object with his right hand (similar
to the one held by the king). Sitting in front of him is the mahout goading the elephant
with an ankusha.
Other Participants
The image on the left shows a contingent of Siamese soldiers carrying spears marching
at the head of the parade. Behind them is their commander riding an elephant. The
image on the right shows women marching along the procession.
 Siamese soldiers

Women
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South Gallery, East Section: Swargas and Narakas (Heavens and Hells)
A section of the
Heavens and Hells bas-relief carved on the eastern section of the south gallery
As the name suggests, the Heavens and Hells bas-relief is about the depiction of
heavens and hells as described in the ancient Hindu texts called Puranas. This 200
feet long bas-relief is carved on the eastern section of the south gallery located on the
perimeter of the lower level of Angkor Wat. It depicts 37 heavens in the upper tier and
32 hells in the lower tier. The hells are much more descriptive than the heavens.
Although naraka translates to hell, it is not the hell as understood in the West.
A naraka is more akin to purgatory because it is not eternal and the sinners can
redeem themselves once they pay for their sins. In Hindu mythology, sinners are
reborn, but not always as human beings.
Yama’s Court
In Hindu mythology, Yama is one of the Ashta Dikpalas (guardians of the eight
directions) and is responsible for guarding the South, which makes him the lord of the
south. Therefore, the bas-reliefs related to Yama are in the south gallery.
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48
The bas-relief on the left image depicts the Yama, the god of justice and lord
of naraka, sitting on a buffalo and conducting the proceedings in his court. He is
portrayed with multiple hands, one of which carries his signature
weapon gada (mace), and is surrounded by his guards and sinners.
The bas-relief on the top right shows the continuation of Yama’s court where
Chitragupta, a god in Hindu mythology and the assessor who keeps the records of
good and bad deeds of a human being from birth to death, assisting Yama in
determining who goes to heaven and who goes to hell.
The image on the bottom right shows the guards in the upper-tier pushing the sinners
to the lower-tier through a trapdoor and the guards in the lower tier, which represents
a naraka, punishing the sinners in a variety of ways.
Narakas – Punishing the Sinners
According to Hindu mythology, a naraka is designed to punish a specific type of sin.

The images below show some of the 32 narakas depicted in the bas-relief.
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50
East Gallery, South Section: Samudra Manthana
The south section of the east gallery depicts Samudra Manthana, one of the well-
known legends of Hindu mythology. In Sanskrit, samudra means ocean
and manthana mean churning. It is a story about the churning of the ocean to
produce amrita, the nectar of immortality. This story appears in many Hindu epics,
including Mahabharata and Vishnu Purana.
According to the story, devas (demigods) and asuras (demons) collaborate to produce
amrita by churning the Ocean of Milk. To perform churning, they use Vasuki (king of
nagas) as the rope and Mount Mandara as the churning rod. Vasuki is coiled around
Mount Mandara with asuras are on the head side and devas are on the tail side of
Vasuki.
The churning was completed after 1000 years and resulted in many by-products,
including 14 ratnas (precious things). Amrita is one of them and the other ratnas
include the Moon, Ramba (an apsara), Lakshmi (Goddess of Wealth). As the story goes,
devas stole and drank amrita and became immortal. Also produced was the halahala
(poison) emanating from the mouths of Vasuki. Seeing the danger posed to the world
by this poison, Shiva drank it but did not swallow it. So, it stayed in his throat
forever. Shiva is therefore called Neelakanta (blue throat) as the result of poison
remaining in his throat. Vasuki eventually became Shiva’s snake and he is seen with
Vasuki around his neck since then.
The bas-relief on the left image shows asuras led by multi-headed Ravana pulling
Vasuki’s body on the head side. To the left of Ravana is the army of asuras on
elephants and horses. Also seen are the flying apsaras cheer-leading Ravana and
asuras.
Asuras
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Vishnu
 Devas
The middle image shows Vishnu with four hands overseeing the churning at Mount
Mandara and Indra is flying on top of the mountain trying to stabilize it. To the left
and right of the Mount Mandara are the apsaras acting as cheer-leaders to asuras as
well as devas. The bas-relief in this section is beautiful and intricately carved. Unlike
the other bas-reliefs, it is easy to understand the story and identify the players.
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East Gallery, North Section: Vishnu’s Victory over Asuras
A section of the Gods

Vs. Asuras bas-relief depicting an asura commander on a chariot fighting the gods
The northern section of the east gallery has this theme. This is a generic theme, not
taken from any epics. It is believed that this bas-relief was most likely completed at a
later date, probably in the 15th or 16th century.
North Gallery, East Section: Krishna’s Victory over Banasura
The scenes depicted on the bas-relief carved on the eastern section of the north gallery
is based on Krishna’s Victory over Banasura story, which appears in Mahabharata
and Vishnu Purana. This story is about Krishna, who is an avatar of Vishnu, fighting
Shiva and becoming victorious. It is not a well-known story but chosen deliberately to
show the dominance of Vishnu because King Suryavarman II broke the Shaiva
tradition of his predecessors and made Vishnu the dominant god of the Hindu Trinity.
Legend of Banasura
According to the story, Banasura, an asura king with thousand arms, is an ardent
devotee of Shiva whom he tried to please by doing tapasu (austerity and meditation)
for many years. Pleased with his devotion, Shiva confers upon him with
many varas (boons), one of which was to be his ally in future fights. Once he gets
these varas, Banasura becomes arrogant and starts ill-treating his subjects. When his
daughter Usha reaches the marriageable age, many suitors approach her with an
intention to marry. Banasura gets angry at the suitors and builds a fortress called
Agnigraha (house of fire in Sanskrit) and imprisons her there to keep her away from
them.
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Krishna riding Vishnu’s

vehicle Garuda and fighting Banasura
Garuda entering
Agnigraha (house of fire) built by Bansaura
One day, Usha dreams of a young man and falls in love with him. When she mentions
this to her maid Chitraleka, who realizes that the young man is Aniruddha, one of the
grandsons of Krishna. Chitraleka with her superpowers summons Aniruddha to
Usha’s quarters. When he sees Usha, he falls in love with her too. Meanwhile,
Banasura comes to know of Aniruddha’s presence in Usha’s quarters. He captures
and imprisons him. When Krishna comes to know about his grandson’s imprisonment,
he wages war against Banasura. At the request of Banasura, Shiva keeps his promise
and starts fighting against Krishna. Realizing this, Krishna tricks Shiva by firing a
weapon that puts Shiva to sleep. Krishna then severs all but four arms of Banasura.
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Shiva then wakes up and begs Krishna not to kill Banasura. Meanwhile, Banasura
realizing his mistakes begs forgiveness and allows his daughter to marry Aniruddha.
The image shows Garuda facing Agnigraha (house of fire) built by Bansaura to keep
his daughter Usha.
North Gallery, West Section: Battle between Gods and Asuras
The theme of the bas-relief on the western section of the north gallery is not taken
from any epics, instead, it depicts a generic theme of the good fighting evil. The bas-
relief Battle between Gods and Asuras is about the Hindu pantheon of gods fighting
the evil asuras. It is a battle scene with 21 Hindu gods mounted on their vehicles
fighting the asuras.
The images below show four of the gods, Vishnu, Varuna, Indra, and Kartikeya (also
known as Skanda, Subramanya), and an unidentified asura.
Vishnu riding Garuda
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 Varuna riding Makara
 Indra riding Airavata
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Kartikeya (Skanda) riding a peacock/Multi-headed asura riding a chariot
The gods are seen riding their signature vahanas (vehicles) and fighting asuras.
Vishnu, one of the Hindu Trinity, is riding Garuda, an eagle-like mythical bird. Indra,
the king of heaven and gods, is riding an elephant called Airavata. Varuna, the sea
god, is riding a multi-headed mythical creature called Makara. Indra and Varuna are
dikpalas (guardians of directions); Indra guards East and Varuna West. Check
the Ashta Dikpalas page to read more about all the eight dikpalas. Skanda, the god of
war, is riding a peacock called Parvani.
Brahma sitting in a cocoon in the Battle between Gods and Asuras bas-relief
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The bas-relief of Brahma, one of the Hindu Trinity, sitting in a cocoon is unusual.
Although Brahma is the creator in Hindu mythology, he is not worshiped widely like
Vishnu or Shiva. There are very few temples dedicated to Brahma in the world. The
Brahma Temple in Prambanan is one of the well-known temples in Southeast Asia.
The Brahma Temple in Pushkar is one of the few temples dedicated to Brahma
In India.Check the following sculptural reliefs of Brahma on the outer walls of the
temples: Brahma in Belur Chennakeshava Temple, Brahma in the Somanathapura
Chennakeshava Temple in Karnataka, India There are several legends why Brahma is
not worshiped. According to one legend, his consort Savitri, who was angered by
Brahma’s extreme lust, cursed him not to be worshiped anywhere in the world except
in Pushkar. In another legend, Shiva cursed Brahma because he lied to him and
Vishnu about their creation.
West Gallery, North Section: Battle of Lanka
The Battle of Lanka is the theme of the bas-relief carved on the northern section of
the west gallery. This is the final battle in Ramayana in which Rama and the army of
monkeys (Vanara Sené) defeat Ravana and rescue Rama’s wife Sita. The Battle of
Lanka bas -relief is likely based on the Yudda Kanda chapter of Ramayana authored
by Valmiki. Besides Rama and Ravana, it depicts many prominent figures from both
sides.
After the abduction of Rama’s wife Sita by Ravana, Rama gathered an army with the
help of his ally Sugriva, the king of the vanara (monkey) kingdom of Kishkindha, and
attacked Lanka to rescue her. According to Ramayana, Lanka, where this epic battle
took place, is an island located south of India. The present-day island nation of Sri
Lanka closely fits the description of Lanka in Ramayana.
Ravana in the Battle of

Lanka
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According to Hindu mythology, Ravana is a rakasha (demon) with supernatural

powers. He is capable of assuming any forms, but in his natural form, he has ten
heads and twenty arms. His typical iconography shows him with these features. As
you can see from the image, he does have ten heads and twenty arms. ,
In this bas-relief, Ravana is in battle mode leading his warriors in this epic battle
against Rama. He is holding a variety of weapons with his hands, including bow and
arrows, maces, and astras (arrows that posses supernatural destructive power). While
Ravana is leading his charge, a monkey warrior is lunging at him on the leff.
Ramayana describes this monkey warrior as Nila, the commander-in-chief of the
vanara sené (monkey army) and builder of Rama Sethu (the bridge between India and
Lanka). Charging with Ravana are his warriors carrying gadaas (maces).
Raging Battle between Rakshashas Vs. Vanara Sené (Army of Monkeys)
In this battle, Rama’s warriors are mostly the vanaras from his ally Sugriva. Ravana
being a rakshasa (demon), his warriors mostly the rakshasas.
A monkey warrior
straddled on the heads of two lions
The entire Battle of Lanka bas-relief is about raging battle that is underway with the
rakshasa and monkey warriors engaged in hand-to-hand combat. Straddled on the
heads of two beautifully carved lions harnessed to a chariot is a ferocious monkey
warrior carrying on his shoulder a rakshasa, who presumably is the charioteer. Notice
that the rakshasa is wielding a sword and trying to attack the monkey warrior.
The images below show two more such scenes where a monkey warrior is dueling with
a rakshasa.
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1. Historic procession of Suryavarman II – West Wing of South Gallery – it is here you

can see a depiction of Angkor Wat’s founder, King Suryavarman II with a small
inscription in the elephant’s tail revealing his posthumous name, Paramavishnouloka.
There are several other hidden inscriptions in this section.
2. 32 hells and 37 heavens of Hinduism – East Wing of South Gallery – Consisting of
three tiers with Yama (the judge) atop a bull at the center. The lowest tier depicts
those in hell receiving their punishments while the upper two tiers to the left of Yama
head towards judgment, the upper tier to the right are those dwelling in heaven held
up by a row of garudas below which hell continues on.
3.. EAST GALLERY - CHURNING OF THE OCEAN OF MILK – South Wing of East
Gallery – the classic of Hindu mythology, showing Vishnu atop a tortoise with 92
asuras on the left and 88 devas on the right using the serpent Vasuki to churn the sea
in a great battle to release the elixir of lifeThis is the most famous panel of bas-reliefs
at Angkor Wat and derives from the Indian epic Bagavata-Pourana. The Ocean of Milk
is churned by gods and demons to generate Amrta, the elixir of life. the purpose of the
churning is to recover lost treasures such as the sourer of immortality, Laksmi the
goddess of good fortune, the milk white elephant of Indra, and the nymph of
loveliness. The retrieval of these objects symbolizes prosperity. It takes place during
the second ascent of Visnu, when he is incarnated as a tortoise.
The scene is decided into three tiers. The lower tier comprises various aquatic animals,
real and mythical, and is bordered by a serpent. The middle tier has, on one side, a
row of 92 demons (round bulging eyes, crested helmets) and, on the other side, a row
of 88 gods (almond-shaped eyes, conical headdresses). They work together by holding
and churning the serpent. Hanuman, the monkey god, assists. Visnu, in his
reincarnation as a tortoise, offers the back of his shell as a base for the mountain
Mandara, and as a pivot for the churning. He sits on the bottom of the Ocean. A huge
cord in the form of the body of the serpent Vasuki acts as a stirring instrument to
churn the sea.
To begin the motion the gods and demons twist the serpent's body; the demons hold
the head and the gods hold the tail of the serpent. Then by pulling it rhythmically
back and for th they cause the pivot to rotate and churn the water.
The gods and demons are directed by three persons (identified by their larger size).
Indra is on top of Visnu. On the extreme right Hanuman, ally of the gods, tickles the
serpent. Upper tier: During the churning various female spirits emerge. Visnu appears
in this scene again in yet another reincarnation-as a human being-to preside over the
"churning "which, according to legend, lasted more than 1,000 years.
Numerous other beings are depicted such as the three-headed elephant mount of
Indra, Apsaras and Laksmmi, the goddess of beauty. They churning provoke the
serpent to vomit the mortal venom, which covers the waves. Afraid the venom may
destroy the gods and demons, Brahma intervenes and requests Siva to devour and
drink the venom, which will leave an indelible trace on Siva's throat. He complies and,
as a result, he Amtrak pours forth. The demon rush to capture all the liquid. Visnu
hurries to the rescue and assumes yet another reincarnation in the form of Maya, a
bewitching beauty, and is able to restore much of the coveted liquid.
Just past the middle of the East Gallery there is an interesting inscription of the early
eighteenth century when Angkor Wat was a Buddhist monastery. It tells of a provincial
governor who built a small tomb where he deposited the bones of his wife and
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children. The structure is in poor condition but recognizable in its original location,
directly in front of the inscription in the gallery.
VICTORY OF VISNU OVER THE DEMONS The bas-reliefs in this section of the Wast
Gallery and the south part of the North Gallery were probably completed at a later
date, perhaps the fifteenth or sixteenth century. The stiffness of the figures and the
cursory workmanship reveal this change. An army of demons marches towards the
center of the panel. Center: Visnu (four arms) sits on the shoulders of a Garuda.
3. A scene of carnage follows. Visnu slaughters the enemies on both sides and disperses
the bodies. The leaders of the demons (mounted on animals or riding or riding in
chariots drawn by monsters) are surrounded by marching soldiers. Another group of
warriors (bows and arrows) with their chiefs (in chariest of mounted on huge peacocks)
4. Victory of Vishnu over Asuras – North Wing of East Gallery – Asuras move from one
side with Vishnu atop a garuda (mythical bird) and his army behind him.
5. Victory of Krishna over Bana – East Wing of North Gallery – Krishna is depicted with
eight arms riding the garuda and after defeating Bana, in another scene, then ponders
sparing his life at the request of a pantheon of gods.
6. Battle of Devas and Asuras (or Battle of the Gods) – West Wing of North Gallery –
here in a busy scene, all 21 gods are recorded, battling Asuras
7. Battle of Lanka – North Wing of West Gallery – shows the famous scene from the
Ramayana, in which Rama defeats Ravana, one of the busiest scenes that Cœdes (a
legend of Angkor research) described as an “inextricable entanglement of monkeys and
rakshasas”
Northwest and Southwest Tower
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The northwestern and southwestern corner towers also feature small condensed bas-
reliefs on the upper and lower sections of their inner walls
A. Northwest Tower (looking north and rotating clockwise)
 Sita was kidnapped by the giant Virada, with Rama and Lakshmana shooting
arrows
 Sita put to the test (scene from the Ramayana)
 Rama and Lakshmana form an alliance with Sugriva and Hanuman
 Krishna defeats Naraka Asura
 Arjuna wins Draupadi in an archery competition
 Rama and Lakshmana fight with Kabandha
 Vishnu in the Forest
 Hunaman gives Sita Rama’s ring
 Rama, Lakshmana, and Vibhisana
 Rama returns in Pushaka-Chariot to Adoyhya
 Sita’s trial by fire
B. Southwest Tower (looking north and rotating clockwise)
 Rama chases the golden deer Maricha – A scene from the Ramayana
 Krishna, accompanied by Balarama, lifting Mt Govardhana
 Water festival at Dvaravati
 Shiva as Yogeshvara Bas Relief
 Rama Kills Valin Bas Relief
 Krishna and Arjuna in the Burning Khandava Forest Bas Relief
 Shiva Kills Kama Bas Relief
 Ravana shakes Mt Kailasha
 Young Krishna Uproots Trees Bas Relief
 Shiva and the Hermits
 Churning of the Sea of Milk
Inscriptions hidden in the galleries

If you look closely, hidden in the artwork you can find small inscriptions, mostly along
the southwest wall. Historic procession of Suryavarman II there are at least 10 and in
the Heaven and Hell gallery, more than 30 short inscriptions.
Animals appearing in the galleries

There is a diverse range of mythical creatures including garudas, the monkey
Hanuman, the serpent Vasuki, the sacred geese Hamsa etc., and also a lot of native
creatures. Horses and elephants are common, bull, lions, birdlife, tortoise, and aquatic
creatures can all be seen. Single-horned rhinoceros ridden by the god Agni can be
seen in six on the map, another in five on the map being ridden by an archer in battle,
and another in three on the map.
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Parasols, flags, and torch etc in the galleries
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Palanquin
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Musical Instruments
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Battle armor and weaponry
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Rodney Charles LHuillier-rod@helloangkor.com
By their beauty they first attract, by their strangeness they hold attention, Helen
Churchill Candee wrote of the bas-reliefs in the 1920 .The Gallery of Bas-reliefs,
surrounding the first level of Angkor Wat, contains 1,200 square meters (12,917
square feet) of sandstone carvings. The relief covers most of the inner wall of all four
sides of the gallery and extend for two meters (seven feet) from top to bottom.
The detail, quality composition and execution give them an unequalled status in world
art. Columns along the outer wall of the gallery create an intriguing interplay of light
and shadow on the relief. The effect is one of textured wallpaper that looks like the
work of painters rather than sculptors' The bas-reliefs are of dazzling rich decoration-
always kept in check, never allowed to run unbridled over wall and ceiling possess
strength and repose, imagination and power of fantasy, wherever one looks [the] main
effect is one of "supreme dignity "wrote a visitor 50 years ago.
The bas-reliefs are divided into eight sections, two on each wall of the square gallery
each section depicts a specific theme. In addition the two pavilions at the corners of
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the west Gallery have a variety of scenes. The book does not include description of
badly damaged relief.
Some others are unidentifiable .The composition of the relief can be divided into two
types scenes without any attempt to contain or separate the contents and scenes
contain or separate the contents; and scenes contained in panels which are some-
times superimposed on one another-this type is probably later. The panels run
horizontally along the wall and generally consist of two or three parts. Sometimes the
borders at the top bottom are also decorated. Themes for the bas-reliefs derive from
two main sources-Indian epics and sacred books and warfare of the Angkor Period.
Some scholars suggest that the placement of a relief has a relevance to its theme. The
relief on the east and west walls, for example, depict themes related to the rising and
setting sun. The word bas means low or shallow and refers to the degree of projection
of the relief. The method of creating relief at Angkor Wat was generally to carve away
the background leaving the design in relief. Sometime, though the method was
reversed giving a sunken appearance. of some of the relief have a polished appearance
on the surface.
There are two theories as to why this occurred. The position of the sheen and its
occurrence in important parts of the relief suggest it may have resulted from visitors
rubbing their hands over them. Some art historians, though think it was the result of
lacquer applied over the relief. Traces of gilt and paint, particularly black and red, can
also be found on some of the relief's. They are probably the remains of an undercoat or
a fixative. Several primitive artistic conventions are seen in the bas-reliefs. A river is
represented by two parallel vertical lines with fish swimming between them. As in
Egyptian art, a person's rank is indicated by size. The higher the rank the larger the
size. In battle scenes, broken shafts on the ceremonial umbrellas of a chief signify
defeat. Perspective is shown by planes placed one above the other. The higher up the
wall, the further away is the scene. Figures with legs far apart and knees flexed are in
a flying posture.
Corner pavilion (southwest)

Enter the pavilion and view the scenes facing you. Then continue clockwise around
the pavilion. The bas-reliefs in this pavilion depict scenes from epic the Ramayana.
EAST
A- Left, Water festival; two ships (superimposed) with Apsaras, chess players (top ship)
B- Center, above the door: A god receiving offerings.
SOUTH
C- Left, top to bottom. A fight between Vali and Sugriva, the monkey king; Rama
shoots Vali with an arrow who lies in the arms of his wife (three pointed headdress);
monkeys mourn his death
D- Center, above the door: Murder of a demon; Krsna extinguishes a fire west.
E- Left: Siva sits with his wife Paravati on Mount Kailasa
F- Center, above the door: Krisna uproots trees with a stone he is tied to.
G- Right: Ravana, disguised as a chameleon, presents himself at the palace of Indra.
NORTH
H- Left: The Churning of the Ocean of Milk.
I - Center, above the door: Rama kills Marica, who, disguised as a golden stag, helped
in the abduction of Sita.
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J- Right: Krisna lifts Mount Govardhana to shelter their shepherds and their herds
from the storm ignited by the anger of Indra.
SOUTH (HISTORICAL) GALLERY - ARMY OF KING SORYAVAMAN II

This gallery depicts a splendid triumphal procession from a battle between the Khmers
and their enemies. The relief's show methods used in warfare, mainly hand-to-hand
combat, as they no machinery and no knowledge of firearms.
The naturalistic depiction of trees and animals in the background of this panel is
unusual. The central figure of this gallery is King Suryavarman II, the builder of
Angkor Wat, who appears twice. An inscription on the panel identifies him by his
posthumous name, suggesting it may have been done after his death. The rectangular
holes randomly cut n this gallery may have contained precious objects of the temple.
On the upper tier the king (seated with traces of gilt on his body) holds an audience on
a mountain. Below of the place walk down a mountain in the forest.
The army gathers for inspection and the commander mounted on elephants join their
troops who are marching towards the enemy. The commander's rank is identified by a
small inscription near the figure. King Suryavarman II stands on an elephant (conical
headdress, sword with the blade across his shoulder) and servants around him hold
15 ceremonial umbrellas. Visnu stands on a Garuda on a Garuda on a flagpole in
front of the king's elephant. The lively and loud procession of the Sacred Fire (carried
in an ark) follows with standard bearers, musicians and jesters. Brahmans chant to
the accompaniment of cymbals. The royal sacrifice in a palanquin.
Towards the end of the panel: The military procession resumes with a troop of Thai
soldiers (pleated skirts with floral pattern; belts with long pendants; plaited hair;
headdresses with plumes; short moustaches) led by their commander who is mounted
on an elephant. The Thai troops were probably either mercenaries of a contingent from
the province of Louvo (today called Lopburi) conscripted to the Khmer army. A number
of the Khmer warriors wear helmets with horns of animal heads (deer, horse, bird) and
some of their shields are embellished with monsters for the same purpose.
JUDGMENT BY YAMA; HEAVEN AND HELL

Three tiers recount the judgment of mankind by Yama and two tiers depict Heaven
and Hell. Inscriptions have identified 37 heavens where one sees leisurely pursuits in
palaces and 32 hells with scenes of punishment and suffering. Draperies and Apsaras
separate the two and a row of Garudas borders the tier in the bottom. The roof was
destroyed by lightning in 1947 and subsequently the ceiling of this gallery was
restored by the French. Traces of gilt can be on riders on horses at the beginning of
the panel. The lower section of the panel was badly damaged and liter filled with
cement.
Lower tier: Yama, the Supreme Judge (multiple arms, wields a staff and rides a
buffalo), points out to his scribes the upper road representing heaven and the lower
one of hell. Departed spirits a wait judgment. Assistants to Yama shove the wicked
through a trap door to the lower regions where torturers deliver punishments such as
sawing a body in half for those who overeat. Lawbreakers have their bones broken.
Some of the punished wear iron shackles or have nails pierced through their heads.
Upper tier: A celestial palace is supported by a frieze of Garudas with Apsaras in the
skies.
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NORTH GALLERY
VICTORY OF KRISNA OVER BANA THE DEMON KING
At the beginning of the panel Visnu in his incarnation as Krsna (framed by two heroes)
sits on the shoulders of a Gruda. Agni, the god of Fire (multiple arms), sits on a
rhinoceros behind him. This scene appears several times. A wall surrounding the city
is on fire and prevents the advance of Krsna (mounted of a Garuda) and his army of
gods. This Krsna scene also appears several times in the panel. The Garuda
extinguishes the fire with water from the sacred river Ganges. The demon Bana
(multiple arms, mounted on a rhinoceros) approaches from the opposite direction.
Extreme right: Krsna (1,000 heads, hands across his chest) kneels in front of Siva who
sits enthroned on Mount Kailasa with his wife Parvati and their son ganesa (head of
an elephant) as they demand that Siva spare the life of Bana.
BATTLE BETWEEN THE GODS AND THE DEMONS
A procession of 21 gods of the Brahmanic pantheon march in procession carrying
classic attributes and riding traditional mounts. One-god battles against a demon
while warriors on both sides battle in the background. A series of adversaries follow,
the Kubera, God of riches (with bow and arrow), Appears on the shoulders of a Yaksa;
followed by Skanda, Goe of war (multiple heads and arms), mounded on a peacock;
Indra stands on his mount the elephant; Visnu (four arms) sits on his mount, a
Guard; a demon (tiered heads) shaking swords; Yama, God of Death and. Justice
(sword and shield), stands in a chariot pulled by horses; and Varian, God of the Water,
stands on a five-headed serpent harnessed like a beast of burden.
CORNER PAVILION (NORTHWEST)
Enter the pavilion and walk counter-clockwise. Several of the scenes are in good
condition.
NORTH
A- Right: The women's quarters of a palace.
B- Center, above the door: An attempt to abduct site in the forest.
C- Left, badly damaged: A scene from the Ramayana.
Above: Tiers of monkeys and a pyre
WEST
D- Right: rama in his chariot (drawn by geese) returns victorious to Ayodhya
E- Center, above the door: Rama and Laksmana surrounded by monkeys.
F- Left: A conversation between Sita and Hanuman in the forest; Hanuman gives
Rama’s ring to Sota.
SOUTH
G- Right Visni (seated, four arms) surrounded by Apsaras.
H- Center, above the door: Rama and Laksmana battle a monster (headless, face on
stomach)
I- Left: Rama wins an archery competition; Rama and Sita sitting together.
EAST
J- Right: Visnu (four arms) on a Garuda; Krsna (mounted on a Garuda) bring back
Mount Maniparvata which he took from a demon he killed; his army carries the
remains of the demon.
K- Center, above the door: Discussions on an alliance.
Left: Rama and his brother Laksmana.
Right: Suryva, the monkey king L- Left: Visnu reclines on the serpent Anent.
Below: A group of nine gods with their mounts
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(1) Surya in a chariot pulled by horses

(2) Kubera standing on the shoulders of a Yaksa
(3) Brahma riding a goose
(4) Skanda on a peacock
(5) An unidentified god on a horse
(6) Indra on a three-headed elephant
(7) Yama riding a buffalo
(8)Siva on a bull
(9) An unidentified god on a lion
WEST GALLERY - BATTLE OF LANKA

This scene from the Ramayana is a long and fierce struggle between Rama and the
demon king Ravana (10 heads and 20 arms), near the center. It is among the finest of
the bas-reliefs at Angkor Wat. The battle takes place in Lanka (Sri Lanka) and ends
with the defeat of Ravana, captor of Sita, the beautiful wife of Rama. The central
figures are the monkey warriors who fight against the raksasas on Rama's side.
The brutality of war is juxtaposed with a graceful rendition of lithesome monkeys. Past
the center: Rama stands on the shoulders of Sugriva surrounded by arrows;
Laksmana, his brother, and an old demon, stand by Rama. Nearby, the demon king
Ravana (10 heads and 20 arms) rides in a chariot drawn by mythical lions.
Further on, Nala, the monkey who built Rama's bridge to Lanka, is between them
leaning on the heads of two lions. He throws the body of one he has just beaten over
his shoulder. A monkey prince tears out the tusk of an elephant, which is capped with
a three-pointed headdress and throws him and the demon to the ground.
https://www.tourismcambodia.com/attractions/angkor/angkor-wat.htm
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CHAPTER V
THE STORY OF ASTROLOGY IN ANGKOR WAT & OTHER KHEMER
TEMPLES
We are born at a given moment, in a given saptārccir vahnyagāre vidhisatatahuto yena mantraiḥ
place and, like vintage years of wine, we have prayuktair
the qualities of the year and of the season of mmedhyenābhūtapūrvveṇa vividhahaviṣāpi prahṛṣyatyīva
which we are born. Astrology does not lay pūrvvatrāpūrvvam āśuprahitahitahavir mandapālasya mantrāt
claim to anything more. kṛtsnaṃ kṛṣṇārjunābhyāṃ priyam adhikam asau khāndave no
~Carl Gustav Jung cakhāda35
ASTRO – L- OGY
“The [Lord of] Seven Fires [Agni], constantly invoked
by rituals in the house of fire is pleased by mantra
recitations by [Jayavarman VII], whose manifold
offerings are pure and unprecedented. This is similar to
ASTRO- N - OMY Mandapāla’s mantras, because of which [Agni] suddenly

presented (āśuprahita) with an unprecedented offering
by Krsna and Arjuna, did not thus consume everything
good and excellent in Khāndava.
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Jayavarman V (968–1001)’s tenth century inscription at

Vat Sithor in Kompong Cham
Stars, Kings And Nations
Astrology evolved from a mundane system that predicted environmental conditions to

a sophisticated tool that can be used to analyse personality, traits and the
past/present lives of people. Certainly, royals and nobility have used these systems to
ensure security and stability in their personal lives and their endeavour.
Our ancestors began noticing the stars above millions of years ago. After that, they
gradually began to believe that these distant fires could influence life and destiny on
earth. The stars and planets, they subsequently concluded, could chart the fortunes of
kings and commoners. Likewise, the stars could also decide the fate of nations,
cultures, civilisations, languages and societies, for instance. As a result, this belief
culminated in the creation of the art and science of astrology.
Historical Roots
The first known and documented system of astrology appears to have been the
Babylonian system. It can be traced back to the 2nd millennium BC. For instance, the
art of divination is frequently referred to in ancient Babylonian texts. Certainly, by the
16th century BC, astrological predictions based on omens were compiled in a series of
works. However, the focus was on the prediction of weather, crop-sowing, harvesting,
and some political affairs, in almanac form. For instance, people used them to
remember about seasonal tasks. Subsequently, they gradually began to include the
fate of cities and nations.Egyptian, Persian and Mesopotamian systems contributed to
the development of the zodiac. Therefore, they also studied the influences of the sun
and how the movement of the planets and stars affected life on earth. For instance,
the Egyptian astronomer/astrologer Ptolemy’s work that was a seminal one in this
area.
Development In India
In India a contrasting system of Vedic astrology began to develop. The earliest

evidences found in 2nd millennium BC texts show a close relationship between
astronomy and astrology. Although astrology initially concerned itself with the fate of
kings, kingdoms and the elite, it moved gradually into the sphere of the common man.
Its status was on par with systems of traditional medicine like Ayurveda. As a result,
the astrologer often enjoyed a high status in royal households and courts.
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Other Systems Around The World
Chinese and Far Eastern systems developed a little later. They are based on a 60-year
cycle combining five elements and twelve zodiac animal symbols. Omens and signs
played a great role in this system. “When some new dynasty is about to emerge, heaven
shows auspicious signs for people to be warned” was the opinion of a famous Chinese
astrologer. Pre-Columbian and Mayan civilisations had their own astrological systems.
Kings and Queens and The Stars
People considered astrology to be so powerful that only the royal astrologer was
allowed to cast the horoscope of a newborn Royal. They considered the horoscope to be
a secret dossier that gave information about personality, vulnerabilities, favorable and
unfavorable periods etc. As a result, many Royals had two or three birth-dates to
confuse their enemies.
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Astrology In Indian Mythology
In India, the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics are full of astrological references. For
instance, the births of Shri Rama and various other personages have been charted
astrologically. Similarly in the Mahabharata, omens and portents, the baneful
influences of planets and stars have all been mentioned.
The Mughals were firm believers in astrology. Because of this, Humanyun placed his
throne on a planetary diagram depicting the sun and the planets. Abul Fazl cast
Akbar’s horoscope.
Mughal Emperor Babur and his son Humayun
During the period of the Chola dynasty of South India, people practised a branch
called the Naadi astrology.
Modern Astrological Predictions
In the same vein, modern wars and conflicts like the Iraq War, the WTC Towers attack,
Vietnam war, Pearl Harbor attack, the Japanese kamikaze fighters, the installation of
the Statue of Liberty etc have all been traced to astrological configurations.1
Not only in Europe but also in India, kings and emperors used astrology as a ‘scientific
proof’ for their claims to power. As it still was regarded as a science, it could provide
useful justification for a king’s great destiny, even though horoscopes are so complex
that almost every fact can be ‘found’ in them by a clever combination of their data.
Though doubts about astrology existed, the Mughal emperors used astrology
extensively. Two of them, Akbar (1556-1605) and his grandson Shāh Jahān (1628-
1658), included horoscopes in the introductions of their official chronicles. Both
wanted to prove that they were the renovator of Islam in the second Islamic
millennium. Akbar had this done in defiance of religion, Shāh Jahān in compliance,
but both with a definitive effort to twist the information from the heavens in a way that
suited them. Both used horoscopes to explain the tenets of their reign as a
requirement of the age. In the case of Shāh Jahān, we even find personal sentiments
and changes over time, comparing an earlier and a slightly later horoscope . 2
Rooted in the Vedas, India's ancient system of knowledge, Vedic astrology is based on
the belief that the stars and planets have a powerful influence on our lives. According
to Hindu teachings, life is meant for spiritual growth. These ancient texts
predominantly cover astronomy, but at a rudimentary level.Technical horoscopes and
astrology ideas in India came from Greece and developed in the early centuries of the
1st millennium CE. Later medieval era texts such as the Yavana-jataka and the
Siddhanta texts are more astrology-related.
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1.https://jothishi.com/how-the-stars-have-charted-the-history-of-kings-and-nations/
2.Popp, S. (2016). Mughal Horoscopes as Propaganda, Journal of Persianate

Studies, 9(1), 45-59. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/18747167-12341293
Jyotisha or Jyotishya (from Sanskrit jyotiṣa, from jyóti- "light, heavenly body") is the
traditional Hindu system of astrology, also known as Hindu astrology, Indian
astrology and more recently Vedic astrology. The term Hindu astrology has been in use
as the English equivalent of Jyotiṣa since the early 19th century, whereas Vedic
astrology is a relatively recent term, entering common usage in the 1970s with self-
help publications on Āyurveda or yoga.
The Vedanga Jyotisha is one of the earliest texts about astronomy within the Vedas.
Some scholars believe that the horoscopic astrology practiced in the Indian
subcontinent came from Hellenistic influences, however, this is a point of intense
debate and other scholars believe that Jyotisha developed independently although it
may have interacted with Greek astrology.
Following a judgement of the Andhra Pradesh High Court in 2001 which favoured
astrology, some Indian universities now offer advanced degrees in Hindu astrology.
The scientific consensus is that astrology is a pseudoscience.
Brahmagupta, (born 598—died c. 665, possibly Bhillamala [modern Bhinmal],
Rajasthan, India), one of the most accomplished of the ancient Indian astronomers. He
also had a profound and direct influence on Islamic and Byzantine astronomy. He is
the father of Indian astrology. The foundation of Hindu astrology is the notion
of bandhu of the Vedas (scriptures), which is the connection between
the microcosm and the macrocosm. Practice relies primarily on the sidereal zodiac,
which differs from the tropical zodiac used in Western (Hellenistic) astrology in that
an ayanāṁśa adjustment is made for the gradual precession of the vernal equinox.
Hindu astrology includes several nuanced sub-systems of interpretation and
prediction with elements not found in Hellenistic astrology, such as its system of lunar
mansions (Nakṣatra). It was only after the transmission of Hellenistic astrology that
the order of planets in India was fixed in that of the seven-day week.
Hellenistic astrology and astronomy also transmitted the twelve zodiacal
signs beginning with Aries and the twelve astrological places beginning with the
ascendant. The first evidence of the introduction of Greek astrology to India is
the Yavanajātaka which dates to the early centuries CE.
The Yavanajātaka (lit. "Sayings of the Greeks") was translated from Greek to Sanskrit
by Yavaneśvara during the 2nd century CE, and is considered the first Indian
astrological treatise in the Sanskrit language. However the only version that survives
is the verse version of Sphujidhvaja which dates to AD 270. The first Indian
astronomical text to define the weekday was the Āryabhaṭīya of Āryabhaṭa (born AD
476).
According to Michio Yano, Indian astronomers must have been occupied with the task
of Indianizing and Sanskritizing Greek astronomy during the 300 or so years between
80
the first Yavanajataka and the Āryabhaṭīya. The astronomical texts of these 300 years
are lostThe later Pañcasiddhāntikā of Varāhamihira summarizes the five known Indian
astronomical schools of the sixth century. Indian astronomy preserved some of the
older pre-Ptolemaic elements of Greek astronomy.
The main texts upon which classical Indian astrology is based are early medieval
compilations, notably the Bṛhat Parāśara Horāśāstra, and Sārāvalī by Kalyāṇavarma.
The Horāshastra is a composite work of 71 chapters, of which the first part (chapters
1–51) dates to the 7th to early 8th centuries and the second part (chapters 52–71) to
the later 8th century. The Sārāvalī likewise dates to around 800 CE. English
translations of these texts were published by N. N. Krishna Rau and V. B. Choudhari in 1963
and 1961, respectively.
Hindu Funan: Meanwhile a great change had taken place in the Kingdom of Funan. Kaundilya
1a Brahmin from India heard an inner voice to go to FUNAN and reached P’an P’an south of
Funan The people hearing of him came and made him king. He changed all the rukes there
and made it as of Hinduism as practiced from India. 2
The golden age of Khemer architecture began with Jayavarman II. In his long reign of 67 years
he built 3 capitals. Probably( and I think definitely so) he got inspiration from his Javanese
ancestors who had built the magnificent Prambanan temples.
1. ndrapura the Capital already exited when he came, it was followed by building of
2. Hariharalaya. The next capital was amarendrapura 100 miles to North – West of Angkor
Thom.Shiva and Buddha were combined in the architecture of bantey Chamar which he
built.The 3 rd and last work of jayavarman II was.
3. Mahendraparavata or Phnom Kueon.2
Hindu traditions dominated Angkor civilization up to the 13th century even if some sovereigns
of this period had Buddhist leanings, or were even devout Buddhists. At the time of the
monumental construction there was the problem of finding a suitable site vast enough to
enable the construction of an edifice worthy of his greatness and living up to his aspirations.
Whatever the layout of the city of Angkor was at this time, including the area of ancient
Yasodharapura and of the future Angkor Thom, the constructions of the 10th and 11th century
occupied a considerable part of the available land.
Some of the earliest astrological works uncovered include Jataka Parijata and Sarvartha Chintamani, both
remnants of young Hindu astrology. Astrology that ascended from Indian roots is still widely-received,
respected, and referred to today in Hindu culture. The earliest and most ancient scriptures are still able to
produce accurate predictions and subsequently, have managed to evolve with the modern age. Today’s
Western astrology is a diverse combination of the eerie science’s origins; elements from Indian, Chinese,
Mayan, and Greek astrology have come together to form the contemporary wheel that sections of the
Gregorian calendar into the zodiac signs most mentioned currently .
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______________________________________________________________________________
1. A person of that name is mentioned in the Book of Liang in a story that appears somewhat after the story of
Hùntián.According to this source, Qiáochénrú was one of the successors of the king Tiānzhú Zhāntán (天竺旃檀,
"Candana from India"), a ruler of Funan who in the year 357 CE sent tamed elephants as tribute to Emperor Mu of
Jin (r. 344–361; personal name: Sīmǎ Dān
2. Indian cultural influence in Cambodia / by Bijan Raji Chatterji. [Calcutta] : University of Calcutta,
1964. https://archive.org/details/IndianCulturalInfluenceInCambodia/page/n33/mode/1up
As a result, Suryavarman chose the southeast corner of Yasodhapura, a space

evidently free of buildings of durable materials, yet one where he could take advantage
of the network of canals laid out by Yasovarman for his capital.
King Suryavarman II (1113-1150), the builder of Angkor Wat was a devotee of Lord
Vishnu. The philosophical understanding behind cremation in Hinduism is that the
body made of five basic elements- Earth, Water, Air, Space and Fire, returns to those
elements after the migration of the soul.Which means they are to be cast into a river(
at least most of them). In the Hindu tradition, no one ever builds a funerary temple or
mausoleum – so there is more to the site than that.Either, that it is a mausoleum but
more so- a construction that cried out for an appropriate site to fit into.
No, the answer to understanding the Angkor is ancient Astronomy, Angkor Wat, City
built with astronomic measurements to mimic the Gods in the Universe. It is plainly
evident that the most appropriate access route to the site of Angkor Wat temple was
from the west. Attributing unsubstantiated explanations or meaning to a fact of purely
physical constraint is unwarranted. 1 Instead of calling the region where the temples
of Angkor Wat are located as South East Asia, which is an American term, Lawrence
Palmer Briggs suggests we call it Indo China for the people living there were neither
Hindus nor Buddhists but autochtshonous . I don’t know what auto auto it is but
definitely they were Hindus and the Buddhist period lasted hardly a few centuries
more after the Hindu one.2
In his erudite paper-Time, Space, and Astronomy in Angkor Wat,Subhash Kak 3

elucidates:
“ The most impressive aspect of this representation is that it occurs both at

the level of the part as well as the whole in a recursive fashion, mirroring the
Vedic idea of the microcosm symbolizes the macrocosm at various levels of
expressions. This is done not only in the domain of numbers and directions,
but also using appropriate mythological themes, and historical incidents.
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In fact the entire stretch of South East Asia from Indonesia to Cambodia is strewn with
remains of Indian influence. Travelers would not have missed that Bangkok’s airport is
called Suvarnabhoomi and the entrance of the airport depicts Amrit Manthan, the churning
of the sea by devas to extract the elixir of life. The Indian influence in Indonesia –whose
tourist haven of Bali is a Hindu majority province, is something that is fairly well know.
___________________________________________________________________________________
1.Monuments of Civilization: Ancient Cambodia,Donatella Mazzeo,Chiara Silvi

Antonini, Han Suyin (Contributor), 1983 , Smithmark Publishers (first published
October 1st 1978)
2..Sarton, G. (1951). [Review of The Ancient Khmer Empire, by L. P. Briggs]. Isis, 42(3), 263–265.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/226582
3.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2889330_Time_Space_and_Astronomy_in_Angkor_Wat
These according to him, correspond to the periods of 432,000; 864,000; 1,296,000;
1,728,000 years for the Kali, Dvapara, Treta, and Krta yuga, respectively.
The mythological scenes skillfully use the oppositions and complementarities

between the gods, goddesses, asuras, and humans dened over ordinary and
sacred time and space.
Furthermore he points out that the various lengths and circumferences of units
representing the motion of the moon may equal ;
1. 27, 28, 29 (naksatras or daysof the month) ,
2. 354 (days of the lunar year), or
3. 360 (tithis of the lunar year).
4. Other lengths represent the solar year (360, 365, or 366) or larger time cycles.
According to him the west-east axis represents the periods of the yugas.
1. The width of the moat is 439.78 cubit;
2. the distance from the first step of the western entrance gateway to balustrade
wall at the end of causeway is 867.03 cubit;
3. the distance from the first step of the western entrance gateway to the
4. first step of the central tower is 1,296.07 cubit; and
5. the distance from the first step of bridge to the geographic center of the temple
is 1,734.41 cubit.
In the central tower, the topmost elevation has external axial dimensions of 189.00
cubit east-west, and 176.37 cubit north-south, with the sum of 365.37. This division
of the almost exact length of the solar year into unequal halves remained a mystery for
some time until it was found to be connected with the Satapatha Brahman.-a
numbers for the asymmetric motion of the sun.
All these are, however, astrological terms also which underlines the fact that
astrological advanvces were so great that they linked this knowledge to astronomy. To
understand this let us study the connection between the two.
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2 picture composition: Aspara in Moon light/ To RIGHT Central tower of Angkor Wat,
Cambodia with full Moon. Credit: Astronomy club Toutatis/S. Lamoureux
The Wat was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century
in Yasodharapura present-day Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his
state.temple.
Breaking from the Shaivism tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was
instead dedicated to Vishnu. As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the
only one to have remained a significant religious center since its foundation.
The Khmer's adhered to the Indian belief that a temple must be built according
to a mathematical system in order for it to function in harmony with the
universe. Distances between certain architectural elements of the temple reflect
numbers related to Indian mythology and cosmology.
The scale of Angkor Wat enabled the Khmer to give full expression to religious
symbolism. The sheer size of the place leaves visitors in awe and the complex
designs illustrate the skills of long gone priest architects. Every spare inch has
been carved with intricate works of art. It is, above all else, a microcosm of the
Hindu universe. As a brilliant example of the synthesis of astronomy and
architecture at Angkor Wat, the solar axes of the temple lead directly to the
central sanctuary, a sanctum sanctorum devoted to the supreme solar god,
Lord Vishnu. Vishnu manifests as one of the solar months, and the sun itself is
Although the Sun gains stature through its conjunction with the center of Angkor Wat,
Vishnu, and the king, it is worth noting that lunar alignments are also recorded along
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the western and eastern axis of the temple. As the measurements of solar and lunar
time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule
was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's
power and to honour and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above.
The solar and lunar alignments at Angkor Wat were alignments with the gods,
alignments that tied the nation to the heavens above, and alignments that imbued the
king with the power to rule by divine association.
1. The rising sun aligning on equinox days with the western entrance of the state
temple, Angkor Wat.
2. The movements of the moon can be observed from a variety of positions within the
temple, and lunar cycles may have been recorded in the three sets of libraries in the
interior court.
3. The bas reliefs of the third gallery can be understood in relation to the movements
of the sun, which establish their counterclockwise direction.
4. The measurements of the temple appear proportional to calendric and cosmological
time cycles.
These temples are inshort an Observatory.When you settle your feet at a specific
location, the Universe, in a sense revolves around you. With some patience and time
you can start to notice patterns and Recursions that you can calculate and even
predict.
“In conclusion for me, the most amazing aspects of the ancient Khmer Civilization was
their understanding of their place in the cosmos, and how the placement of the
temples mirrored so many of the celestial movements.
A real ancient observatory with it's knowledge embedded on it's self. Through stone
and art, they kept it all to be discovered again and again. “1
DEVARAJA
Jayavarman introduced into Cambodia with the help of a Brahmin
guru, Hiranyadama, the idea of the Deva Raja (the king-God) which was somewhat
similar to that of the Sailendra King of the Mountain cult. Jayavarman based his
power on religion. He organized the state, founding several capitals – Hariharalaya,
modern Roluous, Amarendrapura, probably built around Akyum, and finally
Mahendraparvata or the Phom Kulen. Excavations on the summit of Phnom Kulen
have revealed a number of temples that were completely hidden by thick forests and
were mainly discovered by Philippe Stern and Henri Mouhot. In style, they provide a
link between pre-Angkor and classical Angkor art.
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1. http://linksthroughspace.blogspot.com/2014/02/cambodia-2014-ancient-astronomy-
angkor.html.. Angkor wat procession and scene of battles.
The Khmers were accomplished builders; Jayavarman’s successors built temples
enthusiastically. The cult of the King of the Mountain inspired each king to erect a
magnificent shrine to perpetuate his memory. Thus arose the complex of Angkor
Thom. Yasovarman I (889 – 901) was one of the outstanding rulers of the dynasty, and
the founder of the first city of Angkor. This covered a much larger area than Angkor
Thom, which was founded later by Jayavarman VII at the end of the twelfth century.
These two cities partly overlap, but the former lies outside the southern wall of Angkor
Thom. Yasovarman issued a large number of Sanskrit inscriptions written in Kavya
style and built the Saiva temple of Phnom Bakheng.
Indravarman who laid the foundation of Angkor, is said to have studied the monistic
Vedanta philosophy of the great Indian Sage Shankaracharya, with a Brahmin learned
in that tradition.
Hydraulic Capital
Cambodia reached its peak during the reign of Suryavaman II (1113 – 1152), the
builder of the matchless Angkor Wat, an epic in stone. With the death of Jayavarman
II (1181 – 1220) the kingdom began to decline, falling finally before the advancing
Thais.
Angkor is a derivative of the Sanskrit Nagara, meaning city, and thom a Khmer word
meaning great. Angkor can reclaim the reputation it once had as a "hydraulic capital".
Hydraulic Capital - Irrigation channels.
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Angkow wat covering an area of five hundred acres is the largest and most impressive
temple in the world. According to Henri Mouhot, who discovered it for the modern
world: “this architectural work perhaps has not, and perhaps never has had, its equal
on the face of the globe.”
Since his day, countless people, both admirers and skeptics, have stood spellbound
before this majestic temple of Vishnu.
A raised causeway of flagstones, lined by a naga-balustrade, leads from the main road
over a moat to the main gate of the temple. This gate house, which is a spacious
building forming the front part of the wall that goes around the enclosure, is in itself a
remarkable creation. A paved road 400 yards long leads to the temple. At the base, the
temple is 223 by 242 yards, and its main tower is about 80 yards high. Structurally it
is a three-stepped pyramid. Each storey is punctuated by towers at the corners and
pavilions in the center. The main tower is on the third storey. The temple rises steeply
in the form of three concentric rectangular galleries, each double the height of the
preceding one, and connected by stairs and intervening open terraces. The inner most
gallery is dominated by five tall domes, the central one of which dominates the plain
below. The entire building is constructed in sandstone, and if any wood was used, it
has long since perished.
The building has been chiseled with endless bas-reliefs and beautiful designs and
patterns. Flowers, birds, and dancing maidens decorate the walls. Hundreds of Khmer
artists must have spend their entire lives on the work, yet is impossible to detect a
single flaw in these acres of carved panels. The sculptors of Angkor wat who executed
many scenes from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Harivamsa, must have
had an intimate knowledge of Indian epic literature. Vishnu predominates but other
gods also adorn the temple with their various incarnations and emanations. The outer
gallery, running around the whole building, itself contains a half-mile of bas reliefs on
the back wall, and there are about 1750 life-size apsaras, practically everyone in a
different, magnificent head-dress.
In traditional Hindu astronomy, seven stars of Ursa Major identified with the names of Saptarshis///
All the princes received training in Indian philosophy and literature.
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A number of persons of apparent Indian origin were present in the Khambuja kingdom
and Brahmins were held in high esteem. For instance, Hiranyadama came from a
janapada in India to teach Tantric texts to the royal priest, Sivakaivalya.
lthough the Khmers are so admirably remembered for their superb achievements in
art, they patronized all branches of Indian learning. All the princes received training in
Indian philosophy and literature. A number of persons of apparent Indian origin were
present in the Khambuja kingdom and Brahmins were held in high esteem. For
instance, Hiranyadama came from a janapada in India to teach Tantric texts to the
royal priest, Sivakaivalya.
When Buddhism became the paramount religion of Cambodia is uncertain. It had long
been flourishing and occasionally enjoyed royal patronage, but it was never the state
religion and never held a dominant position. It seems likely that Siam, which was first
influenced by Cambodia, later aided Cambodia’s conversion to Buddhism. The change
was almost complete; today Hinduism is practically extinct in Cambodia, except in a
vestigial form in certain ceremonies and festivities. Hindu deities have been absorbed
by Buddhism and relegated to subordinate positions, and even the Hindu gods in the
great temples, such as Angkor Wat, have long been replaced by the images of the
Buddha.
The Thais attacked Angkor Wat several times in the 1300s and 1400s and sacked the
seat of the Khmer regime in 1431.
Over the centuries, numerous different groups - including Thai and Vietnamese
invaders, French colonizers and Khmer Rouge guerrillas and the Americans with their
carpet bombing - have trampled over Cambodia's ancient sites, each contributing to
the damage.
To the French conservators, Angkor was archeological champagne, the best of the
best.
Rescuing it became a technical passion. For 40 years the French concentrated on
arresting further deterioration and by 1970 a hundred-man team, cranes and heavy
cement-mixing equipment were reinforcing the massive jumble of stonework. Four out
of Angkor's nine towers are gone, irretrievably lopped off by crunching weather forces.
http://www.hinduwisdom.info/Sacred_Angkor2.htm
some researchers have claimed that the very dimensions of many of the structures at
Angkor Wat have astronomical associations. These associations emerge from
consideration of the unit of length that was in use at that time, a unit known as the
hat or "Cambodian cubit." There is some question as to how long a hat was, and
indeed its definition may not have been uniformly applied; but a value of 43.45
centimeters (17.1 inches) for the length of a hat is suggested by the structures
themselves.
Using this value, archaeologists discovered numerous dimensions of the temple that
seem to have astronomical and cosmological significance—for example, the following:
 The dimensions of the highest rectangular level of the temple are 189 hat in the
east-west direction and 176 hat in the north-south direction. Added together
these give 365, the number of days in one year.
 In the central sanctuary, the distances between sets of steps is approximately
12 hat. There are roughly 12 lunar cycles, or synodic months (from full Moon to
full Moon, say—the basis for our modern month) in one year.
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 The length and width of the central tower add up to approximately 91 hat. On
average, there are 91 days between any solstice and the next equinox, or any
equinox and the next solstice.
Because of its orbit around the Earth, the Moon's apparent position in the sky relative
to the background stars will appear to shift from night to night. Since it takes the
Moon just over 27 days to complete one orbit (known as its sidereal period), it will
during this time appear to move through 27 successive regions of the sky. In Hindu
cosmology, these regions were known as the naksatras, or lunar mansions. In some
contexts there were 27 lunar mansions, while in other contexts an additional naksatra
containing the star Vega was included, giving 28 lunar mansions.
 The central tower at Angkor Wat contains nine inner chambers. If you total the
dimensions of all of these chambers it equals 27 hat in the north-south
direction and 28 hat in the east-west direction, corresponding to the possible
number of lunar mansions. Also, the libraries have lengths measured along
their interiors of 16 hat in the east-west direction, and either 12 or 11 hat in
the north-south direction, depending upon whether or not the doorways are
included. Added together, these also give either 28 or 27 hat. Finally, the north-
south width of the libraries measured from the exteriors of the walls is again 28
hat.
Hindu cosmology recognizes four time periods, or Yugas, that are represented in the
dimensions of the temple:
 The length of the Kali-Yuga, our current time period, is 2 x 603 years, or 432
thousand years. The width of the moat that surrounds the temple, measured at
the water level, is approximately 432 hat.
 The length of the Dv apara-Yuga is 4 x 603 years, or 864 thousand years. The
distance from the entrance to the inner wall is 867 hat.
 The length of the Treta-Yuga is 6 x 603 years, or 1,296 thousand years. The
distance from the entrance to the central tower is 1,296 hat.
 The length of the Krita-Yuga is 8 x 603 years, or 1,728 thousand years. The
distance from the moat bridge to the center of the temple is 1,734 hat.
Rarely in history has any culture given rise to a structure that so elaborately and
expansively incorporates its concept of the cosmos. Angkor Wat stands as a striking
and majestic monument in honor of the Universe and our place in it.( Angkor - The
History of Astronomy - planetquest.org).
The Solar Numbers at Angkor Wat: Dr Subhask Kak (1949 - ) is a widely known
scientist and a Indic scholar. Currently a Professor at Louisiana State University, he
has authored ten books and more than 200 research papers in the fields of
information theory, quantum mechanics, and Indic studies. He is a Sanskrit scholar
and is author of Astronomical Code of the Rig Veda, and India at Century's
End: Essays on History and Politics.
He has observed:
"The great Vishnu temple at Angkor Wat is known to have been built according to an
astronomical plan. A little understood solar formula of the temple is identical to the
one in the 2nd millennium BC Indian text called Shatapatha Brahmana. It was an
expression of the Shatapatha astronomy."
Architectural plans published by Nafilyan (1969) were examined to Assess possible
astronomical alignments in context of written records of the Khmer empire and
specifically the reign of Suryavarman II (1113-1150AD) during which the complex was
89
built. Twenty-two possible alignments are identified and their relationship to bas
relief and Hindu time cycles examined.
Conclusions: 1. The rising sun appears aligned on equinox and solstice days with the
western entrance of Angkor Wat.2. The movements of the moon can be observed from
a variety of positions within the temple, and lunar cycles may have been recorded in
the three sets of libraries.3. The bas reliefs of the third gallery can be understood in
relation to the movements of the sun, which establish their counterclockwise
direction. 4. The measurements of the temple appear proportional to calendric and
cosmological time cycles.1
Jean Fillozat was the first to perceive that the relief function could be part of broader
astronomical and numerological concepts embedded in Khmer architecture.
In 1976, a group of American scholars R. Stencel, F Gifford and E Moron, published a
paper revealing a cosmic symbolism created by the relationship between structures
and meaning in the design of Angkor wat. The theme was considerably expanded
by Eleanor Mannikka in her book of 1996. On the basis of the study of a very large
number of measurements of architectural elements at Angkor Wat, she established
that the temple’s dimensions are encoded with the meanings of Indian cosmology and
numerology. She also noticed that some alignments of the monument’s structures are
closely related to astronomical events. The temple’s architecture is a sort of religious
and astronomical text, a text that could be read by knowledgeable people walking
along its main pathways. For example, as the sun progresses on its annual round, it
illuminates in a specific way the great continuous series reliefs of the 3rd gallery,
revealing a most intriguing relationship between the passage of the sun and the
content of the reliefs. In the first part of the year, it illuminates the main protagonists
of the creation act (Churning of the Ocean of Milk).
(source: http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/9811040 and http://www.du.edu/~rstencel/C
ourses/angkor.htm
During the autumn equinox, on the side of the setting sun, the highlighted reliefs
depict the terrible battle of Kurukshtra. During the dry season, the north gallery loses
the sun, while the reliefs on the south gallery, lit up by the sun, take as their theme
the kingdom of death.
Architectural symbolism
In ancient Cambodia, as in India, the highest religious authority, the Brahmins,

formulated the sacred concepts on which the temple was based, and the main
architect, who was also a religious teacher, carried out its construction according to
the science of sacred architecture (vastu-vidyah).
During the medieval period, scientists in the Hindu world made many contributions to
the field of astronomy. While their work was based on ancient sources from Greece
and India;they updated methods for measuring and calculating the movement of
heavenly bodies, and continued to develop models of the universe and the movements
of the planets within it. So great was this contribution that in the “ House of Wisdom”
the famous Librafry in Baghdad, Arabian scientists translated studies in Sanskrit,
Pahlavi, and Greek into Arabic.
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The Study of Astrology: Astrology seeks to predict the influence of the heavenly
bodies on events on earth, relying on understanding the movement of the planets and
the ability to calculate their positions in the future. In this way, astrology was
considered a branch of astronomy, and serious science. Astrologers offered their
services in bazaars, where anyone could pay for horoscope readings and predictions;
and they were employed at royal courts, to help rulers decide such matters as when to
announce an heir or launch a military campaign, or to predict the future state of their
kingdoms. Horoscopes were also devised at the foundation of capital cities, such as
the three of Jayavarman II mentioned above.
The three tools of the astrologer were the astrolabe, used to determine the time by
measuring the altitude of the sun or any visible stellar object; the ephemeris, a table
that gives the positions of astronomical objects in the sky at a given time; and the dust
board, a tablet covered with sand on which calculations could be made and erased.
Most astrologers learned their practice by studying with a master, acquiring a basic
knowledge of astronomy and mathematics and the ability to use astronomical
instruments.
After taking the measurements and making their calculations, the astrologist would
then interpret the signs and what they meant for the patron’s future. These
interpretations were based on the large body of literature associated with astrology,
from manuals for interpreting signs to treatises that ascribed certain personality traits
to those born under each zodiac sign. These in turn influenced the artistic
iconography of each sign.
The Zodiac in A: "The great Vishnu temple at Angkor Wat is known to have been built
according to an astronomical plan. A little understood solar formula of the temple is
identical to the one in the 2nd millennium BC Indian text called Shatapatha Brahmana. It
was an expression of the Shatapatha astronomy."
In ancient Cambodia, as in India, the highest religious authority, the Brahmins,

formulated the sacred concepts on which the temple was based, and the main architect,
who was also a religious teacher, carried out its construction according to the science of
sacred architecture (vastu-vidyah).
The Khmer temple was conceived according to the Indian tradition of a temple-
mountain, of being the image of the mountain where the gods lived, Mount Meru. This
mountain was located north of the Himalayas, surrounded by the four water
extensions which separate the continents. Mount Meru floats over the primordial
ocean, symbolically represented by moats or the baray surrounding the temple. Since
this mountain had four peaks with a higher fifth at the center, the central sanctuary
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Aerial view of Angkor wat.
of Angkor Wat had to have a similar configuration. Moreover, since Mount Meru was
the center of the universe in Indian cosmology, Angkor wat too had to be the center of
the cosmos. Thus this place was charged with sacred meaning.(source: Sacred Angkor
- By Vittorio Roveda p. 1 – 22).
Symbolic diagram of the Universe ?
According to Graham Hancock, Angkorwat and all the temples were conceived by its
builders as a symbolic diagram of the universe. The notion of a land that is the ‘image
of heaven’ on which are built cosmic temples with ‘halls that resemble the sky’ was an
idea that took root in Angkor wat. Angkor wat consists of a series of five inter nested
rectangular enclosures. The short dimensions are aligned with high precision to true
north-south, showing ‘no deviation whatever’ according to modern surveys. The long
dimensions are oriented, equally precisely, to an axis that has been deliberately
‘diverted 0.75 degrees south of east and north of west’.
The first and outermost of the five rectangles that we find ourselves looking down on
from the air is the moat. Measured along its outer edge it runs 1300 meters north to
south and 1500 meters from east to west.
Its ‘ditch’, (moat) 190 meters wide, has walls made from closely fitted blocks of red
sandstone set out with such precision that the accumulated surveying error around
the entire 5.6 kilometers of the perimeter amounts to barely a centimeter.
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Angkor wat’s principal entrance is on the west side where a megalithic causeway 347
meters long and 9.4 meters wide bears due east across the moat and then passes
under a massive gate let into the walls of the second of the five rectangles. This second
enclosure measures 1025 x 800 meters. The causeway continues eastward through it,
past lawns and subsidiary structure and a large reflecting pool, until it rises on to a
cruciform terrace leading into the lowest gallery of the temple itself. This is the third of
the five inter nested rectangles visible from the air and precision engineering and
surveying are again in evidence – with the northern and southern walls, for example,
being of identical lengths, exactly 202.14 meters.
Ascending to the fourth rectangle, the fourth level of Angkor Wat’s gigantic central
pyramid, the same precision can be observed. The northern and southern walls
measure respectively 114.24 and 114.22 meters. At the fifth and last enclosure, the
top level of the pyramid – which reaches a height of 65 meters above the entrance
causeway – the northern wall is 47.75 meters in length and the southern wall 47.79
meters.
According to a study published in the journal Science, these minute differences, ‘less
than 0.01 percent’, demonstrates an ‘astounding degree of accuracy’ on the part of the
ancient builders.
The sun rising over the central tower of Angkor wat at dawn on the Spring equinox.
Angkor wat is the largest and most elaborate single edifice in the entire Angkor
scheme.
The Draco-Angkor correlation-The principal monuments of Angkor model the sinuous

coils of the northern constellation of Draco. There seems to be no doubt that a
correlation exists: the correspondence between the principal stars of Draco and at
least fifteen of the main pyramid-temples of Angkor are too close to be called anything
else.
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The Angkor-Draco correlation.

(image source: Heaven's Mirror: Quest for the Lost Civilization - By Graham
Hancock and Santha Faiia p. 115 - 199).
Cycles of the Ages :
A detailed survey of Angkor Wat published in Science magazine in July 1976 reveled
that even the causeway incorporates cosmic symbolism and numbers encoding the
cycles of time.
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The axis of the arrow-straight causeway of Angkor can be seen to extent beyond the
temple's moat and to reach out towards the distant horizon - showing that its builders
thought expansively, in very large-scale terms. Within its moat, all the dimensions of
the temple are precisely calibrated to express a grand cosmological and numerological
scheme related to the precession of the equinoxes.
After establishing the basic unit of measure used in Angkor as the Khme hat
(equivalent to 0.43434 meters) the authors of the survey go on to demonstrate that
axial lengths along the causeway appear to have been adjusted to symbolize or
represent the great ‘world ages’ of Hindu cosmology:
“These periods begin with the Krita Yuga or ‘golden age’ of man and proceed through
the Treta Yuga, Dvarpara Yuga and Kali Yuga, the last being the most decadent age of
man. Their respective durations are 1,728,000 years; 1,296,000 years; 864,000 years;
and 432,000 years.”
It therefore cannot be an accident that key sections of the causeway have axial lengths
that approximate extremely closely to 1,728 hat, 1,296 hat, 864 hat, and 432 hat – the
yuga lengths scaled down by 1000. ‘We propose’, conclude the authors, ‘that the
passage of time is numerically expressed by the lengths corresponding to yugas along
the west-east axis.”
Angkor wat’s dominant feature is its long and massive east-west axis which locks it
uncompromisingly to sunrise and sunset on the equinoxes. In addition, the temple is
cleverly anchored to ground and sky by markers for other key astronomical moments
of the year. For example, reports Science:
“It is interesting to note that there are two solstitial alignments from the western
entrance gate of Angkor Wat. These two alignments (added to the equinoctial
alignment already established) mean that the entire solar year was divided into four
major sections by alignments from just inside the entrance of Angkor Wat. From this
western vantage point the sun rises over Phnom Bok (17.4 kilometers to the north-
east) on the day of the summer solstice…The western entrance gate of the temple also
has a winter solstice alignment with the temple of Prast Kuk Bangro, 5.5 kilometres of
the south-east.”
(source: Heaven's Mirror: Quest for the Lost Civilization - By Graham Hancock and
Santha Faiia p. 115 - 199).
Why does Angkor Wat face West?
Henri Parmentier writes in his book, Guide to Angkor: "The temple of Angkor Wat,
contrary to most other monuments which face east, extends from west to east, this
transposition is doubtless explained by the fact that it was a funeral temple." George
Coedes writes of Angkor Wat:
"It is a masterpiece of Khmer art, built during the life time of the King to serve him
afterwards as a funeral temple in which he was to be deified as a statue of Vishnu
with the posthumous name of Paramavishnuloka."
Win Swaan in his book, Lost Cities of Asia writes
"Though many Khmer temples seem to have fulfilled both these functions (temple and
mausoleum), at Angkor Wat alone were the death-centred attributes triumphant and
paramount. Thus, it alone is oriented not towards the source of light and life, the east;
but towards the west, the direction associated with the setting sun, darkness and
death."
Priests & Brahmins and reading of the Horoscope
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The state craft of the Khemers was eclectic that is denoting or belonging to a class of
ancient philosophers who did not belong to or found any recognized school of thought
but selected doctrines from various schools of thought. That they used whatever
means to achieve their statecraft. And it would be no strange on our part to assume
that Horoscope, astronomy,astrology,predictions played an important part in
“visualizing” the future and as a means to guide strategy. How Astrology and
astronomy was ujsed to build the tempes is a topis we have touched upon in the
preceding paragraphs. To conclude let us assess the roe to ASTROLOGY.
“The story of Jayavarman VII’s life includes the depth of his Buddhist religious sentiments and
at the same time his skill as a military tactician and political leader. These different roles
worked with his religious sensibilities to his advantage; there was no contradiction between
his apocalyptic Mahāyāna and likely tantric apotheosis and his vision of imperial rule.
Cambodian and regional politics of the day were locally segmented under individual rulers
who engaged in shifting alliances with their neighbors. Jayavarman VII was thus able to form
a critical mass of alliances with his neighbors, Khmer and Cham, to his advantage. The
governance of medieval Southeast Asia, and especially the Khmer, was decentralized.
Jayavarman VII’s astute political sensibilities, fueled by his Buddhist religious vision and
authenticated by Indian-derived expertise enabled his construction of a Khmer empire.”
Suryavarman II, (died c. 1150), king of the Khmer (Cambodian) empire renowned as a
religious reformer and temple builder. Under his rule the temple of Angkor Wat, the
world’s largest religious structure, was constructed.
Suryavarman defeated rival claimants to the throne and established sole rule over the
Khmer empire by 1113, reuniting the empire after more than 50 years of unrest.
Warlike and ambitious, he expanded the limits of the empire to include much of what
is now Thailand; his patronage stretched as far west as the frontiers of the Burmese
state of Pagan, south to the coast of the Gulf of Thailand (including part of the eastern
coast of the Malay Peninsula), and east to the kingdom of Champa in the southern
part of what is now Vietnam.
Suryavarman was formally crowned in 1113, with his guru, the powerful
priest Divakarapandita, presiding. The king was a religious reformer who blended the
mystical cults of Vishnu and Shiva, supreme Hindu deities,
and promulgated Vaishnavism as the official religion, rather than Buddhism, which
had briefly flourished under his predecessors.
Angkor Wat, dedicated to Vishnu, was begun in the early years of Suryavarman’s reign
and was not finished until after his death. Surrounded by a wall and a moat, the
building is decorated with sculptures portraying Suryavarman as Vishnu; he is shown
reviewing his troops, holding audiences, and performing other functions of
a sovereign. Suryavarman also sponsored the construction of several other temples in
the style of Angkor Wat. After his death, Angkor Wat also became his tomb.
In 1116 Suryavarman resumed diplomatic relations (in abeyance since the 9th
century) with the Chinese, who officially recognized his kingdom as their vassal in
1128. By sending tribute to China, he acquired a powerful ally to discourage attacks
96
from neighbouring Southeast Asian kingdoms and ensured that China would not
interfere in Khmer domestic affairs.
From 1123 until 1136 Suryavarman waged a series of unsuccessful campaigns

against Dai Viet, the Vietnamese kingdom that had asserted its independence from
China in 939. He attempted a land attack through Laos to Nghe An in 1128 and met
with defeat. A few months later, Suryavarman’s fleet of 700 junks began a long
harassment along the coast in the Gulf of Tonkin. Suryavarman persuaded the
kingdom of Champa to assist him in these efforts, but in 1136 the Cham king, Jaya
Indravarman III, defected and made an alliance with the Vietnamese.
Suryavarman deposed the Cham king in 1144 and annexed Champa in the following
year. The Chams, under a new leader, King Jaya Harivarman I, defeated Khmer troops
in a decisive battle at Chakling, near Phan Rang, in southern Vietnam. Suryavarman
put his brother-in-law, Harideva, on the Cham throne, but Jaya Harivarman I deposed
him and reclaimed that throne. In 1150 Suryavarman died in the midst of a new
campaign against Champa, leaving his people exhausted by war and victimized by the
once-subservient Chams, who eventually ravaged Angkor.
Divākarapaṇḍita, original name Divākara, (born 1040, Cambodia—died c. 1120),

Hindu of the Brahman (priestly) caste who rose through religious and administrative
ranks to serve four Cambodian kings—Harshavarman II, Jayavarman VI,
Dharanindravarman I, and the great Suryavarman II—and who was the most trusted
adviser to three of them.
The highly opportunistic Divākara was able not only to survive the successive
usurpations of monarchies but also to ingratiate himself with each new sovereign.
Divākarapaṇḍita played a singular role in Cambodian history, for it was at his urging
that Suryavarman II began construction of the temple of Angkor Wat, one of the
world’s largest religious edifices and certainly one of the greatest achievements of
ancient Khmer, or Cambodian, civilization. One of the monuments of Angkor
Wat commemorates this powerful Brahman.
Jayavarman VII, a political and military leader , used Indian religious visions and prototypes
as models to build a remarkable cultural edifice. In his reign, as with those before and after
him, religions (especially Indian Buddhism and Brahmanical or “Hindu” ideologies) were the
central systems for validating royal authority. Indian Brahmins and Khmer scholars were
literate in Sanskrit and Indian myth is surely correct.
Sheldon Pollock. The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power
in Premodern India. Delhi: Permanent Black, 2007: 129–131, etc. See Chandler 2000: 72, who
mentions a centuries-long Buddhist presence at Angkor. In his reign, as with those before
and after him, religions (especially Indian Buddhism and Brahmanical or “Hindu” ideologies)
were the central systems for validating royal authority.
Many of the medieval Angkor monuments were constructed as Buddhist or Brahmanical, and
several served both religions over time.
“Further, in medieval Cambodia a key Indian political structure was a process called
“maṇḍalification” or “sāmantization,” a phenomenon known in small Indian Pāla kingdoms
and a likely model for the Khmer kings.17 This was arguably a key component of the Indian
influence on the Khmer. The root of this key belief was that if a king was properly consecrated
97
he could transform himself and his environments into a sacred realm (maṇḍala) under his
control. Consecrated kings became the central Buddhas of these maṇḍala realms; their
retinues became attendant bodhisattvas, protectors and so on. Their kingdoms became
perfected Buddha heavens, their edicts and rule became enlightened speech or mantras, and
their motives and inspiration led to Buddhist enlightenment. It may well be that ideologically,
the Buddhism adopted by the court was favored precisely because it flattered the imperial self
image. “Que Jayavarman se soit considéré comme un Bouddha vivant.”18 The kings’ adoption
of Buddhism was “… wholesale conversion, the fundamental transformation, of a human
domain into a Buddha-realm, an empire governed by superhuman insight, power, and law.”1
__________________________________________________________________________________
1. Medieval Khmer Society: The Life and Times of Jayavarman VII (ca. 1120–
1218),Paul Nietupski,John Carroll University, US-
https://www.asianetworkexchange.org/articles/10.16995/ane.280/
2. See my Tripartite article series_ the Brahmanical skies of Angkor I,II,III

Astrology in Cambidia TODAY: In a nation scarred by the events of the Khmer Rouge era, for
those old enough to have lived through the Pol Pot years in the late 1970s, any new real or
threatened disaster tends to rekindle the trauma, and even for younger people, the
intergenerational trauma may resonate. This reaction echoed the saying, ‘When a cow has a
wound on its back and a crow flies above him, the cow will instantly swish its tail,’ /koo
dɑmbav knɑɑŋ kʔaek haə rumlɔɔŋ rumsaay kɑntuy/ (គោដំគេខ្ន ងក្អែ អគ ើររំលងរំសាយអន្ទុយ).
The cow signifies the traumatized people who carry their mental wounds on their backs and
are quick to be retraumatized by real, threatened, or imagined threats. A festering wound will
attract the crow, which is a predator that feeds on carrion and is popularly believed to be a
portent of disaster. People, on sensing the ‘crow,’ are triggered to quickly ‘swish it away with
their tail.’
Maurice Eisenbruch (2020) Krʊəh: astrology, risk perception, and vulnerability to mishap and disaster in
Cambodia, Journal of Risk Research, 23:9, 1135-1157, DOI: 10.1080/13669877.2020.1778770
Khmer Calendar (Chhankitek)

12 Cambodia Zodiac Signs & Their Characteristics
Bizot François, "The Lost Horoscope of Cambodian Astrologers", Extrême-Orient Extrême-Occident, 2013/1
(No 35), p. 171-197. DOI: 10.4000/extremeorient.286. URL: https://www.cairn-int.info/journal-extreme-
orient-extreme-occident-2013-1-page-171.htm
In Cambodia, based on Khmer culture, there are 12 Cambodia zodiac signs in a year
which are 12 zodiac animals. It is because Cambodia people follow the Khmer
calendar and Buddhist calendar as well. It initially stems from the Chinese lunar
calendar, and then many other Buddhism Asian countries adapted, including
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Cambodia. Then it becomes an integral part of Cambodia culture in general and

Khmer culture in particular.
Khmer Calendar (Chhankitek)
Khmer’s traditional calendar, known as Chhankitek, means the lunar calendar.
Cambodian combine a 12-animal system and a ten-numeric cycle system to create a
full calendar system. One zodiac animal goes with one numeric cycle will form a zodiac
year.
12 Cambodia zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Ram,
Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Pig. There are also particular names of these animals in
Khmer, and they are not translated but keep special and unique names. The Khmer
names of those 12 zodiac signs are Jute, Chlov, Karl, Thos, Rorng, Masagn, Momee,
Momay, Voke, Roka, Jor, and Koar respectively. Each person has an equivalent zodiac
animal that shares some characteristics like personality, luck, and compatibility.
The 10-numeric cycle system (or Sak) has 10 numbering schemes from 1 to 10 to
identify a specific year. It starts with Khmer words including Aek, Tou, Trey, Jaktva,
Pagnjak, Chor, Sabpak, Ardak, Noppak, and Somrithik, which mean 1 to 10
respectively. Then, “Sak” is added after each above word to form a Cambodia zodiac
year. The sak system is used to differentiate the same animal years. For instance,
people born in 1998 and 2010 both belong to the year of Tiger, but different sak (1998
– the year of the tiger 10th year – Karl Somrithiksak; 2010 – the year of the tiger 2nd
year – Karl Tousak).
12 Cambodia Zodiac Animals

According to a legend, on the last day of the Buddha, he invited all animals to join in, but just
12 came. Then, he put each animal’s name for each year to reward them. These 12 zodiac
animals are believed to be all kind animals with distinctive and special traits. Let’s explore and
see what zodiac sign you are, or schedule a Cambodia tour package to learn about Cambodia
culture by yourself.
1. Year of the Rat
– Rat years: 1948, 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996, 2008, 2020, 2032…
– Lucky number: 2, 3
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– Strengths: Adaptable, smart, cautious, acute, alert, positive, flexible, outgoing, cheerful
– Weaknesses: Timid, unstable, stubborn, picky, lack of persistence, querulous
– Best Matches: Ox, Dragon, Monkey
2. Year of the Ox
– Ox years: 1949, 1961, 1973, 1985, 1997, 2009, 2021, 2033…
– Lucky number: 1, 9
– Strengths: honest, industrious, patient, cautious, level-headed, strong-willed, persistent
– Weaknesses: obstinate, inarticulate, prudish, distant
– Best matches: Rat, Snake, Rooster
3. Year of the Tiger

– Tiger years: 1926, 1938, 1950, 1962, 1974, 1986, 1998, 2010, 2022,…
– Lucky numbers: 1, 3, 4
– Strengths: Tolerant, loyal, valiant, courageous, trustworthy, intelligent, virtuous
– Weaknesses: Arrogant, short-tempered, hasty, traitorous
– Best Matches: Dragon, Horse, Pig
4. Year of the Rabbit

– Rabbit years: 1915, 1927, 1939, 1951, 1963, 1975, 1987, 1999, 2011, 2023…
– Lucky number: 3, 4, 9
– Strengths: Gentle, sensitive, compassionate, amiable, modest, and merciful
– Weaknesses: Amorous, hesitant, stubborn, timid, conservative
– Best matches: Monkey, Pig, Dog
5. Year of the Dragon

– Dragon years: 1916, 1928, 1940, 1952, 1964, 1976, 1988, 2000, 2012, 2024…
– Strengths: Decisive, inspiring, magnanimous, sensitive, ambitious, romantic
– Weaknesses: Eccentric, tactless, fiery, intolerant, unrealistic
– Best Matches: Rooster, Rat, Monkey
6. Year of the Snake
– Snake years: 1917, 1929, 1941, 1953, 1965, 1977, 1989, 2001, 2013, 2025, 2037…
– Strengths: Soft-spoken, humorous, sympathetic, determined, passionate, smart
– Weaknesses: Jealous, suspicious, sly, fickle, nonchalant
– Best matches: Dragon, Rooster
7. Year of the Horse
– Horse years: 1918, 1930, 1942, 1954, 1966, 1978, 1990, 2002, 2014, 2026…
– Strengths: warm-hearted, upright, easygoing, independent, endurable, powerful, and positive.
– Weaknesses: wasteful, frank, irresolute
– Best matches: Tiger, Rabbit
8. Year of the Ram

– Ram years: 1919, 1931, 1943, 1955, 1967, 1979, 1991, 2003, 2015, 2027, 2039,…
– Strengths: gentle, softhearted, considerate, attractive, hardworking, persistent, thrift
– Weaknesses: indecisive, timid, vain, pessimistic, moody, weak-willed
– Best matches: Horse, Rabbit, Pig
9. Year of the Monkey
– Monkey years: 1920, 1932, 1944, 1956, 1968, 1980, 1992, 2004, 2016, 2028…
– Strengths: enthusiastic, self-assured, sociable, innovative
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– Weaknesses: jealous, suspicious, cunning, selfish, arrogant
– Best matches: Ox, Rabbit
10. Year of the Rooster
– Rooster years: 1921, 1933, 1945, 1957, 1969, 1981, 1993, 2005, 2017, 2029…
– Strengths: Independent, capable, warm-hearted, self-respect, quick-minded
– Weaknesses: Impatient, critical, eccentric, narrow-minded, selfish
– Best matches: Ox, Snake
11. Year of the Dog

– Dog years: 1922, 1934, 1946, 1958, 1970, 1982, 1994, 2006, 2018, 2030, 2042,…
– Strengths: Valiant, loyal, responsible, clever, courageous, lively
– Weaknesses: Sensitive, conservative, stubborn, emotional
– Best matches: Rabbit
12. Year of the Pig

– Pig years: 1923, 1935, 1947, 1959, 1971, 1983, 1995, 2007, 2019, 2031, …
– Strengths: Warm-hearted, good-tempered, loyal, honest, gentle
– Weaknesses: Naive, gullible, sluggish, short-tempered
– Best matches: Tiger, Rabbit
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CHAPTER VI
Angkor Wat is surrounded by a 200-m.-wide moat, crossed by a bridge on the west. At the end of the
bridge is a 200-m. long entrance structure: three central towers flanked on the north and south by a long,
pillared corridors that end in entrance gateways opening flat on the ground. An enclosing wall stretches
from these gateways around the temple compound.
There is a 352-m. western causeway that leads from the main entrance of the temple (just cited) to the
central three galleries. The outer (third) gallery is decorated with bas-reliefs and dedicated to the history
of the king. The next (second) gallery has bare walls and was dedicated to the god Brahma and the moon.
The last (first) gallery surrounds the central tower and was dedicated to Vishnu as a Supreme Deity. We
do not know the name of the image of Vishnu that was once in the central tower. Both the first and second
galleries of the temples have towers over their corner pavilions, the third gallery has corner pavilions
without towers.
Synopsis
The temple of Angkor Wat was constructed in the first half of the twelfth century by King Suryavarman II
(r. 1113-ca. 1150). Astronomy enters into the meaning, format, and bas-relief decoration of the temple in
three different ways. First of all, when the measurements of Angkor Wat are translated into the cubit unit
used in the temple's construction, lunar and solar calendrical cycles are revealed in axial and
circumference lengths. Secondly, there are several solar and lunar alignments between western points
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along the axis and the towers in the central galleries. Both the calendrical dimensions and the alignments
were definitive elements in determining the format of the temple. In addition to actual sight lines, the
solstice sun casts light onto specific segments of the bas-reliefs and corridors, planned so as to literally
illuminate the selected segments with solar meaning. Finally, the composition and content of the panels of
bas-reliefs further define solar and lunar periodicity. In particular, the scene of the Churning of the Sea of
Milk (Milky Way) has been chosen here to demonstrate its calendrical function. In the end, we find that
the king himself, in conjunction with the solar god Vishnu in the central sanctuary, is an integral part of
the solar and lunar symbolism revealed in the measurements, alignments, and bas-reliefs.
The temple of Angkor Wat at the site of Angkor in northwestern Cambodia was started in 1113 CE when
King Suryavarman II rose to power. Suryavarman died around 1150, at which time all work on the temple
came to a halt. In this brief span of 37 years, the king endowed a monument that is now recognized as one
of the world's most notable architectural achievements.
Several excellent and erudite papers and research articles have been written on the Astronomy of
Angkor including several of mine.
13. Time, Space, and Astronomy in Angkor Wat
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2889330_Time_Space_and_Astronomy_in_Angkor_W
at
14. Amelia Carolina Sparavigna. Solar Alignments of the Planning of Angkor Wat Temple Complex.
Philica, Philica, 2016, pp.591. ffhal-01312473f
15. THE ROLE OF ASTRONOMY IN THE “ANOMALOUS” ORIENTATIONS OF TWO

KHMER STATE-TEMPLES Giulio Magli School of Civil Architecture, Politecnico di Milano,
Italy Giulio.Magli@polimihttps://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1601/1601.01473.pdf
16. The Solar Numbers in Angkor Wat

Subhash Kak, Indian Journal of History of Science, vol. 34, 1999, pp. 117-126
https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/9811040
17. Stencel, R., Gifford, F., & Morón, E. (1976). Astronomy and Cosmology at Angkor
Wat. Science, 193(4250), 281–287. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1742346
18.
19. Archaeoastronomy in the Khmer Heartland, GIULIO MAGLI, Politecnico di Milano, Italy,
https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/sdh/article/view/22846/29089
20. Solstice Alignments at Angkor Wat and Nearby Temples-Connecting to the Cycles of
Time,William F. Romain, https://journal.equinoxpub.com/JSA/article/view/10647
21. Astronomical Myths in India1 Mayank Vahia Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Homi
BHabha Road, Mumbai 400 005, INDIA
vahia@tifr.res.inhttps://www.tifr.res.in/~archaeo/papers/Astronomy%20and%20Sanskrit%20liter
ature/Astronomical%20Myths%20in%20India.pdf
22. Equinox at Angkor Wat (ព្រឹត្តិការណ៏សមរាព្ត្ីនៅអង្គ រ),Sophia,

https://www.localguidesconnect.com/t5/General-Discussion/Equinox-at-Angkor-Wat
23. Solstice Azimuths as Design Elements at Angkor Wat and Nearby Temples, William F Romain
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24. Astronomy and Cosmology at Angkor Wat,Parag

Mahajani https://www.scribd.com/document/162933027/Astronomy-and-Cosmology-at-Angkor-
Wat
And other’s referred to, quoted from and mimicked in this article. So, this attempt is just to simplify the
matter of how astronomy was used to build the temples and what role it played in order to behave as an
observatory. A condition created for posterity to marvel at.
PlanetQuest: The History of Astronomy
Angkor Wat
Background:
One of the most spectacular structures of astronomical significance that has ever been built is the temple
of Angkor Wat in what is now Cambodia.
Angkor Wat is the most famous temple at Angkor, a former capital of the Khmer empire. It was built by
King Suryavarman II in the 12th century, and is as immense as it is beautiful. Surrounded by a rectangular
moat 1.5 kilometers (0.9 mile) long and 1.3 kilometers (0.8 mile) wide, the structure itself consists of two
rectangular walls enclosing three nested rectangular galleries that culminate in a central spire surrounded
by four smaller towers. The straight lines of its moat, walls and galleries are oriented along the north-
south, east-west directions, and unlike most temples in the area its entrance faces west, being approached
by way of a long bridge that spans the moat.
The origins of the temple lie in what may be the world's oldest religious text, the Rigveda, one of the
four Veda Samhitas of Hindu literature. This text describes the gods of heaven and earth, including the
earthly god Vishnu, "The Preserver." It is to Vishnu that Angkor Wat is consecrated, and with more than
mere symbolic intent. Hindu temples were built to be earthly abodes for the gods. The central sanctuary
was the most sacred place, directly inline with the vertical axis of the central spire that provided the
connection between the realms of heaven and Earth. The surrounding architecture of the temple would
then mirror Hindu cosmology, being essentially a mandala in stone—a diagram of the cosmos itself.
Furthermore, the Khmer civilization had by the time of Angkor Wat's construction incorporated the idea
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that a king would, after his death, be transmuted into one of the gods. Hence, it was at Angkor Wat that
Suryavarman II, after his death, was believed to reside as Vishnu.
Astronomical significance:
Astronomy and Hindu cosmology are
inseparably entwined at Angkor Wat. Nowhere
is this more evident than in the interior
colonnade, which is dedicated to a vast and
glorious carved mural, a bas-relief illustrating
the gods as well as scenes from the Hindu epic
the Mahabharata. Along the east wall is a 45-
meter (150-foot) scene illustrating the
"churning of the sea of milk," a creation myth
in which the gods attempt to churn the elixir of
immortality out of the milk of time. The north
wall depicts the "day of the gods," along the Photo courtesy of www.andybrouwer.co.uk
west wall is a great battle scene from
the Mahabharata, and the south wall portrays the kingdom of Yama, the god of death. It has been
suggested that the choice and arrangement of these scenes was intended to tie in with the seasons—the
creation scene of the east wall is symbolic of the renewal of spring, the "day of the gods" is summer, the
great battle on the west wall may represent the decline of autumn, and the portrayal of Yama might
signify the dormancy, the lifeless time of winter.
The architecture of Angkor Wat also has numerous
astronomical aspects beyond the basic mandala plan that is
common to other Hindu temples. As many as eighteen
astronomical alignments have been identified within its walls.
To mention but three of them: when standing just inside the
western entrance, the Sun rises over the central tower on
the spring (vernal) equinox; it rises over a distant temple at
Prasat Kuk Bangro, 5.5 kilometers (3.4 miles) away, on
the winter solstice; and on the summer solstice it rises over a
prominent hill 17.5 kilometers (10.9 miles) away.
Finally, some researchers have claimed that the very dimensions of many of the structures at Angkor Wat
have astronomical associations. These associations emerge from consideration of the unit of length that
was in use at that time, a unit known as the hat or "Cambodian cubit." There is some question as to how
long a hat was, and indeed its definition may not have been uniformly applied; but a value of 43.45
centimeters (17.1 inches) for the length of a hat is suggested by the structures themselves.
Using this value, archaeologists discovered numerous dimensions of the temple that seem to have
astronomical and cosmological significance—for example, the following:
 The dimensions of the highest rectangular level of the temple are 189 hat in the east-west
direction and 176 hat in the north-south direction. Added together these give 365, the number of
days in one year.
 In the central sanctuary, the distances between sets of steps is approximately 12 hat. There are
roughly 12 lunar cycles, or synodic months (from full Moon to full Moon, say—the basis for our
modern month) in one year.
 The length and width of the central tower add up to approximately 91 hat. On average, there are
91 days between any solstice and the next equinox, or any equinox and the next solstice.
Because of its orbit around the Earth, the Moon's apparent position in the sky relative to the background
stars will appear to shift from night to night. Since it takes the Moon just over 27 days to complete one
orbit (known as its sidereal period), it will during this time appear to move through 27 successive regions
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of the sky. In Hindu cosmology, these regions were known as the naksatras, or lunar mansions. In some
contexts there were 27 lunar mansions, while in other contexts an additional naksatra containing the star
Vega was included, giving 28 lunar mansions.
 The central tower at Angkor Wat contains nine inner
chambers. If you total the dimensions of all of these chambers it equals 27 hat in the north-south
direction and 28 hat in the east-west direction, corresponding to the possible number of lunar
mansions. Also, the libraries have lengths measured along their interiors of 16 hat in the east-west
direction, and either 12 or 11 hat in the north-south direction, depending upon whether or not the
doorways are included. Added together, these also give either 28 or 27 hat. Finally, the north-
south width of the libraries measured from the exteriors of the walls is again 28 hat.
Hindu cosmology recognizes four time periods, or Yugas, that are represented in the dimensions of the
temple:
 The length of the Kali-Yuga, our current time period, is 2 x 603 years, or 432 thousand years. The
width of the moat that surrounds the temple, measured at the water level, is approximately
432 hat.
 The length of the Dv apara-Yuga is 4 x 603 years, or 864 thousand years. The distance from the
entrance to the inner wall is 867 hat.
 The length of the Treta-Yuga is 6 x 603 years, or 1,296 thousand years. The distance from the
entrance to the central tower is 1,296 hat.
 The length of the Krita-Yuga is 8 x 603 years, or 1,728 thousand years. The distance from the
moat bridge to the center of the temple is 1,734 hat.
Rarely in history has any culture given rise to a structure that so elaborately and expansively incorporates
its concept of the cosmos. Angkor Wat stands as a striking and majestic monument in honor of the
Universe and our place in it.
4. References:
Kelley, D., and E. Milone, Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of
Archaeoastronomy, Springer, New York, 2005.
5.
Krupp, E.C., Skywatchers, Shamans & Kings: Astronomy and the Archaeology of Power, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1997.Space and Cosmology in the Hindu Temple, by Subhash Kak
Cambodia 2014: Ancient Astronomy, Angkor Wat, City built with astronomic measurements to
mimic the Gods in the Universe.
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Aspara in Moon light Central tower of Angkor Wat, Cambodia

with full Moon.
Angkor Wat was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yasodharapura
present-day Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple.
Breaking from the Shaivism tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. As
the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a significant religious center
since its foundation. The Khmer's adhered to the Indian belief that a temple must be built according to a
mathematical system in order for it to function in harmony with the universe. Distances between certain
architectural elements of the temple reflect numbers related to Indian mythology and cosmology.
The sheer size of the place leaves visitors in awe and the complex designs illustrate the skills of long gone
priest architects. Every spare inch has been carved with intricate works of art. The scale of Angkor Wat
enabled the Khmer to give full expression to religious symbolism. It is, above all else, a microcosm of the
Hindu universe. As a brilliant example of the synthesis of astronomy and architecture at Angkor Wat, the
solar axes of the temple lead directly to the central sanctuary, a sanctum sanctorum devoted to the
supreme solar god, Lord Vishnu. Vishnu manifests as one of the solar months, and the sun itself is
Although the Sun gains stature through its conjunction with the center of Angkor Wat, Vishnu, and the
king, it is worth noting that lunar alignments are also recorded along the western and eastern axis of the
temple. As the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor
Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate
the king's power and to honour and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above.
The solar and lunar alignments at Angkor Wat were alignments with the gods, alignments that tied the
nation to the heavens above, and alignments that imbued the king with the power to rule by divine
association.
1. The rising sun aligning on equinox days with the western entrance of the state temple, Angkor Wat.
2. The movements of the moon can be observed from a variety of positions within the temple, and lunar
cycles may have been recorded in the three sets of libraries in the interior court.
3. The bas reliefs of the third gallery can be understood in relation to the movements of the sun, which
establish their counterclockwise direction.
4. The measurements of the temple appear proportional to calendric and cosmological time cycles.
The Temple is built as a concept of making these temples an observing platform, in other words an
Observatory.When you settle your feet at a specific location, the Universe, in a sense revolves around
you. With some patience and time you can start to notice patterns and Recursions that you can calculate
and even predict. In conclusion for me, the most amazing aspects of the ancient Khmer Civilization
was their understanding of their place in the cosmos, and how the placement of the temples mirrored so
many of the celestial movements.
Angkor Wat did not rise up from a tabula rasa- the theory that individuals are born without built-
in mental content, and therefore all knowledge comes from experience or perception. The Khmer
architect-priests, also fully trained as astronomers, had been building temples since the sixth century. This
building activity culminated in the move to Angkor around 900, and in the final architectural perfection of
Angkor Wat. Never again would Khmer architecture reach the same level of attainment and precision.
Only 70 years after the death of Suryavarman, all monumental building activity at Angkor stopped and by
the mid-fifteenth century, the site was abandoned due to economic reasons and the repeated invasions of
Thai armies.
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We know that long before the Khmers moved their capital southward to Phnom Penh, they had turned
away from the gods that populated the stone and brick temples of Angkor. The people of Cambodia were
converting to Hinayana Buddhism in large numbers during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. As
devotees of this widely-practiced form of Buddhism, they rejected the ancestral and regional gods that
once filled the temples and unified the nation. With this rejection, the Brahmanical (Hindu) architect-
priests lost their constituency. This decline in priestly support caused a slow but inexorable loss of
knowledge. Decade after decade, the priests diminished in number and the practice of building
astronomical alignments and data into the temples receded in memory. It is likely that by the time the
Khmers moved to Phnom Penh, the architectural coding that lay hidden in Angkor Wat for eight centuries
was already forgotten With the move of the Capital to Phnom Penh, Angkor and its secrets remained
dormant until brought into the consciousness of the western world in the mid-nineteenth century by
French explorers.
“When I first translated the measurements of Angkor Wat from meters into the original cubit length used
in the construction of the temple, my suspicions about the role of astronomy were startlingly confirmed.
The axes of the outer enclosing wall around Angkor Wat equal 365.24 cubits repeated 12 times. In other
words, the exact length of the solar year in days and in solar months is defined by the north-south and
east-west axes of the temple grounds. The circumference of the enclosing wall is 354.36 cubits repeated
24 times. That is equivalent to the exact length of the lunar year in days, and to the 12 waxing and 12
waning halves of the lunar month each year. (Because the phenomena of the waxing and waning moon is
a dominant lunar feature, the half-months were individually named since the inception of astronomy in
India. This practice was passed on to Cambodia from India long before the Angkor period.)”
As the analysis of the measurements of Angkor Wat unfolded over the next ten years of my research, it
became more and more apparent that the circumferences of the temple were primarily dedicated to the
moon while the axes of the galleries, enclosures, and individual chambers tended to focus on the sun. This
is one of many patterns that characterize the temple's measurements. Another such pattern is the steady
progression from measurements embodying the largest time cycles around the periphery of the temple to
measurements focusing on smaller time cycles in the central galleries. A full exegesis of these patterns is
not possible in the short space of this essay, however, it is worth noting that the measurements of Angkor
Wat are highly systematized and logical. They include all time measurements known to the Cambodians
in the twelfth century.
“As a brilliant example of the synthesis of astronomy and architecture at Angkor Wat, the solar axes of
the temple lead directly to the central sanctuary, a sanctum sanctorum devoted to the supreme solar god,
Lord Vishnu. Vishnu manifests as one of the solar months, and the sun itself is thought to be his
emanation. As we walk along the solar axes toward the god Vishnu, we encounter two major solar
alignments.”
First of all, if we stand at the beginning of the bridge into Angkor Wat on the solstice days, at the
intersection of the triad of western staircases, we will see the sun rise directly over the two end gateways
of the main western entrance. Although observation has not been studied from this juncture on the
equinox days, the central entrance tower acts as an architectural pivot for the north-south oscillation of the
sun, and by its central position between the solstice gateways, is a symbol for the two equinoxes. As we
shall see, there is reason to believe that Suryavarman was crowned king of Cambodia at the time of the
spring equinox.
On the morning of the vernal equinox day (roughly March 21st each year), once we have passed through
the main western entrances and stand facing the interior grounds of the temple, we encounter a
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spectacular solar alignment. At 6:35 a.m., the sun can be seen rising dead-center over the top of the
central tower of the temple - about 500 m. away - when observed from the top of the first northern
staircase of the western causeway. Three days later, the sun can be seen rising over the central tower for
the second and last time, from the center of the western causeway at a point just a few meters south of the
first observation position. We know that the Khmers celebrated their new year for three days. The new
year began on the spring equinox, but the first day of the new year in an actual count did not begin until
three days after the equinox. This three-day new year period is both reflected and corroborated in these
two consecutive spring equinox alignments that occur just after entering Angkor Wat.
The sun was thought to begin its yearly journey on the vernal equinox day. Therefore, as the Khmers at
Angkor watched the sun rise up from the central tower, it would seem as though the god Vishnu inside
the sanctuary were emanating upward and outward as the solar orb. It is highly likely that music,
chanting, and ritual invocation inaugurated the new year at this annual event.
The central image of Vishnu - lost long ago - may have been sculpted in the likeness of King
Suryavarman. Statements in the stone inscriptions refer to images in the likeness of real people, not just
kings. The statue of Vishnu would have been sculpted with royal jewelry and clothing, and the name of
this image - also lost to us - would have been combined with the name of the king according to Khmer
tradition. If Suryavarman was not exactly an incarnation of Vishnu, he still partook of some aspect of
Vishnu's sacred nature. The name of the sun god is Surya, and "Suryavarman" translates as "protected by
the sun." With the union of the king and Vishnu in the central sanctuary of Angkor Wat, the king becomes
an unspoken third component in the spring equinox alignment.
Angkor Wat - like all royal pyramid-temples - was at the conceptual center of the king's capital. The city
and the nation extended outward from the union of the king and his deity in the main sanctuary of this
temple. For all 37 years of the reign of King Suryavarman then, the Khmer nation was particularly joined
to the sun god and to Vishnu, through the temple of Angkor Wat and the king. More than just the king
alone, the entire nation was "protected by the sun." The solar measurements and solar alignments at
Angkor Wat were concomitantly much more meaningful as their influence and importance extended from
the hub of the nation outward.
Although the sun gains stature through its conjunction with the center of Angkor Wat, Vishnu, and the
king, it is worth noting that lunar alignments are also recorded along the western axis of the temple. If we
look again at the dimensions noted above, we see that the western causeway measures out two ways of
defining the lunar month. These are the actual days in a synodic month (29.53), and the maximum number
of days of lunar visibility (28) - numerically equivalent to the maximum number of lunar constellations
crossed by the moon each month. This causeway that was used for lunar observation thereby records
lunar measurements at the same time. The causeway's overlay of multiple functions is typical of the
measurement patterns at Angkor Wat.
Finally, there is a bas-relief of the Churning of the Sea of Milk on the east side of the third gallery that is
actually a calendar in disguise. The story behind the churning of the Milky Way begins with the gods
losing battle after battle to their enemies, the asuras. Worried that they would be hopelessly decimated,
the gods supplicated Lord Vishnu to help them churn up the elixir of immortality from the Milky Way.
Once they drank the elixir, they could never "lose" a battle again. But the task of churning the Milky Way
was of epic proportions. Ironically, once Vishnu agreed to their request, the gods had to trick the asuras
into joining in the churning effort by promising them a part of the elixir.
Mount Mandara, a mountain to the east of the central, cosmic mountain, Mount Meru, was uprooted and
brought to the Milky Way to act as a churning pivot. The snake Vasuki who lives in the Milky Way was
wrapped around the pivot, with the gods pulling on the north side of the snake and the asuras on the south
side. Vishnu took his place at the center to help with the churning, and also emanated both one asura form
and one god form to further help on each side of the snake. His avatar or incarnation as Kurma, the
legendary tortoise, placed itself under the base of the churning pivot so it would not sink. With everyone
in place, the great churning event began.
Many auspicious objects were churned up from the Milky Ocean, including the goddess of good fortune.
But when the elixir finally emerged, the gods and asuras began to battle over its possession. Lord Vishnu,
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in his wisdom, took the elixir away with him for safekeeping, but when the battle ended the elixir
remained forever out of reach. Both the gods and the asuras were destined to be mortal. Once the battle
was over and the dust had settled, Indra was crowned king of the gods and the story ends.
Astronomical or geophysical realities are woven like invisible threads throughout the preceding narrative.
For example, the cosmic mountain, Mount Meru, is conceived as the axis of the earth. The Khmers knew
the earth was a round sphere moving through space because they had inherited that knowledge from
India, where it was first recorded in the sixth century CE. The gods reside at the north celestial pole,
including the summit of Mount Meru - the location of Indra's royal palace. The summit has been flattened
to accommodate the palace. At the south celestial pole, on the opposite end of Mount Meru, are the
asuras. When Mount Mandara is used as a churning pivot, the gods pull the pivot to the north and the
asuras pull it to the south, creating a north-south oscillation. This accounts for the north-south oscillation
of the sun and moon each year, while the axis of the earth, Mount Meru, remains stable (precession
notwithstanding, "stable" is a good descriptive word for the axis in comparison to the oscillation of the
sun and moon). In most Khmer - and indeed, in most Asian depictions of the cosmic mountain, the sun
and moon are shown in space at some distance to the right and left of the mountain's peak. This seems to
be either a conscious or unconscious memory of the astronomical significance of the mountain in the
churning scene. For whether it is logical or not, due to human fallibility the pivot of the churning scene
tended to become identified with Mount Meru. This obfuscation is more commonly found than the actual
recognition of Mount Mandara as the churning pivot.
According to evidence from Thai records and Khmer inscriptions, the churning of the Milky Way was
performed at the coronation of Khmer (and occasional Thai) kings. The inauguration ceremony of a new
king took place at the vernal equinox. Therefore, the coronation of King Suryavarman most likely
occurred at the equinox day in March (the year remains in question) soon after he came to power.
Although King Suryavarman was crowned before the central tower of Angkor Wat was anywhere near
finished, future equinox risings of the sun at dead center on the top of the main tower would forever recall
the exact moment when Suryavarman became king. The equinox, the sun, the temple, Vishnu, and the
king were therefore joined in a moment of history that was to be recalled, year after year, at the spring
equinox sunrise over Angkor Wat.
The calendrical meaning of the churning relief is equally inseparable from its association with the spring
equinox coronation of King Suryavarman. In fact, the number of gods and asuras in the relief count out
the days between the winter and summer solstices, and the three-day equinox celebration at the beginning
of the new year is symbolized by the central pivot. The god Bali, the king of the asuras holds the heads of
Vasuki on the south side of the relief. During the winter solstice, the rising sun illuminates Bali
completely. This agrees with the 24-hours of sunlight at the south pole at this time of year. Meanwhile,
the monkey-god Sugriva who holds the tail of Vasuki on the north end of the relief panel remains in
darkness at the winter solstice, in a shadow cast by a pillar. Since the gods reside above the north pole of
the earth, they would be in darkness at this time of year. On the summer solstice, the sunlight and shadow
effect is reversed for Bali and Sugriva, as it should be to match the light and dark at the north and south
poles, respectively. On the equinox days, the center of the scene with Vishnu and Mount Mandara is
bathed in full sunlight. Some solar alignments that can be observed in the planning of the Angkor Wat
temple complex in Cambodia. This complex was originally constructed in the early 12th century as a
Hindu temple for the Khmer Empire and gradually transforming into a Buddhist temple. To illustrate the
solar alignments we use SunCalc.net software and Photographer’s Ephemeris on Google Earth satellite
images.( Amelia Carolina Sparavigna. Solar Alignments of the Planning of Angkor Wat Temple
Complex. Philica, Philica, 2016, pp.591. ffhal-01312473f)
the temples by themselves were not isolated units but were ideally linked with pre-existing monuments,
constructing a series of visually recognizable, dynastic lines which are particularly evident in the case
of the Mebons, the island temples. It is thus the hope of the author that the present research can contribute
to clarify historical aspects of the Khmer architecture and king's succession. On the opposite side, the
same results show that claims about the existence of scores of inter-connecting, almost esoteric lines
between the Angkor monuments must be taken with the utmost care, if not definitively refused.
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(ARCHAEOASTRONOMY IN THE KHMER HEARTLAND Giulio Magli School of Architecture,

Urban Planning and Construction Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Italy)
A deva is flying down to steady the pivot of Mount Mandara and is most likely representative of the god
Indra before he was crowned king. Only an important god could be placed in this high position, above the
other gods. This figure also provides an alternate count of one extra day when needed to complete the
calendar.
In Indian texts, the coronation of Indra occurs just before the coronation ceremony outlined for an earthly
king, at the time of the spring equinox. This bas-relief itself, in fact, appears to symbolize the coronation
of King Suryavarman and the churning event that was enacted at that time.
In summary, the solar axis of Angkor Wat takes us visually and physically in a straight line from the main
entrance to the central tower. As we walk along the numerical symbol for the solar year, we would see the
sun and moon oscillate from north to south and back again, on either side of the axis. Once the axis
reaches the central galleries, it visually ascends upward at an ever-increasing angle until it merges with
the vertical height of the central tower. On the vernal equinox day, as the sun appears to rise up from the
top of the tower, it is joined to us along the axis of the temple.
Vishnu lies hidden inside the tower, looking very much like the king of Cambodia in both his
physiognomy and his refined jewelry and clothing. Thus, the merging of Vishnu and the king at the
symbolic center of the Khmer nation was especially celebrated at the symbolic center of the solar year,
when the sun is midway between its northern and southern extremes. When this profound solar, divine,
and royal union was given its architectural expression in the central tower of Angkor Wat, astronomy and
architecture were joined in homage to divinity and royalty. As mentioned earlier, the tower is the axis of
the temple and by extension, the axis of the Khmer nation. The king and Vishnu are joined at this same
axis, likened to the axis of the earth in the cosmological design of Angkor Wat. That very equinoctial axis
slices through the center of the sun's oscillating movement each year. At dawn on the vernal equinox day,
the union of the king and Vishnu at the heart of the Cambodian nation was celebrated with the rising sun
at the heart of the annual solar journey, and at the heart of Angkor Wat. Astronomy was thus inextricably
conjoined to the most profound expression of the meaning of kingship and divinity accorded in Khmer
sacred architecture. The solar and lunar alignments at Angkor Wat were alignments with the gods,
alignments that tied the nation to the heavens above, and alignments that imbued the king with the power
to rule by divine association. As the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the
sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and
corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honor and placate the deities manifest in the
heavens above. Rarely has a temple achieved such an overwhelming conjunction of time, space, and
kingship through the perfect union of architecture and astronomy.
https://dsal.uchicago.edu/huntington/seasia/angkor.html
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CHAPTER VII
What is an Aedicule in architecture?
Notation for aedicules and their placement on a temple has been adapted from the system developed in Prof.
Adam Hardy’s pioneering Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation: The Karnata Dravida
Tradition (Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, 1995.) They have been supplemented and modified to conform
more closely with Khmer practice.
A small shrine intended to frame, shelter and honour a holy object, fulfilling a
similar function to a tabernacle. They consist of two or four columns supporting a
domed or flat roof, and are either open on all sides or set into a wall. A continuous
tradition of Drāviḍa (south Indian) temple architecture flourished in Karnataka, southwest
India, between the seventh and thirteenth centuries. This article focuses on the eleventh-
century temples, arguing that the later forms can only be understood in relation to the
constantly developing tradition, looked at as a whole. A formal analysis is put forward, based
primarily on the evidence of the monuments themselves. From the monuments, an
appropriate way of seeing can be deduced, allowing an understanding of both individual
temple compositions and of the way in which the forms evolve. A clear evolutionary pattern
emerges, tending toward dynamism and fusion. Seen retrospectively, there is a sense of
inevitability, as if the inherent potential of the architectural language is unfolding. Yet there is
great inventiveness. The article illustrates the nature of this inventiveness and discusses its
relationship to the evolutionary pattern. It concludes that it was not fixed forms that were
passed down, but a way of creating, and that the sense of evolutionary direction this
produced can be understood in relation to the world view the temples embody.
Hardy, A. (2001). Tradition and Transformation: Continuity and Ingenuity in the Temples of
Karnataka. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 60(2), 180–199.
https://doi.org/10.2307/991703
Burrell, B. (2006). False Fronts: Separating the Aedicular Facade from the Imperial Cult in
Roman Asia Minor. American Journal of Archaeology, 110(3), 437–469.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/40024551
AEDICULAR PROLIFERATION: of PHNOM BAKHENG- Bakheng Hill

Phnom Bakheng
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"Temple of Mount Meru"

Phnom Bakheng is an ancient Hindu temple which is also called Bakheng Hill for its
location on the top of an isolated hill. The temple has been made in concordance of a
Hindu legend of Mount Meru, that talks of a temple on a hill which forms the center of
the universe. The temple is fast depleting now, however, place has gained attention
from tourists for its amazing panorama. You can choose to climb up the rather steep
staircase or take an elephant ride to the temple. The place often gets crowded during
sunrise and sunset, however, it is worth visiting at any time of the day. Do not forget
to explore the ruins with their awe inspiring architecture even as you take in the
fascinating views. A must go for everyone touring the city.
Phnom Bakheng is among the list of best temples in Siem Reap. Phnom Bakheng is a
temple mountain in honor of the Hindu god Shiva and one of the oldest temples in the
Angkor Archaeological Park. Thanks to its location on a 60-meter high hill, Phnom
Bakheng became a very popular tourist spot for its magnificent sunset views over
Angkor Wat.
Built at the end of the 9th century, more than 200 years before Angkor Wat, Phnom
Bakheng used to be the principal temple of the area. Due to its location on top of a
hill, nowadays it’s the most popular temple in Siem Reap to catch the sunset at.
Phnom Bakheng is built to honor and represent Mount Meru the home of the Hindu
gods (that’s why it’s on top of a hill). It is structured in a pyramid form of 7 layers,
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each symbolizing one of the seven heavens. During his reign, King Jasovarman I (889
– 910 CE) moved the capital of his empire from Roluos to the location which is now
known as Angkor. Here, he created an enormous city of 16 square kilometers; bigger
than Angkor Thom, which was built later. In the center of this city, King Jasovarman
built his State Temple on top of a natural hill, known as Phnom Bakheng hill.
From the upper terrace of the temple, you get an incredible panoramic view of the
dense Cambodian jungle and Angkor Wat in the distance.
Location: Angkor Archaeological Park, Krong Siem Reap 17000 cambodia
When Yasovarman I (889-915) succeeded Indravarman I, he erected a temple in honor

of his parents, as his father had for his at Preah Ko (879,) usually regarded as the first
temple of the Angkorian era. This second ancestral temple, Lolei, was built in the
middle of his father’s baray at Hariharayala (Roluos) setting a precedent for other later
island temples such as East Mebon (953) built in Yasovarman’s own Yasoharatataka
or East Baray by Rajendravarman, West Mebon (c.1055) in the West Baray by
Udayadityavarman II and Neak Pean (c.1200) by Jayavarman VII in his own
Jayatataka Baray. Then Yasovarman I built a new capital at Yasodharapura a few
miles from the future sites of Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom, centered around his own
state temple mountain located on the crest of an actual mountain, or at least a hill,
rising 78m above the Angkorian plain named Phnom Bakheng (phnom is Khmer for
hill.) Thus, he built not only a temple mountain but a mountain temple including the
actual topography in the temple’s symbolic meaning, setting a precedent for more
ambitious syntheses of nature and architecture such as Preah Vihear (11th Century)
and Phnom Rung (1113 -1150.) At the same time Yashovarman I built Phnom
Bakheng, he erected two less ambitious mountain temples, each composed of three
shrines and ancillary buildings, on the summits of the only other hills in the area,
Phnom Krom, 140m above the Tonle Sap lake to the south, and Phnom Bok, 240m
above the future East Baray to the north, projecting vectors of authority from his
temples across the entire Angkorian plain.
Like the Bakong, Yashovarman I’s pyramid had five-levels or terraces with a plinth on
the uppermost one supporting a panchayatana or quincunx of shrines, surrounded on
its terraces by sixty small shrines and forty-four medium-sized ones around its base.
Phnom Bakheng thus turns an actual mountain into the cella or base of a five-tier
man-made “temple mountain” which acts as its shikhara, with 108 shrines, each itself
an aedicule of a temple mountain, strung around these five levels like the talas or
haras of a Dravida vimana. Thus the temple itself, the towers of its panchayatana and
those around its terraces and base could all be read as smaller replicas, “aedicules”
and antefixes of the combined hill and pyramid, itself a symbol of the cosmic, “Platonic
Form” of mountains, Mt. Meru, at whose base Phnom Bakheng sat, though at an
incalculable distance from it. This creates an infinite regress of original and
simulacrum, signified and signifier, as characteristic of Indic as postmodern thought.
Of all the temple mountains the Khmer built, Phnom Bakheng seems most cognizant
of its possible Javanese precedent, Borobudur, (see figure 10,) in the multiple small,
identical shrines lining its five terraces which are, however, too narrow to allow
circumambulation, thus precluding the need for mural bas reliefs and the didactic
purpose of its putative original. The forty-four large shrines surrounding the pyramid’s
base also recall the phalanx of 224 pevara or guardian candi or small shrines standing
watch at Candi Siwa at Roro Jonggrang (Prambanan,) Java. Nonetheless, the
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Bakheng’s 108 shrines would be an impressive number of aedicules on the shikhara of

all but the most ambitious Indonesian and Indian temples.
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A Khmer Stonehenge?
Man the Measurer or All Things
Phnom Bakheng, like every other Khmer monument, is constructed using precise
mathematical calculations, leading some to the conclusion it must have functioned as
some sort of astronomical or astrological instrument, at a time when there was no
distinction between the two. In the absence of historical evidence, an exegete is free to
choose among a plethora of possible sidereal phenomena and methods of measuring
Khmer temples which are necessarily somewhat arbitrary. These have included:
number of footsteps, (but whose foot?) distance from the outer edges of a structure
(generally used in this introduction,) distance from a structure’s center, ratios of a
temple’s length, width or diagonal, its intercolumniation, its inter-fenestration, arc-
seconds of the azimuth or path of the sun or moon, etc. Under these circumstances,
most such theories must be regarded as ingenious or merely ingenuous, creative or
simply credulous, suggestive or just obsessive. Jean Fillozat of the EFEO, École
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Française d’Extrême Orient, for example, noticed that from any point around the
Bakheng only thirty-three shrines are visible – which coincides with the number of
years it takes a lunar calendar of 354 days and solar calendar of 365 to come into
sync, (as well, one might add, as the number of Vedic deities, the levels of
consciousness in Buddhist cosmology, Christ’s age at his death, a third of one
hundred and any number of other related and unrelated phenomena.) He also noted
that each quadrant contained twenty-eight towers, equal to the days of a four-week
lunar month, while six times the sixty terrace shrines plus the five towers on their
summit equals 365, the days in a solar year. With a little more arithmetic, one could
soon discover that a four year lunar cycle has 1416 days and a solar or Gregorian
cycle, 1461 days, the same four digits and hence the same sum, twelve, equal to the
number of months in a year (or hours of sunlight at the equinox, half a 24-hour day or
eggs in a dozen, for that matter.) These two four-year cycles are also forty-five days out
of sync, the number of the 44 shrines around the base plus the central one. Phnom
Bakheng, the temple itself, could even be pressed into service to provide the
“intercalation” or “embolism” of 366 shrines each leap year. Since any of these
congruities may have resulted from serendipity or even wishful-thinking, the only
conclusion to be drawn from them is that the temple could have functioned as an
observatory, - not that it did.
Numerology figured as prominently in the Vastu Shastra and Khmer life as astrology
with which it is intertwined; it determined the date to begin a temple’s construction or
to start a war; it was used to calculate the size of a pada for a mandala; the “sum” of
the letters of a donor’s name could decide which god a temple honored and almost
every number had numerous interpretations. Special attention was paid to the ratio
between the dimensions of a temple’s parts, like Pythagoras’ or Palladio’s harmonic
fractions or Corbusier’s “golden mean ratio” or “modulor.” For example, 108, the
number of shrines at Phnom Bakheng (less the center one) was regarded as especially
auspicious since 108 has so many “auspicious” factors – 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 27, 54,
(although, as noted, most numbers could be auspicious, ominous or both.) The sum of
the digits in 108 equals nine; a “magic square” can be constructed around that
number because as the initial digits of its multiples increase, their final digits decrease
by an equal amount, so all equal nine – 18, 27, 36, 45, 63, 72, 81, 90, 108, 117, 126,
135, 144, 153, 162, 171, 180, 207, 216, 225, 234, 243, 252, 261, 270, 432. (99 might
appear to present an exception but adding 1 to 9 =10 while subtracting 1 from 0 =
equals -1, the sum of which is also 9; although the Indians invented zero they
overlooked negative numbers, so this anomaly may have caused needless perplexity.)
The fact that the total number of shrines is 109 not 108 might also seem to present a
problem but, in fact, it would only have made that number more auspicious from the
point of view of temple’s shthapakas or architects, since 109 is an irrational number
and therefore cannot be factored, endowing it with both mystery, unity and
“adamantine” invulnerability. The Vastu Shastra, attached special significance to a
number’s “remainder” after factoring; this might be related to the consistent
asymmetry of Khmer temples, their unfinished state or simply an irrational fascination
with the irrational, closely allied to the numerological, the magical and hence the
sacral. 109’s remainder is one, the uniquely indivisible singularity and origin of all
other numbers, thus associated with the primal bindu, the seed of all, the
absolute, Brahman, atman, the uncreated creator and primum mobile. Buddhism is
more rigorous numerologically than Hinduism: since zero precedes even
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one, sunyata or nothing is regarded as the ultimate uncreated or not “dependently

originated” reality.
VIEW FROM THE SOUTHEAST EDGE OF THE 1ST ENCLOSURE, PHNOM BAKHENG
(907)
SHIVA, 5TH TERRACE, PHNOM BAKHENG (907)
´The Temple in its Terms: Two Asymmetries
Phnom Bakheng was carved from the rocky summit of its eponymous hill, paring away
the five terraces of its pyramid and then leveling the remainder to make its 1st
enclosure. A 2nd enclosure surrounded the hill itself with four gopura and a moat. On
its east, a path for elephants and an unbroken flight of stairs for hardy pedestrians led
from the 2nd (outer) enclosure and present-day highway between Angkor Wat and
Angkor Thom up to the 1st (inner) enclosure. Like the Bakong, Phnom Bakheng
displays asymmetry along its east-west axis but it has a second asymmetry as well,
between the center of the central tower and the center of the stepped pyramid it
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crowns. The temple’s 1st enclosure is a rectangle, 120m x190m, its length more than
1/3 longer than its width. Within this rectangle, the central tower and hence the
north-south axis of the mandala is set-back to the west by the difference between its
western and eastern margins (11 and 12, shaded pink) which equals 14.3% of the 1st
enclosure’s length. (The Bakong’s 1st enclosure also had a western and eastern strip
separating its pyramid and peripheral shrines from the profane world of the “charnel
grounds” beyond (see figure 13.) Diagonals drawn through the central shrine to the
north and southern enclosure walls (5, blue lines) define the mandala’s east and west
“threshold lines” (3, dotted lavender lines) forming a 120m square which can be
divided into a 64-pada manduka mandala (lavender grid) which contains and
organizes the temple’s 109 shrines and its five terraces. The plinth (10) on which the
temple’s quincunx or panchayatana of five towers rests occupies the mandala’s four
central Brahma padas, while the twelve devika padas contain the pyramid’s upper
three terraces, on the west, and upper two, on the east. This second asymmetry
results from positioning the quincunx of towers (and hence the mandala's and the
temple’s center) 7m to the west on the pyramid's 5th terrace, equal to 3.6% of the
enclosure’s length or, the width of two terraces (shaded green.) This has a number of
consequences: 1) the center of the pyramid (4, orange diagonals) and the center of the
quincunx of towers and north-south axis (5, blue diagonals) are separated by 1.8% of
the enclosure’s length or 3.5 m (the width of 9, the purple bar;) 2) the pyramid or 1st
terrace is thus flush with the eastern row of shrines but separated from the western
by the width of two terraces (7, shaded green;) 3) the diagonals (4, orange lines) drawn
through the pyramid’s midpoint intersect the front corners of the eastern row of
shrines but the backs of the western; 4) diagonals drawn through the central tower (5,
blue lines) intersect the four corners of the mandala containing all 109 shrines and
cut through the rear corners of both the eastern and western rows of peripheral
shrines.
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FIGURE 15: ANALYSIS OF SITE PLAN, PHNOM BAKHENG (907)

1 Stairway from the foot of the hill to the 1st enclosure
2 Elephant Path from the highway between Angkor Wat and
Angkor Thom to the 1st enclosure
3 East and west “threshold lines” of a manduka mandala
4 Diagonals drawn through the midpoint of the pyramid
5 Diagonals drawn through the central tower (north-south axis)
6 Westward set-back of the central tower and quincunx of
shrines on the 5th terrace (shaded green)
7 Corresponding westward set-back of the western row of
peripheral shrines (shaded green)
8 Line marking the midpoint of the 1st enclosure’s length
9 Difference between the midpoints of the mandala, central
shrine and north-south axis and the pyramid (shaded purple)
10 Plinth with quincunx of 5 tower shrines
11 Western margin between the 109 shrines and the western
enclosure wall (shaded pink)
12 Eastern margin between the 109 shrines and the eastern
enclosure wall (also shaded pink)
The net westward setback of Phnom Bakheng’s 109 shrines by 14.3% might be
explained, in part, because it is the point at which the temple’s broad expanse becomes
entirely visible to a visitor reaching the top of the staircase from the road below. Today a
photographer still has trouble framing the temple’s width from this position – even
without showing the entire quincunx of towers, as in the photograph on the previous
page. The westward setback of most Khmer temple mountains serves to lengthen the
“liturgical axis” both to increase the “spiritual distance” between the shrine and the
profane world outside (and here below) and to provide space for rites preparatory to
viewing the “awakened god” within his shrine. The reason for the second asymmetry,
between the plinth with its quincunx of towers and the pyramid is more difficult to
rationalize. One could at least note that the space it opens between the pyramid’s
western edge and the eastern-facing steps of the western row of peripheral shrines is
necessary to enter them but this result could probably have been attained more directly
and without violating the temple’s symmetry. As with the Bakong, another reason might
be adduced from the visual experience of the worshipper approaching the shrine along
its “liturgical axis,” as with the net westward set-back. The additional 7m set-back of the
quincunx of shrines on the 5th terrace increases the distance between the shrines and
the eastern, “liturgically privileged” staircase to them so that, at its top, the quincunx of
shrines can be seen as an ensemble, which would not be the case if the eastern two
towers were closer to that terrace’s edge. The 7m space opened could also provide a
prominent space at the culmination of the “processional path” where public rituals
would be performed and notables congregate before receiving the darshan of the resident
deity, Shiva, venerated within the shrine. This same setback would, at the same time,
delay the full view of the shrines to anyone ascending the eastern staircase until they
stepped onto the terrace because the terraces at Phnom Bakheng are so much steeper
than at the previous temple mountain, the Bakong.* As noted in reference to
numerology, the pyramid’s slope affects so many other relationships and is, in turn,
determined by so many variable factors, it is impossible to know what motivated this
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seemingly insignificant but, nonetheless, deliberate asymmetry. Did the temple’s

designers care if the quincunx of shrines appeared dramatically or gradually? Did it
matter to them if the entire shrine and towers or just a part were visible from the 1st
enclosure’s eastern entrance?
While this slight asymmetry might make the towers appear marginally more abruptly or
seem a little more distant and celestial, it is certain, and surely more significant, that the
incline of the pyramid parallels and hence extends the slope of the hill so that
architecture and topography are rhymed as two tiers of a single temple mountain. The
appropriation of landscape to serve a larger symbolic objective also incorporated the
surrounding “city on a plain,” Yasodharapura, in a cosmological geography, transforming
secular terrain into a sacred landscape where hill and temple, aedicule and ideal,
merged. Mt. Meru’s summit and Phnom Bakheng’s upper terrace became the place
where the god, Shiva, entered his two earthly avatars, the devaraja linga and, perhaps,
the Khmer king. Thus, the city received the deity’s darshan whenever it looked up at the
temple, knowing the god was there, though his image might be occluded or mediated by
the visage of the monarch. Two centuries later, traffic passing on the road below Phnom
Bakheng, soldiers and elephants, nobles and peasants, oxcarts and palanquins, on their
way to Angkor Thom, would again become actors in a symbolic, architectural drama. As
they crossed the bridge over the moat to the city’s south gate, between two rows
of asuras, demons, and devas, gods, twisting the naga, Vasuki, its balustrades, they
would re-enact the Khmer creation myth, “The Churning of the Ocean of Milk,”
the Samudra Manthan, to extract amrita, the elixir of immortality. Just as the demons
had been promised a drop in return for their participation,but in the end only the gods
got to sip, one might observe – no doubt, tendentiously – that the quotidian business of
the Khmer Empire ultimately served only the monarch’s pretensions of a posthumous
divinity, as the monuments of Angkor testify so eloquently.
*The slope of the pyramid can be calculated by dividing half the difference between the
widths of 1st and 5th terraces ( 76 - 47/2 = 14.5m ) by their height (five times the height
of a terrace or 2.6m x 5 = 13m, then adding the height of the shrine’s plinth (1.6m)
resulting in a height of 14.6m and a ratio of width to height of 14.5/14.6, roughly a slope
of 45°. Since the distance of the central tower to the edge of the 5th terrace equals half
that terrace’s width plus half its eastward offset (9, the purple bar in figure 15) or 23.5m
+ 3.5m = 27m, the central tower would need to have been 27m high before its peak
became visible from the foot of the eastern steps. At the level of the 4th terrace, (10.4m
off the ground and the last point where the pyramid’s slope would restrict sight lines to
45°) the top of a tower 16.6m tall (including its plinth) would become visible; (in the
absence of the 3.5m westward offset, a 16.6m tower’s top would become visible from the
stairs between the 2nd and 3rd terraces.) In any event, the central tower of Phnom
Bakheng, would have appeared marginally later as a result of the 7% westward remove.
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The Dharmaraja Ratha of the Konark temple as an example of aedicular vertical

expansion edited article byhttps://www.templemountains.org/dharmaraja-ratha-structure-
components-terminology-of-southern-indian-karnata-dravida-vimana.html
The ratha’s name commemorates the eldest of the Pandava brothers, heroes of the Mahabharata, whose
surrogate father, Yama, was the Dharmaraja or judge of the dead. Ratha, in this case, signifies the vehicle
or chariot of a god, cf. the Surya Temple at Konark and the Kailasa at Ellora. The shrine’s roof or tower,
here a Dravida alpa vimana, is based on a 9 x 9-pada paramasayika mandala, arranged in a pyramid of 4
concentric squares, talas or tiers with 32, 24, 16 and 9 padas, each occupied by a single aedicule or shrine,
except for the nine central Brahma padas, which hold a crowning, octagonal kuta aedicule.
A prototype for “vertical expansion” can once again be found among the rock-cut monoliths of
Mamallapuram, the vimana of the Dharmaraja Yudhishthira Ratha in figure below (Vimana is the Dravida
or Southern Indian term for the Nagara or Northern Indian shikhara.).
The matrix to the photograph’s right shows the repeated pattern in which the three types of aedicules,
described beneath it, are strung; the aedicules circled in purple in the photograph have been shaded purple in
the corresponding diamond.
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KO S K HP
FIGURE 8: ANALYSIS OF AEDICULES OF THE DHARMARAJA YUDHISHTHIRA RATHA,

MAMALLAPURAM (c.650)
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S = shala aedicule
K = kuta aedicule
HP = harantara-panjara aedicule
K-O = octagonal kuta aedicule
K=a square kuta aedicule or “cap,” a single cella shrine, like the nearby Draupadi Ratha in
figure 3, except sometimes open-sided and surrounded by a vedi/vedika, fence, railing, altar; it rises above
a vyalamala (Nagara prati) representing the joists or rafters of its putative 1st story (cf., the non-structural
triglyphs of a Doric frieze or the dentils of an Ionic architrave.)
S=a rectangular, barrel-vaulted shala aedicule with ogival or “horseshoe-shaped,” open gables at either
end, patterned after the gavaksha windows at the opening of rock-cut Buddhist chaitya/ caitya halls,
themselves imitations of earlier, rectangular or apsidalshrines made with bent bamboo, rush or palm
frond roofs.
HP= a harantara-panjara aedicule, a panjara aedicule (i.e., a shala aedicule seen end-on,) which projects as
a dormer or window, (the ubiquitous gavaksha or kudu,) into the harantara, the barrel-vauled cloister or
gallery linking the hara or "necklace" of shrine aedicules around the prastara or parapet of a tala of a
Dravida temple. Although, as here, it appears to rise on a stambha or column from the cloister's vedi or
railing, since the vedi is only a molding and the pillar only a pilaster, the aedicule ia referred to as arpita or
“applied.”
K-O=the octagonal kuta aedicule occupying the nine central or Brahma padas which crowns
the vimana of this Dravida shrine.
Two-Story Aedicules: The 1st tala with its hara of kuta, shala and harantara-panjara aedicules rests on
the eave (kapota) of the ratha’s full-height ground floor. Prof. Hardy stresses that aedicules have two-
stories, a ground floor, solid-walled, pillared or pilastered, with a shrine and roof above it. The
compressed “intermediate floors” of the upper two talas can be glimpsed, in the photograph above, in the
shadows behind the roofs of the aedicules of the lower two talas, visible only as pilasters and over-
size potikas (brackets.) These support the kapotas or eaves of these stories on top of which rest
the hara of shrines of each tala.
This introduction departs from this usage in sometimes referring to a discrete, “standard” Khmer shrine
or prasat as an “aedicule,” including both the ground floor shrine and the four, “aedicular” layers
constituting its tower (prang, vimana, shikhara,) in this case, one aedicule per tala or tier. These might
more accurately be described as compressed replicas emerging from a shrine in a vertical version of what
Hardy refers to as “staggering” or “telescoping.” The Khmer used this same type of shrine with
remarkably little variation over five centuries where it appears as an aedicule, in the traditional sense,
only as antefixes on the corners of the emergent aedicules or talas of its tower.They built their temples,
not by accreting such miniature aedicules, but by projecting at a distance, near duplicates of
their prasats as corner shrines, gopuras or quincunxes of towers, accounting for the greater horizontal
extension of Khmer temples compared with their compact Indian counterparts.
Whenever possible on this website, the notation for aedicules and their placement on a temple has been
adapted from the system developed in Prof. Adam Hardy’s pioneering Indian Temple Architecture:
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Form and Transformation: The Karnata Dravida Tradition (Abhinav Publications, New Delhi,
1995.) They have been supplemented and modified to conform more closely with Khmer practice.
AEDICULARREPLICATION& PROJECTION: Ak Yom
The Khmers’ preference for their single-cell prasat or shrine “aedicule” inhibited them from expanding
their temples by “aedicular expansion” – either by lining the tiers of their pyramids with miniature shrines
like Dravida temples, such as the Dharmaraja Ratha in figure 8, or by having them emerge from
the shikhara, like the Kandariya Mahadeva or Rajarani Temples in figures 6 and 9. This limited them to
“vertical expansion” but here too they avoided innovation, simply stacking four, identical, compressed
aedicular tiers of the standard shrine below them. This restricted Khmer architectural vocabulary was
clearly an aesthetic choice of classical severity and traditional forms but it also presented an artistic
challenge: how to build the largest possible structures from the fewest parts without monotony or
repetition, rather like a canon in music or sestina in poetry? “Linear expansion” was inimical to the goal
of erecting a symmetrical “temple mountain” or pyramid, so subtle asymmetries were employed to inject
tension and dynamism into most of the seven temple mountains examined in the remainder of this
introduction. Khmer architects preferred to replicate and then project, rather than miniaturize and stylize,
their canonical shrine or “aedicule,” (module or prototype might be a more accurate term.) They would
symmetrically array them around a central tower, extending at regular intervals the temple’s dimensions,
until they grew into the largest religious structures ever built. A precedent for what might be called
“aedicular multiplication” is suggested by the Shiva shrine, Candi Siwa (c.850) at Prambanan in Java
which replicated itself: 1) in the Brahma and Vishnu temples on either side of it; 2) then in the vahana or
“vehicle” shrines in front of each, forming two rows of three, the configuration of the earliest Angkorian
temple, Preah Ko (880;) 3) next, two apit or “flanking,” 4) four kelir or “screening” and 5) four patok or
“corner” shrines “protected” this central core of six and defined the boundaries of the temples’ enclosure
within which 6) no fewer than 224 pervara or “guardian” shrines stood in ranks like a Roman phalanx,
for a numerologically pregnant total of 240 shrines in all.
CANDI SIWA, PRAMBANAN, JAVA (c.850)
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No Khmer temple, with the possible exception of Phnom Bakheng with 109 shrines, even approached the
aedicular prolixity. of Prambanan. The earliest Khmer multi-shrine (or “multi-aedicular”) temples consisted
of rows of nearly identical prasats, six at Preah Ko (880,) three at Phnom Krom, Phnom Bok and Prasat Bei
(all 889-915,) five at Prasat Kravan (921) and nine at Prasat Thom in Koh Ker (928-944.) Over the centuries,
these prasats became spaced further apart and arranged as crosses or panchayatanas, (quincunxes, five
objects in an “x” or chiastic pattern,) which marked the corners and cardinal gopuras of concentric
enclosures, levels or terraces, joined together first by laterite walls lined by narrow “service” buildings and,
ultimately, by long, gabled galleries defining the outlines of the tiers or terraces of increasingly larger and
more complex pyramids or “temple mountains.” This prasat or shrine type and its replicas do not meet Adam
Hardy’s rigorous definition of an aedicule 1) because they are discrete aedes not components within the
structure of which they are a miniature and 2) because they are often not much more miniature than the
structures they imitate; (this is a characteristic they share with the subsidiary deities of a mandala, each of
whom usually occupies an equal-sized pada.)The Khmer conceived these derivative structures more as
reflections or emanations of the central tower shrine, itself a smaller version or “aedicule” of the temple
mountain which it crowned, in turn an "aedicule" or simulacrum of Mt. Meru. These projected shrines
marked the corners of tiers or terraces like the antefixes on the tiers of the shikharas of their central towers
and were then linked together by galleries like the harantara or “necklaces” of aedicules of a
Dravida vimana.
This emphasis on the symmetrical, lateral extension of terraces resulted over-time in de-emphasizing the
central tower in comparison with the nearly equal-sized shrines arrayed around it, so it became less a climax
than the center of a matrix. This relaxation of momentum along the liturgical axis was off-set by an
integration of the temple’s peripheral parts into a coherent ensemble with a firmly defined structure. This
tendency can be noted as early as Koh Ker (928-944) and at Banteay Srei (968,) Preah Vihear (11th Century,)
as well as, Banteay Samre and Beng Mealea, built at the same time as Angkor Wat (1113-1150,) which
epitomizes their opposite, a centrally-focused massif. This fissiparous clinamen would reappear in the
jumbled inner enclosures of Jayavarman VII’s late monastic foundations, Ta Prohm and Preah Khan (1181-
1220,) where it serves a contrary purpose, disintegrating an ordered hierarchy among the temple’s parts.
Finally, this ”spirit ofconfusion" is transfigured by the “face towers” on the upper terrace of the Bayon into a
diffuse, undifferentiated but pervasive presence. A similar phenomenon can be observed, quite
independently, in the increasing size of the gopuras and the number of enclosures, but not their central
shrines, at the well-known “temple cities” of South India, the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi (15th Century,)
the Ranganathaswamy at Tiruchirappalli (1371, illustrated on page 12,) and the Meenakshi at Madurai (16th
Century.)
The Khmer proclivity for replicating their basic shrine aedicule and then arranging them orthogonally or
diagonally in rows or matrices traces a developmental vector stretching over five centuries (700-1200)
achieving its classic expression at Angkor Wat (1113-1150.) The stages of its evolution and its distinctive
architectural markers or genome will be illustrated in the following brief analyses of seven Khmer "temple
mountains" whose traits can be summarized as 1) aedicular replication and projection 2) integration of
asymmetry into a symmetrical mandala 3) axial and lateral (cruciform) expansion 4) de-emphasis of axial
focus in favor of a balanced array of shrines and, finally, 5) a shift from orthogonal, not so much to radial
symmetry or even asymmetry, as entropy at the Bayon. https://www.templemountains.org/ak-yom-the-first-
khmer-temple-mountai.html
Ak Yom: The First Temple Mountain?
Ak Yum (Khmer: ព្ាសាទអកយំ) is an ancient temple in the Angkor region of Cambodia. Helen Jessup
dates the temple to the 8th century, and states it is the oldest known example of "temple mountain" in
Southeast Asia.[3][4]
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The origins and repair history of the temple are unclear. Stone carrying inscriptions, including one with a
date corresponding to Saturday 10 June 674 AD during the reign of king Jayavarman I. The first structure
on the site was a single-chamber brick sanctuary, probably constructed in the latter part of the 8th century.
Later it was remade into a larger stepped pyramid structure, with a base approximately 100 meters square.
The expansion probably took place in the early 9th Century during the reign of King Jayavarman II, who
is widely recognized as the founder of the Khmer Empire. When the West Baray reservoir was built in the
11th Century, Ak Yum was partially buried by the southern dikeThe site was excavated in the 1932 under
the direction of archaeologist George Trouvé
This architectural trope and tropism can be discerned in embryonic form in an unexpected archeological
find of 1932 which offers an indigenous Khmer “interpretation” of a temple mountain half a century
before construction began at Borobudur, a century before Candi Siwa at Prambanan and nearly two before
the first Angkorian multi-tiered temple, the Bakong. Helen Ibbitson Jessups has noted that the first step
pyramid in the Hindu-Buddhist ambit was built not in India, China or Java but just north of the runway of
the Siem Reap airport, a few miles from Angkor Wat. Although today only the unprepossessing and
therefore rarely visited foundations of a modest 100m square enclosure and truncated prasat remain, one
may detect in them some nascent characteristics of the celebrated Khmer pyramids of the next five
centuries. An inscription dates the temple’s dedication to Saturday, 10 June, 674, but it probably refers to
an earlier shrine on the site since the colonettes scattered around the site are in the Kompong Preah style
of the early 8th Century, a period of disunity when the Khmer appear to have been driven northwest to
this area from Sambor Prei Kuk by a Srivijayan incursion. The dates found on the door jambs, 704 and
714, are more likely to be accurate.
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Ak Yom or Ak Yum was dedicated to Gambhiresvara, the “Lord of the Profound Depths” or “of the
Hidden Knowledge,” a rare, chthonic epithet of Shiva occurring only three times in the epigraphic record.
Shiva is most often portrayed as an ascetic, living among hermits and wild beasts high up in the caves of
snowy Mt. Kailasa (or Kailash,) an actual 21,000’ peak in the Tibetan Himalayas. This modest temple
seems to have lost whatever importance it may once have had by the middle of the 11th Century, since
Udayaditiyavarman II (1050-1066) felt no compunction about burying it beneath the southern
embankment of his 7.8 km by 2.1 km West Baray or reservoir, which accounts for its belated discovery.
THE SHRINE FROM THE NORTHWEST,

AK YOM (700 - 725)
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CHAPTERVIII
he SPIRES of ANGKOR VAT
Incorporating Temple Architecture and Sculpture (Part I) Shikhara or Vimana of Hindu Temples
Dr. UDAY DOKRAS,

B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur Uni. India
Certificat' en Droit, Queens University, Canada,
PhD Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Consultant –HR and Admin. The Gorewada Zoo,Nagpur,India
Should you only be interested in SHIKHARA or VIMANA please read directly from Page oooo
onwards
VIMANA the flying chariots of Gods. Vimana Or Shikara is designed to represent these?
In this mega-article, we shall discuss about the Indian temple architecture and sculpture in detail. A Hindu
temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core of the temple.
These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical precision and geometric
symbolism. What do the Spires on a Hindu Wat represent?
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Spire, in architecture, steeply pointed pyramidal or conical termination to a tower. In its mature Gothic
development, the spire was an elongated, slender form that was a spectacular visual culmination of the
building as well as a symbol of the heavenly aspirations of pious medieval men. The spires represent the
mountains of eternity and the moat the eternal waters. As or the spires of Angkor and similar Khemer
temples, the spires are ubiquitous symbols of Khmer style of temples that is not found in South Indai even
thought the templestry is inspired by the Dravidian Temple architecture. It was built using 1.5 cubic
meters of sand and silt in the 12th century CE under the reign of the Khmer emperor Suryavarman II (r.
1113-1150 CE) as a grand Hindu temple expressing the monarch's dedication to Vishnu.Spire is to attract
the devotees from afar,contribute to the majestic view of the structure and as an address.
TODAY- What’s the Purpose of Spires on Skyscrapers- by Philjake
https://thetowerinfo.com/skyscrapers-spires-purpose/
A large number of skyscrapers have spires built on the top, particularly in some cities like New York
City, Dubai, Chicago, etc., in which buildings with spires are more commonly seen.
spires at top.//Wilshire Grand Center’s spire makes it taller than US Bank Tower, which has a higher roof./Chrysler/Petronas
Today-Spire is an architectural element to make the building look more appealing, and usually be used to
increase the height of buildings, and can also function as lightning rod, though it’s not the main purpose.
Many of these skyscrapers are among the tallest buildings in the world, like Burj Khalifa, One World
Trade Center, Taipei 101. So why spires are added on skyscrapers? Below are a few reasons for spires
built atop buildings.
1. Increase height
Adding spire is a cheaper way to increase height of the building, the cost for a skinny mast is much
cheaper than solid concrete core and habitable floors.
Developers build skyscrapers is not only for its functionalities, they also want their buildings higher than
others, so that to show prestige and draw more attention.
The developer of Shanghai World Financial Center had ever intended to build spires atop the building to
make it higher than Taipei 101, so that their building will become the tallest building in the world by any
measurement by that time. However the plan was not permitted by the local authorities due to the concern
of aesthetic aspects.
In 2017, US Bank Tower‘s title of tallest building in Western America being replaced by Wilshire Grand
Center is all because of the spire on the latter building.
2. Ornamental purpose
Most skyscrapers have spires installed on the top is for ornamental purpose. For many buildings, spire is a
necessary architectural element, these skyscrapers will look weird once the spire is removed, for example,
what would it be if the Chrysler Building had no spire built on it? It would appear incomplete and kind of
strange. Other buildings, like Petronas Towers, Taipei 101, featuring spire at top is all because of the
same reason.
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3. Lightning rod
Besides the aesthetic purpose, spires can function as lightning rod, for this every tallest
cathedral constructed in Middle Age has a distinctive spire built on the top.
However, being the lightning rod is not the main purpose of spires, today rods do not need to be built in
the shape of a distinctive spire any more.It can be seen that many tallest buildings in the world don’t have
spire-like rods, they can still withstand lightning strikes, some noted examples are Ping An Finance
Center (a tower originally designed to have a spire, but removed later in response to the aviation
law), Goldin Finance 117, Lotte World Tower.
4. Broadcasting
Antennas and masts can be used for broadcasting radio waves or television signals. Buildings like Willis
Tower and Empire State Building all have signal transmitters installed on their antennas.
What is the top tower of any temple called?
The
PHRA PRANG SAM YOD, LOPBURI, THAILAND – (RIGHT PIC): The centre of Lopburi dominated
by the 13th century Khmer temple of Phra Prang Sam Yod. From the late 9th century, the Khmer empire,
which was centred around Angkor was to dominate a large swathe of Southeast Asia including parts of
Thailand. They left behind a legacy of stone sanctuaries and palaces built to the gods as well as
magnificent sculptures of Hindu deities.. (Photo by Ben Davies/LightRocket via Getty Images) The
temple was built by King Jayavarman VII of the Khmer Empire in the early 13th century. Jayavarman
intended for the temple to be an important location in the royal cult surrounding himself, as it would
increase the legitimacy of his rule. In addition, the temple served to showcase the prestige of the Khmer
Empire in Lopburi (then known as Lavo) as it had only recently captured the city from its Cham and Mon
rivals. This is evidence of the extentand reach of the Asparagus spire temples of Angkor. Built along the
lines of contemporaneous Khmer architecture, the temple is made from brick with a stucco exterior, the
latter possibly being inspired by Mon architectural tradition. The structure has three towers, each with a
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corresponding deity; the north tower is dedicated to Prajnaparamita, the central tower to the Buddha, and
the south tower to Avalokiteśvara
The spires represent the mountains of eternity and the moat the eternal waters. It was built using 1.5
cubic meters of sand and silt in the 12th century CE under the reign of the Khmer emperor Suryavarman
II (r. 1113-1150 CE) as a grand Hindu temple expressing the monarch's dedication to Vishnu. What is the
elements of Angkor Wat? The spires look like asparagus as seen below-
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The stylistic elements of the complex are characteristic of Khmer architecture and include the ogival,
lotus bud-shaped towers, half-galleries, axial galleries, connecting enclosures and cruciform terraces.
Angkor Wat is a temple complex in the province of Siem Reap, Cambodia originally dedicated to
the Hindu god Vishnu in the 12th century CE. It is among the largest religious buildings ever created,
second only to the Temple of Karnak at Thebes, Egypt and, some claim, even larger. How many pillars
does Angkor Wat? From the top of the terrace there is a fine view of the gallery on the first level, known
as the Gallery of Bas-reliefs (215 by 187 meters, 705 by 614 feet). The outer side, closest to the visitor,
comprises a row of 60 columns whereas the inner side is a solid wall decorated with bas-reliefs. How
many buildings are in Angkor Wat? 1 thousand buildings- (1150). The vast religious complex of Angkor
Wat comprises more than a thousand buildings, and it is one of the great cultural wonders of the world.
Angkor Wat is the world's largest religious structure, covering some 400 acres (160 hectares), and marks
the high point of Khmer architecture. Some 72 major temples or other buildings are found within this
area, and the remains of several hundred additional minor temple sites are scattered throughout the
landscape beyond. HOW BIG IS Angkor Archaeological Park? 400 km2-Stretching over some 400 km2,
including forested area, Angkor Archaeological Park contains the magnificent remains of the different
capitals of the Khmer Empire, from the 9th to the 15th century. The monument was made out of five to
ten million sandstone blocks with a maximum weight of 1.5 tons each. The entire city of Angkor used far
greater amounts of stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined, and occupied an area significantly
greater than modern-day Paris. Some 72 major temples or other buildings are found within this area, and
the remains of several hundred additional minor temple sites are scattered throughout the landscape
beyond.Which means 72 major Vimanas or Shikaras and 1000 buildings some with and others without a
Vimana or shikara roughly I would estimate that total number of Vimanas would be around 200-250 at
the least.
SPIRITUAL LIGHTHOUSE
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Hindu temples typically have Kalasam or Called As Gopura Kalasam at the top of temple towers, in
the form of inverted pot, with pointed head facing the sky, is one of the prominent symbol of
temples
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Its name means "City of the Temple", justifies the statistics quoted in the above paragraph and it was
created as a physical manifestation of human interaction with the realm of the gods. The spires represent
the mountains of eternity and the moat the eternal waters. It was built using 1.5 cubic meters of sand and
silt in the 12th century CE under the reign of the Khmer emperor Suryavarman II (r. 1113-1150 CE) as a
grand Hindu temple expressing the monarch's dedication to Vishnu.
The temple covers 420 acres (162.6 hectares) with a central tower 213 feet (65 m) high. The surrounding
moat is 650 feet (200 m) wide running a perimeter of over three miles (5 km) with a depth of 13 feet (4
m). Its function as a Hindu temple fell out of use in the late 13th century CE, and it was taken over
by Buddhist monks.
IT WAS THE GRANDEST COMPLEX IN THE REGION, THE CENTER OF THE KHMER EMPIRE,
BUT HAD BEEN LARGELY ABANDONED BY THE 16TH CENTURY CE.
In its time, it was the grandest complex in the region, the center of the Khmer Empire, but had been
largely abandoned by the 16th century CE and was taken by the surrounding jungle. Western explorers
discovered the site in the 19th century CE, cleared the overgrowth, and began restoration efforts. Today it
is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the most popular tourist attractions in the world.
Suryavarman II & Construction
Suryavarman II is considered one of the greatest monarchs of the Khmer Empire (802-1431 CE) for his
creation of a strong central government that united the land. Suryavarman II also sent numerous military
expeditions against the kingdom of Dai Viet in modern-day Vietnam and the neighboring Champa
kingdoms, but these were largely unsuccessful. His greatest successes were in diplomacy, not war, as he
successfully opened relations with China which increased trade and stimulated the economy.
Although he is remembered as a great ruler, Suryavarman II was a usurper, who assassinated his great
uncle Dharanindravarman I (r. 1107-1113 CE) to take the throne. He is said to have compared the coup to
destroying a serpent but what this alludes to, or what his motivation was, is unclear. He then legitimized
his rule through personal accomplishments and immortalized it through the construction of the grand
complex of Angkor Wat, dedicated to his personal protector-god Vishnu, most likely in gratitude for his
victory. He had amassed considerable wealth through trade and taxes and spared no expense in the
creation of his temple. Scholar Christopher Scarre notes:
The Khmer's unique form of kingship produced, instead of an austere civilization like that of the Indus, a
society that carried the cult of wealth, luxury, and divine monarchy to amazing lengths. This cult reached
it apogee in the reign of Suryavarman II who built the temple of Angkor Wat. (366)
The building was purposefully situated, and paths created in the jungle, so that visitors could only enter
from the west, a direction traditionally associated with the land of the dead but also with Vishnu, to
experience spiritual renewal as they drew closer to the divine energies of the temple. The design, and
imposing height, was intended to draw the eye upwards to read the great stories of the gods, heroes, and
ancestors carved in stone across the walls and up the columns of the great temple. All around the
complex, homes and workshops were built, markets and other businesses were opened, and a network of
roads created.
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Angkor Wat, Cambodia………………………………..SuryavarmanII
A substance known as laterite was formed to support the emerging temple which was then encased in
sandstone. The sandstone blocks used in construction were quarried from a site known as the Kulen Hills,
18 miles north, and floated to the construction site through a series of canals. It is unknown how long
construction took to complete and, according to some interpretations, it was never fully completed.
Religious Background
Angkor Wat can be interpreted in many different ways but Suryavarman II wanted to ensure that,
however one saw the work, he would be part of it. Suryavarman II is depicted in statuary as Vishnu,
consorting with the god, and performing his responsibilities as ruler such as reviewing his troops and
holding court. The appearance of the monarch's likeness in so many different scenes, in fact, led early
excavators to conclude that the site was a funerary temple.
There are compelling reasons to come to this conclusion: unlike the other temples in the area - which face
east - Angkor Wat faces west toward the land of the dead. Further, the bas-reliefs which adorn the temple
are clearly meant to be read counterclockwise and, in funeral services, one conducts traditional religious
rituals in reverse. If any evidence had ever been found of Suryavarman II's burial at the site, there would
be no contesting the claim for it as a funerary temple; but there is no evidence of this.
It is possible that it was begun as a funerary temple but it remained unfinished at Suryavarman
II's death and he was cremated and buried elsewhere. It is more likely, however, that Suryavarman II had
it purposefully built to honor his god, and this claim holds more weight when one considers the king's
religious beliefs.
Suryavarman II
Suryavarman II practiced a form of Hinduism known as Vaishnavism, which is devotion to the god
Vishnu above all others. Although Hinduism is generally regarded as a polytheistic religion by
westerners, it is actually henotheistic, meaning there is only one god with many different aspects. In a
henotheistic belief system, a single god is considered too immense to be grasped by the human mind and
so appears in a multiplicity of personalities all of which focus on a single different aspect of human life.
In Hinduism, Brahma is the supreme deity who creates the world while, in his form as Vishnu he
preserves life and, as Shiva, takes life away and rewards humans for their toil with death, which then
continues the cycle of rebirth or leads to union with the oversoul. Angkor Wat reflects the course of life,
death, and eternity according to Vaishnavism, removing Brahma as the supreme god and replacing him
with Vishnu.
Vishnu appears to human beings in many forms throughout the centuries as avatars - like the popular
Hindu god Krishna - to guide and instruct people. The most famous example of this comes from the
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religious text Bhagavad-Gita (“Song of God”) when Krishna visits Prince Arjuna on the battlefield of
Kurukshetra to explain the nature of existence and one's purpose in life. The temple of Angkor Wat is
designed to fulfill this same purpose through its ornamentation which tells the story of the human
condition, the immanence of the gods, and how one is to best live one's life.
The rise of Vaishnavism in Cambodia was a direct result of the conflicts between the Khmers and the
neighboring Champa. Suryavarman I (r. c. 1006-1050 CE) extended the frontiers of his realm into
Thailand during his reign and came into conflict with the cities of the Champa. The Champa's religion
was Buddhism (which was also the faith of the Khmer elite) which was viewed with hostility by most
Khmer who saw it as a threat to their faith. Vishnu, as a protector-god, rose in popularity through these
conflicts and the backlash against Buddhism.
By the time of Suryavarman II's reign, the form of Hinduism known as Brahmanism, which favored the
elite, was growing more popular in the region and Buddhism had also gained more adherents.
Suryavarman II elevated the position of the common people, using religion, by decreeing the worship of
Vishnu, a deity who was a protector of all, not the supreme creator aspect nor the destructive aspect but
the mediator between human beings and the divine who had also proven himself a benevolent guardian.
One of the most popular stories of Vishnu's kindness and cleverness in the interests of human beings
is The Churning of the Ocean (also known as The Churning of the Ocean of Milk) in which he tricks the
demons into surrendering the amrita (ambrosia) which will make the gods immortal and preserve eternal
order. This story is among the most famous bas-reliefs found at Angkor Wat and supports the claim that
the building was originally conceived of as a temple of worship rather than a funerary site.
Stories in Stone
Angkor Wat is designed to represent Mount Meru, the spiritual and physical nexus in Hinduism which is
the center of all reality. The five peaks of Mount Meru are represented by the five spires of the temple.
Brahma and the Devas (demigods) were thought to live on Mount Meru and it is famously referenced
in The Mahabharata when Yudhishthira and his brothers travel to the gates of heaven. One by one the
brothers die until only Yudhishthira and his faithful dog are left. When they reach the border of heaven,
the gatekeeper tells Yudhishthira that he may enter for the worthy life he lived but that dogs are not
allowed in heaven. Yudhishthira rejects any paradise which does not include dogs and turns away, but the
gatekeeper stops him and reveals himself as Vishnu who was only testing him one last time before
allowing him entrance.
Stories such as this are told all over the temple where one finds scenes from the classic works of Hindu
religious literature such as the Ramayana and Bhagavad-Gita. The great Battle of Kurukshetra from
the Gita is depicted clearly as is the Battle of Lanka from the Ramayana. As most people could not read
in the 12th century CE, Angkor Wat served as a gigantic book on which the important religious and
cultural tales could be related visually.
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Churning of the Ocean of Milk
Shikhara, a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak", refers to the rising tower in the Hindu
temple architecture of North India, and also often used in Jain temples.
Spire, In Gothic architecture, where the spire is most commonly used, and particularly in Gothic
cathedrals and churches it symbolised the heavenly aspirations of churches' builders, as well as offering a
visual spectacle of extreme height. It also suggested, by its similarity to a spear point, the power and
strength of religion.It is then a steeply pointed pyramidal or conical termination to a tower. In its
mature Gothic development, the spire was an elongated, slender form that was a spectacular visual
culmination of the building as well as a symbol of the heavenly aspirations of pious medieval men.
The spire originated in the 12th century as a simple, four-sided pyramidal roof, generally abrupt and
stunted, capping a church tower. Its history is a development toward slimmer, higher forms and a more
organic relationship with the tower below. In the attempt to coordinate harmoniously an octagonal spire
with a square base, the broach spire was developed: sloping, triangular sections of masonry, or broaches,
were added to the bottom of the four spire faces that did not coincide with the tower sides, as in the 12th-
century Church of St. Columba at Cologne. In the later 12th and 13th centuries, spires were
also integrated with their towers by adding high, gabled dormers (q.v.) to the faces of the spire, over the
centres of the tower faces—a scheme that can be seen on the southwest tower of Chartres cathedral. On
many French cathedrals, steep pinnacles (q.v.; vertical ornaments of pyramidal or conical shape) were
added to the four corners of the tower to effect the transition between quadrilateral base and octagonal
spire. A fine example is a group of spires at Coutances cathedral (13th century), in which the rich
treatment of the spire dormers and corner pinnacles emphasizes the sense of height and slimness in every
possible way.
In Germany the timber spires of the Romanesque era evolved into Gothic stone spires of great refinement.
At Fribourg (Switz.) cathedral (spire, 1270–88), a low, square tower with corner pinnacles carries a
gabled, octagonal lantern that supports the spire of 385 feet (117 metres), a mere skeleton of
openwork tracery with ornamented edges giving an amazingly light and delicate effect. This type of
openwork spire became the model for later churches in Germany.
In the 14th century, during the Decorated period in England, a slender, needle spire was set in from the
edge of the tower, broaches disappeared, corner pinnacles became customary, and a low parapet was
added around the tower’s edge, as seen in the two western spires of Lichfield cathedral.
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The spire was never thoroughly accepted by the Renaissance, and it failed to become a native form in
Spain or Italy. In England, France, and Germany, however, its development continued, influenced to
some degree by Italian Baroque forms. During the 17th century in Germany, fantastic, spirelike forms
were designed with profiles of broken concave and convex lines, crowned at the top with a sort of
onionlike dome; they rose to a considerable height and, in imaginative quality, far surpassed any of the
Italian examples. At the same time in England, the spire received a simpler, more straightforward
treatment in the designs of Sir Christopher Wren, particularly in churches built after the Great Fire
in London (1666), such as St. Martin, Ludgate, and St. Bride’s on Fleet Street (only spire
and steeple [1701–03] remain).
Noteworthy also are many simplified colonial American spires that were originally based upon the work
of Wren and his followers. Characteristic is the type in which a small, octagonal, arcaded lantern crowns a
square tower and carries, usually above an attic, a simple, slim, white spire, as in the Old South Meeting
House, Boston (1729). This trend toward slender and attenuated proportions reached its climax in the
exquisitely light spire of Park Street Church, Boston (1819), by Peter Banner.
Nineteenth-century architects made extravagant use of spires, particularly during the Gothic
Revival period of the 1840s, ’50s, and ’60s. Perhaps because spires were so closely associated
with picturesque eclecticism, 20th-century architects have tended to limit them to rather elementary
geometric shapes, such as the truncated, octagonal spire of St. Mary’s Cathedral (c. 1970) in San
Francisco.
A spire is a tall, slender, pointed structure on top of a roof or tower, especially at the summit of
church steeples. A spire may have a square, circular, or polygonal plan, with a roughly conical or
pyramidal shape. Spires are typically built of stonework or brickwork, or else of timber structure with
metal cladding, ceramic tiling, shingles, or slates on the exterior.
Since towers supporting spires are usually square, square-plan spires emerge directly from the tower's
walls, but octagonal spires either called for a pyramidal transition section called a broach at the spire's
base, or else freed spaces around the tower's summit for decorative elements like pinnacles. The former
solution is known as a broach spire. Small or short spires are known as spikes, spirelets, or flèches.
This sense of the word spire is attested in English since the 1590s, spir having been used in Middle Low
German since the 14th century, a form related to the Old English word spir, meaning a sprout, shoot, or
stalk of grass.
Crown spire on the High Kirk, Edinburgh(LEFT)/Chartres Cathedral. r (1144–1150) (right) The flèche of Rouen Cathedral (centre),
(151 meters), the tallest flèche in France
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The Gothic church spire originated in the 12th century as a simple, four-sided pyramidal structure on top
of a church tower. The spire could be constructed of masonry, as at Salisbury Cathedral, or of wood
covered with lead, as at Notre-Dame de Paris. Gradually, spires became taller, slimmer, and more
complex in form. Triangular sections of masonry, called broaches were added to the sides, at an angle to
the faces of the tower, as at St Columba, Cologne. In the 12th and 13th centuries, more ornament was
added to the faces of the spires, particularly gabled dormers over the centres of the faces of the towers, as
in the southwest tower of Chartres Cathedral. Additional vertical ornament, in the form of slender
pinnacles in pyramid shapes, were often placed around the spires, to express the transition between the
square base and the octagonal spire.
The spires of the late 13th century achieved great height; one example was Fribourg Cathedral in
Switzerland, where the gabled lantern and spire reached a height of 385 feet (117 meters). In England, a
tall needle spire was sometimes constructed at the edge of tower, with pinnacles at the other corners. The
western spires of Lichfield Cathedral are an example.
Spires were particularly fragile in the wind, and a number of English Gothic spires collapsed; notably that
of Malmesbury Abbey (1180–1500); Lincoln Cathedral (which had been the tallest in the world) 1349–
1549; and Chichester Cathedral (1402–1861). The spire of Salisbury Cathedral, completed in 1320 and
404 feet (123 meters) tall, without the tower, required the addition of buttresses, arches and tie irons to
keep it intact. Finally, in 1668 the architect Christopher Wren designed reinforcing beams which halted
the deformation of the structure.
Openwork spires were a notable architectural innovation, beginning with the spire at Freiburg Minster, in
which the pierced stonework was held together by iron cramps. The openwork spire, represented a radical
but logical extension of the Gothic tendency toward a skeletal structure.
1. Crown spire
Crown spires have a fully exposed structure of arches not unlike the arches of a medieval
European crown. The spire itself is supported by buttress structures.[1]
2. Hertfordshire spike
A needle-spire is a particularly tall and narrow spire emerging from a tower surrounded by a parapet. In
general, the term applies to considerably larger and more refined spires than the name Hertfordshire
spike. A Hertfordshire spike is a type of short spire, needle-spire, or flèche ringed with a parapet and
found on church-towers in the British Isles.The roofs of splay-foot spires open out and flatten off at their
base, creating eaves above the tower supporting the spire.
3. Flèche
A flèche (French: flèche, lit. 'arrow') is name given to spires in Gothic architecture: in French the word is
applied to any spire, but in English it has the technical meaning of a spirelet or spike on the rooftop of a
building.[1][2] In particular, the spirelets often built atop the crossings of major churches in
mediaeval French Gothic architecture are called fleches.
On the ridge of the roof on top of the crossing (the intersection of the nave and the transepts) of a church,
flèches were typically light, delicate, timber-framed constructions with a metallic sheath of lead or
copper.[8] They are often richly decorated with architectural and sculptural
embellishments: tracery, crockets, and miniature buttresses serve to adorn the flèche.
The most famous flèche was the Neo-Gothic 19th-century design by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc for the Notre-
Dame de Paris, 100 feet (30 meters) tall and richly decorated with sculpture. The original flèche of Notre-
Dame was built in the 13th century, and removed in 1786, shortly before the French Revolution. The
famous replacement by Viollet-le-Duc with an abundance of sculpture was destroyed in the 2019 Notre-
Dame de Paris fire. It will be rebuilt in the same form.
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4. Pinnacle
A pinnacle is a miniature spire that was used both as a decorative and functional element. In early Gothic,
as at Notre-Dame de Paris, stone pinnacles were placed atop flying buttresses, to give them additional
weight and stability, and to counterbalance the outward thrust from the rib vaults of the nave. As an
ornament, they were used to break up the horizontal lines, such as parapets and the roofs of towers. In
later Gothic, they were sometimes often clustered together into forests of vertical ornament.
TYPES
 Conical stone spires: These are usually found on circular towers and turrets, usually of small
diameter.
 Masonry spires: These are found on medieval and revival churches and cathedrals, generally with
towers that are square in plan. While masonry spires on a tower of small plan may be pyramidal,
spires on towers of large plan are generally octagonal. The spire is supported on stone squinches
which span the corners of the tower, making an octagonal plan. The spire of Salisbury Cathedral is of
this type and is the tallest masonry spire in the world, remaining substantially intact since the 13th
century. Other spires of this sort include the south spire of Chartres Cathedral, and the spires
of Norwich Cathedral, Chichester Cathedral and Oxford Cathedral.
 Openwork spires: These spires are constructed of a network of stone tracery, which, being
considerably lighter than a masonry spire, can be built to greater heights. Many famous tall spires are
of this type, including the spires of Ulm Minster (the world's tallest church), Freiburg
Minster, Strasbourg Cathedral, Vienna Cathedral, Prague Cathedral, Burgos Cathedral and the twin
spires of Cologne Cathedral.
 Complex spires: These are stone spires that combine both masonry and openwork elements. Some
such spires were constructed in the Gothic style, such as the north spire of Chartres Cathedral. They
became increasingly common in Baroque architecture, and are a feature of Christopher Wren's
churches.
 Clad spires: These are constructed with a wooden frame, often standing on a tower of brick or stone
construction, but also occurring on wooden towers in countries where wooden buildings are
prevalent. They are often clad in metal, such as copper or lead. They may also be tiled or shingled.
Clad spires can take a variety of shapes. These include:
1. Pyramidal spires, which may be of low profile, rising to a height not much greater than its
width, or, more rarely, of high profile.
2. Rhenish helm: This is a four-sided tower topped with a pyramidal roof. each of the four sides
of the roof is rhomboid in form, with the long diagonal running from the apex of roof to one
of the corners of the supporting tower; each side of the tower is thus topped with a gable from
whose peak a ridge runs to the apex of the roof.
3. Broach spires: These are octagonal spires sitting on a square tower, with a section of spire
rising from each corner of the tower, and bridging the spaces between the corners and four of
the sides.
4. Bell-shaped spires: These spires, sometimes square in plan, occur mostly in Northern,
Alpine and Eastern Europe, where they occur alternately with onion-shaped domes.
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This photo taken on October 12, 2020 shows a gardener removing a tree sapling from the exterior of the Angkor
Wat temple in Siem Reap province. - Stacking a ladder against the towering spires of Cambodia's archaeological
marvel Angkor Wat, a crack team of gardeners gingerly scales the temple's exterior to hack away foliage before it
damages the ancient facade. (Photo by TANG CHHIN Sothy / AFP) / TO GO WITH Cambodia-archaeology-
culture-conservation, FEATURE by Suy SE (Photo by TANG CHHIN SOTHY/AFP via Getty Images)
Basic form of a Hindu temple

Temple architecture have been a gradual evolution starting from the rock cut- cave temples to monolithic
rathas which finally culminated in structural temples. Before we come to the basic form of a Hindu
structural temple we must consider the following architectural steps or nuances:
Steps in Temple Construction 1. Bhu pariksha: Examining and choosing location and soil for temple
and town. The land should be fertile and soil suitable.
2. Sila pariksha: Examining and choosing material for image
3. Karshana: Corn or some other crop is grown in the place first and is fed to cows. Then the location is
fit for town/temple construction.
4. Vastu puja: Ritual to propitiate vaastu devata.
5. Salyodhara: Undesired things like bones are dug out.
6. Adyestaka: Laying down the first stone
7. Nirmana: Then foundation is laid and land is purified by sprinkling water. A pit is dug, water mixed
with navaratnas, navadhanyas, navakhanijas is then put in and pit is filled. Then the temple is constructed.
8. Murdhestaka sthapana: Placing the top stone over the prakara, gopura etc. This again involves creating
cavities filled with gems minerals seeds etc. and then the pinnacles are placed.
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9. Garbhanyasa: A pot made of five metals (pancaloha kalasa sthapana) is installed at the place of main
deity.
10. Sthapana: Then the main deity is installed.
11. Pratistha: The main deity is then charged with life/god-ness.
THE GEOMETRY OF HINDU TEMPLE Vastupurashamandala is the square which represents the
earth and the circle represents the universe suggesting timelessness and infinity (see Fig. below). The
mandala is actually a square divided into smaller squares arranged in the form of a grid. Each smaller
square depicts the area of the respective Gods. The most commonly used mandala is the square
subdivided into 64 and 81 squares. Figure-: The image of Vastupurushamandala with 64 blocks for
different deities. See my detailed article on Vastupurushamandala on academia.edu and
researchgate.net
VINYASASUTRA (LAYOUT & ORIENTATION) of Ancient Temples: In Hindu temple manuals,

design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the
simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make offerings with
Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas has a symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection,
and is also a meditative layout. The 9 pada design has a sacred surrounded center, and is the template for
the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series, but 64 is
considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. Figure-: Typical Temple Plan (a)Shrine
alone (b)Shrine with porch (c)Shrine with Antarala and porch. (d) Sarvatobhadra shrine with four
entrances Figure-: Typical Temple plan of temple : temple of Tanjavur
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Tanjavar layout plan above
The temple architecture portrays the advancement of ancient Indian building sciences. The styles, design
and geometry, structural system and construction materials and technology of the Indian temples, their
distinctive architectural styles of Hindu temples are all a ancient science emulated temple after temple. It
also focus on geometric excellence of the layout plans of the ancient temples. The balance, hierarchy,
regulation and symmetry like architectural concepts was well developed in ancient India before thousand
of years.
Tanjavar
1. Garbhagriha:
 It literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like a sanctum.
 In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance.
 Later it grew into a larger complex.
 The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of much
ritual attention.
2. Mandapa:
 It is the entrance to the temple.
 It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed at regular intervals) hall that
incorporates space for a large number of worshippers.
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 Dances and such other entertainments are practiced here.

 Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes named as Ardhamandapa, Mandapa, and
Mahamandapa.
3. Shikhara or Vimana:
 They are mountain like the spire of a free-standing temple.
 Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples.
 Shikhara has a curving shape while vimana has a pyramidal-like structure.
4. Amalaka:
 It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North Indian
temples.
5. Kalasha:
 It is the topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples.
6. Antarala (vestibule):
 Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main hall (mandapa).
7. Jagati:
 It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.
8. Vahana:
 It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or Dhvaj which
is placed axially before the sanctum.
Classification of Indian Temples
Indian temples can be classified into two broad orders as
 Nagara (in North India)
 Dravida (in South India)
 At times, the Vesara style of temples as an independent style created through the mixing of
Nagara and Dravida orders.
Introduction to the SHIKARA: During the Gupta Empire, when Buddhist practices began to fuse with
the surviving Vedic practices of pre-Buddhist times, Which lead to new and well- organized religion that
we now call Hinduism. The Gupta revival of a transformed Vedic Hinduism was a skillful exercise in
adaptation and invention. Vedic institutions were reinvented to serve the purposes of their new
champions. Old fire sacrifices were transformed into courtly ritual, oral Vedic literatures were rewritten to
integrate contemporary social and cultural norms. Vedic gods were supplanted by new, more agential and
personal gods— particularly Shiva and Vishnu.
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Sanskrit became the language of the court and the medium of an official high culture that revolved
around the reinvented institution of the temple. Though the new Hinduism challenged Buddhism
theologically, the latter’s institutions and practices were assimilated into the Hindu temple. Buddhist
practices were not prohibitedin fact, their institutions continued to thrive. By this time, the Buddhists
were themselves routinely making stone images of the Buddha.
To start with in Hindu worship, the antarala (doorway or threshold) between the garbha - griha and a
mandapa marks the all- important moment of transition at which the worshipper and the deity come
into direct visual contact and enact the critical transaction called darshana (“beholding of an
auspicious deity”). A sanctum inside the Hoysaleshwara templein Halebidu the whole temple can be
considered a two-way portal between the worlds of the worshipper and the deity. In essence, the deity
descends into the lingam or statue while the worshipper ascends to the sacred threshold. The deity is
considered to be a guest in the world of the worshipper.
The Hindu temple Temple Architecture of architecture developed over two thousand India years. It is
said thatbthe architectural evolution of the indian temples took place within the rigid frameworks
derived entirely from religious thoughtfulness. Therefore the architect was bound to keep to the
ancient primary dimensions and strict configurations, which remained unaltered over the period of
time.
The architectural elements and decorative details in the temple had their origin in the early wood,
timber and thatch buildings.It had persisted for centuries in one form or another in the stone structures
even though the original purpose and context was lost. This can be studied from the horseshoe shaped
window. The origin of this type of window can be traced from the chaitya arch doorway first at the
Lomash Rishi cave in the Barabar Hills used in the 3rd century BC.It was transformed later into a
dormer window known as a gavaksha and eventually it was used strictly as the decorative design of
interlaced forms seen on the towers of medieval temples.
The architect and sculptor were given a plenty of freedom in the ornamentation and decoration of the
temples. This resulted in an overwhelming riches of architectural elements, sculptural forms and
decorative ebullience that is the characteristic feature of Indian temple architecture has few analogues
in the aesthetic manifestation of the whole world.
The distinct architectural styles of temple construction of the north India and the south India was the
result of the broad geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic differences resulted,
from early on, in.The Vastu Shastras, the ancient canonical texts on architecture, classify temples into
three different orders: the Nagara or the Indo-Aryan or Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern
style and the Vesara or Mixed style of temple architecture.There are also definite regional styles in
peripheral areas like Bengal, Kerala and the Himalayan areas.
In the early years, when the temple building had just begun, the shape of their superstructures can
distinguish the two styles. The most significant difference between the later northern and southern
styles are the gateways. The shikhara in the north Indian temples remained the most prominent
component of the temple and the gateway was ordinarily unassuming. In the south Indian temples, the
enclosure walls were built around the whole complex.• Elaborate and often magnificent gateways
called gopurams were ideally set along the east-west and north-south axes of these walls, which led
the devotees into the sacred courtyard. Less obvious differences between the two main temple types
include the ground plan; the selection and positioning of stone-carved deities on the outside walls and
the interior, and the range of decorative elements that are sometimes so numerous as to almost
obscure the underlying architecture.
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Parts of a Hindu temple:
Examples The best examples of the north Indian style of temple architecture are the Khajuraho
Group of temples, Sun temple, Konark, Surya temple, Modhera, Gujarat and Ossian temple, Ossian,
Gujarat.
The finest examples of Dravidian style are temples of Tanjore, Madurai, Mahabalipuram, Badami,
Pattadakal and Kanchipuram.
Sarkar, Gurudas. "Notes on the History of Shikhara Temples." Rupam - an Illustrated Quarterly Journal
of Oriental Art, no. 10 (1922).
The most characteristic feature of a class of temple architecture in India is its spire or shikhara which
forms the termination of the upper portion of the body, or vimana, of the temple. In the temples of the so-
called Aryan or Āryāvarta type the spire is more or less a curvilinear one with a corrugated stone at the
top—known as the amalaka—surmounted in its turn by the kalasa or the water jar finial. In South Indian
architecture the vimana is, however, a many-storied one and, instead of the kalasa or amphora, it ends in
octagonal or domical structures. The spire lies just above the cella or garbha griha and, except in the case
of Dravidian temples with their tall gopurams or gateways, it is the most elevated part of the temple and
attracts attention from a distance. Dr. Coomaraswamy has truly remarked that in Āryāvarta style ‘the
bulging spire with carved ribs rising above the shrine’ is ‘often repeated upon itself, as an architectural
ornament.’
The origin of the shikhara is still shrouded in obscurity and we propose in this paper to consider the
various theories promulgated by scholars, in regard to the shikhara and its significance, and to attempt a
genetical account—so far as it’s possible with the materials available—with reference to the distribution
and relative antiquity of the still existing archaeological remains.
Leaving aside the Buddhist cave temples where architecture or architectonics, properly speaking, can find
no place—the oldest example of the shikhara is to be met at Bodh-Gaya—in the spire of the Mahabodhi
temple (Fig. 1). According to the generdity of opinion, the original structure is said to date from the 1st
century before the Christian era. Mr. H. Longhurst, however, believes that the Bodh-Gaya style cannot be
dated earlier than the 11th or 12th century A.D. He says that the Burmese introduced this peculiar style of
architecture into Bengal (sic) but it seems there’s little doubt that they originally borrowed it from
Southern India.1 Although the Bodh-Gaya spire has had to undergo reconstruction at a later period, we
can, from the representation of it as given in the Kumrahar plaque (Fig. 2), discovered by Dr. D. B.
Spooner, clearly make out that it originally had no curvilinear sides and that the prominent features of
Aryan or Āryāvarta class of spires were altogether wanting. Fergusson2 has observed with reference to the
spire of the Bodh-Gaya temple that “the tower took a straight-lined course like the doorway at
Missolonghi and the ‘Gates of Lions’ at Mycenae, while the Hindus took the more graceful curvilinear
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shape, which certainly was more common in remote classical antiquity and, as it is found at Persia, may
have reached India at a remote period.” The Mid-Victorian archaeologists seem to have had a special
penchant for theories relating to the alleged importation of architectural forms into India and, so far as the
curvilinear shikhara is concerned, it seems to have been in a manner countenanced even by so keen-
sighted an archaeologist as Raja Rajendra Lai Mitra.3 We shall discuss in its proper place a modern
recrudescence of this theory but in order to be able to form a correct estimate of such views it is necessary
that the earliest types of Indian spires should at first be taken into consideration.
Of the old Indian structural temples—those of the Gupta age may be mentioned as next in sequence to the
Mahabodhi shrine, though there are few points of similarity between the two classes of structures. There
is a clear gap of 3 or 4 intervening centuries which still remain unabridged. The Gupta temples, which are
met with at Eran, Bilsar,4 Sanchi, Udaygiri, Tigowa, Deogarh and Nachna-Kuthara are built of stone and
in the oldest specimens ‘the flat roof, the square form, and the stern simplicity all point to the rock-hewn
cave as its prototype.’ As Cunningham observes in regard to the Gupta temples at Sanchi, there are in the
neighboring hill of Udaygiri actual rock-hewn examples of this type.5 At Udaygiri moreover, there is a
false cave temple on one of the sides of which has been built up—the roof being a natural ledge of the
rock6. At Nachna-Kuthara (near Jaso in Central India) the Parvati temple which has a curious
conventional imitation of rock carvings on all the outer faces of its walls—apparently in the fashion of
‘old temples on the rock’—bears strong testimony to the persistence of cave features'.7 Mr. R. D.
Banerjee, Superintendent of the Archaeological Survey, Western Circle, who visited the place at the
request of the Editor of "Rupam", ascribes it to the early Gupta period i.e., to the 4th or 5th century
A.D.8 There is however another spired Gupta temple at Nachna, that of the Chaturmukha Mahadeva
which more prominently deserves our attention. At the time when General Cunningham visited the site, it
had a tall spire with slightly curved sides nearly 40 ft. in height. Mr. Banerjee, who gives a representation
of this temple in PI. XVII of his report, describes it as an earlier Gupta temple and remarks that the large
four-faced lingam of the Mahadeva is certainly earlier than the temple itself. 9 Cunningham, who tried to
be more definite in his estimate of the age of the Chaturmukha temple, says that it must be considerably
later than the other (the Parvati temple) and is probably not older than 600 to 700 A.D.10 This temple and
the spired Gupta temple of Deogarh in Jhansi District appear to have been built on the same model and
both stand on raised platforms.
Of the Deogarh temple, however, the spire—to quote from Cunningham’s Report— ‘is long in ruins
though several specimens of amalaka fruit, which forms the special ornament of a Hindu spire, are lying
about.’ Cunningham ascribes the same age to the Deogarh temple as that given to the spired temple at
Nachna-Kuthara. His main reason appears to have been that in these temples—his fifth characteristic of
Gupta temples viz. the flat roof— has given place to the spire which he regarded as one of the latest
characteristics of the Gupta style. He observes in his connection, ‘…as some of the flat-roofed Gupta
temples are certainly as late as A.D. 400, and others probably a century later, I think the Deogarh temple
cannot well be placed earlier than A.D. 600 or later than A.D. 700.”11 The discovery however by Mr. Y.
R. Gupte of an epigraphical record in characters of about the end of the 5 th century, noting a gift on the
part of one Govinda, the lord of Kesavapura12 serves substantially to disprove Cunningham’s views on
this point. Another interesting find, a clay seal (Fig. 3.), among certain seals and old relics discovered at
Parbati13 especially attracted the attention of General Cunningham as it bore the representation of
a shikhara temple with a pennon floating from the top. While this particular seal bore no date, the other
seals which were discovered at the spot were found to contain inscriptions in Gupta characters. It may
therefore be surmised that the shikhara temple depicted on the seal must have been a fairly familiar type
in the Gupta period and existed not later than the 5th century.
Among the archaeological remains of Nagari, the ancient Madhyamika, which must have been in a
flourishing condition from the 3rd century B.C. to 7th century A.D.14 is a quarry of the Gupta period,
‘exploited for the purpose of sculpture’. Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar discovered two
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unfinished amalaka pieces15 which certainly presume the existence of shikhara temples here, in about the
5th century A.D.—an epigraph of this period having been discovered in a different part of the locality.16
There are ruins of several Gupta temples also at Tigowa in Central Provinces, among which a flat-roofed
one, built in a style similar to the cave-temples at Udaygiri and the structural temples at Eran, has been
considered as the oldest by Cunningham, but there are certain other temples possessing ‘spire roofs
covered with the usual pinnacle of amalaka fruit,’ which were “undoubtedly all Brahminical as not a
single fragment of Buddhist or Jaina sculpture has been found among the ruins.’17 These temples are
believed to have been built not later than the 5th century A.D. and are probably as old as the 3rd18, and if
the earliest limit herein mentioned be taken as applicable to some of these shikhara temples also, there
would still be the period of three centuries to account for, in order to prove the Āryāvarta temple as a type
parallel and contemporaneous to the Mahabodhi.
‘shikhara is Indo-Aryan, not only, because it was mostly found in Northern India or the Ancient
Āryāvarta, but because it was introduced into India by the early Aryans and was peculiarly their own
contribution to Indian building traditions. It is sourced from Mesopotamian sources and refers to the royal
fortress palaces of analogous forms depicted in the stele of Naram-Sin, now in the Louvre (Fig. 22), and
in one of the sculptures figured in Layard's Nineveh (PI. 16, 2nd series), ascribed to the age of
Sennacherib.
While we are grateful to Mr. Havell for thus bringing to prominent notice, these shikhara-like forms of
Assyrian origin, which are undoubtedly the oldest Asiatic types known to us, we think that the
conclusions drawn by him, as regards the significance of domical forms and the shikhara-like towered
structures, are hardly warranted by fact. One of Mr. Havell's examples is drawn from Plate 17 of Layard's
Nineveh or to give the volume its full title, A second series of the Monuments of Nineveh including bas-
reliefs from the Palace of Sennacherib and bronzes from the Nimroud (London, Murray, 1854). The plate
bears this short description ‘Workmen with implements and ropes for moving a winged Bull’ (Konyunjik)
8. The attempt to associate the spire in the bas-reliefs with the Vishnu or Creator, because of the
flowering tree near it and the domical form with the Destroyer (Shiva), because of the presence of yew
trees depicted in the vicinity, seem to us to be too idealistic for a matter-of-fact study of architecture. The
symbolism sought to be imposed in this connection is clearly out of place. The main theme of the picture
is the carrying of a winged bull to the top of an artificial mound. We find in the reproduction a well-
defined channel marking a flowing stream and four carts pulled by men apparently in parallel rows. The
yew trees are to be found not only near the dome-like building, but also in the lower parts of the panel.
Yew trees and flower-bearing trees of an exactly similar type are also depicted in Plate 15 of the same
album (Fig. 23), close to a mountain ridge at the top of the picture where no architectural representations
appear. This seems clearly to point to the fact that the trees are merely of a conventional kind. The earlier
tombs might have been domical in form and the towers or the so-called shikhara structures were probably
associated with fortresses, but it is too far-fetched to draw from them any analogy as regards the shapes of
Vaishnavite and Shaiva temples.
As we have seen in the course of our enquiry, it has not been possible to trace back beyond the 5th or
6th century A.D. the authentic exellence of shikhara form in this country. It appears to be certain that as in
the case of mediaeval Chalukyan shikharas, the Indo-Aryan shikharas which were of undoubtedly earlier
origin formed no part of the original temples which were flat on the roof. Among the ancient monuments
of Aihole, has also been found a temple in which the shikhara or tower is totally different, being ‘far
more archaic looking and clumsy.’ Mr. Cousens almost admits that ‘it gives one the idea of an early stage
in the evolution of the Northern style of tower’ and the sole ground of his objection to this inference is
that it is ‘not likely that a crude attempt would be erected side by side with the perfected article.’66 In view
of the innate conservatism of the Indian master-builders exemplified in the copy of cave types and the
more primitive wooden form, this objection seems to be clearly beside the mark. Freak buildings are the
rank architectural growth of the present day and if the shikhara, in its fully developed form, had really
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been imported from abroad, there would hardly have been left any trace of early embryonic examples
among these temple-types of ancient Aryyapura. Fergusson, in his work on Indian and Eastern
architecture, was unable to trace out the origin of the shikhara beyond describing it as a ‘constructional
necessity’. He maintains however, that the shikhara temple is a sure indication ‘of the existence, past or
present, of a people of Dasyu extraction.’ Though Mr. Havell finds fault with this theory, Dr. A. K.
Coomaraswamy says with no uncertain emphasis that the later styles of architecture have clearly been
shown to be the development of aboriginal and non-Aryan structures built of wood, bamboo, thatch, etc.,
and that architecture had not made much progress among the Aryans when they first entered India. The
question is a debatable one and at present it is difficult to hold extreme views on either side. That the non-
Aryan’s predecessors of the Aryan invaders made their contributions to the common wealth of culture in
the Vedic or post-Vedic period is probable and it is certainly interesting to find in a thatched temple-hut
of the Todas, a still surviving example of aboriginal shikhara. What is still more striking is the use of a
flat stone to cover the opening at the top of the spire where certain relics are intended to be hidden away
from the public gaze.67 From its position at the top of the spire, this stone may well be regarded as the
fore-runner of the amalaka. Mr. Simpson who gives an illustration of this structure in his learned paper
on Origin and Mutations in Indian and Eastern Architecture, referred to above, is of opinion that the
circular rooms in Behar caves with dome-like roofs are the developments of these Toda huts
It may be argued that these aboriginal structures were more or less confined to certain localities in
Southern India, and, as such, were hardly likely to influence the cave constructions in ancient Magadha.
The one main significance of vimana, in fact its principal symbolic expression, seem to have escaped the
attention of the specialists in Indian architecture. The shikhara spires over the main shrines in
the sancta standing as they do for the old world zeppelin, point necessarily to their imputed celestial
origin, and also emphasizes the kindred points in their relations respectively to the human worshippers
and the heavenly deities. The spire indicates the deity’s descent to earth by means of the flying car and it
further implies that by means of the shikhara the faithful worshipper would, through his assiduous
devotion at the shrine and the religious merit accruing on the construction of the temple, be able to
ultimately reach the heavenly regions. That this idea must have been innate in the Hindu architect is
forcibly brought out in the case of two shikhara temples which the symbolism has been of a less esoteric
character.
In a 10th century temple at Tilasma in Mewar, called Talesvara, the shikhara of which is in the Guzrat
style, there is just under the amala sila a figure standing against the body of the spire with a conical cap
and a sword dangling at the right side represented in the very act of ascending. This figure has been
supposed to be that of the royal personage who built the temple and who, by means of that meritorious
act, ascended lo heaven. In both of these are prominent, miniature reproductions of shikharas serving
as vimanas, and canopying the shrines of trithankaras who are represented as figures in a sitting posture.
The symbolic presence of the shikhara implies the heavenward ascent of these Jaina saints. The
correctness of this explanation, we believe, will be readily conceded, when it is remembered that on the
recent demise of a popular Indian leader, his admirers carried his photograph on a vimana to indicate his
translation to heaven as a reward of his manifold merits.
This significance of the shikhara must be kept in mind in order to understand its wide prevalence and its
popularity, even among sectarian communities like the Jainas who crave rewards for their pious acts not
less eagerly than the Hindus. It has not been possible within the scope of this single paper to deal fully
with the many-sided problem we set before us at the commencement, and the writer will feel grateful if a
competent scholar is induced by this humble effort to take up the matter and give a further and more
satisfactory elucidation of the whole question.
Sikhara”refers to the spire or the tower. It is shaped as pyramidal and tapering representing the
mythological “Meru” or the highest mountain peak. The shikhara marks the vertical axis in the form of
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the cosmic mountain. Its purpose is to enable the worshipper to visualize the order of the complete
universe as described by Hindu cosmogony. A shikhara, therefore, is a three- dimensional model of the
Hindu cosmos. All temples culminate in a finial, the conceptual center of the structure. From there, the
“cosmos” splays outward, cascading down the building along radial lines.
Shikhara ( Śikhara), a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak", refers to the rising
tower in the Hindu temple architecture of North India, and also often used in Jain temples.
A shikhara over the garbhagriha chamber where the presiding deity is enshrined is the most
prominent and visible part of a Hindu temple of North India.
In South India, the equivalent term is vimana; unlike the shikhara, this refers to the whole building,
including the sanctum beneath. In the south, shikhara is a term for the top stage of the vimana only,
which is usually a dome capped with a finial; this article is concerned with the northern form. The
southern vimana is not to be confused with the elaborate gateway-towers of south Indian temples,
called gopuram, which are often taller and more prominent features in large temples.
The vertical axis: the mountain as a link between the upper and lower worlds The axis of access
Sikhara or tower. Shikharas conceived of as solid and are for the most part, even though for
structural reasons some may have internal hollows. The actual geometries of the shikhara are
determined by its mandala, or astrological diagram. They can best be understood ood, as Adam Hardy
has recently described, as complex assemblages of mini-temples, or aediculae, intended to depict the
composite nature of the Hindu cosmos.
During the 6th and 7th centuries, Hindu architecture in South Asia entered an experimental phase, and
rock-cut temples competed for prominence with the new structural-stone and brick temples. The
plethora of styles and approaches was a product of the numerous kingdoms, that of Harshavardhana
(606– 47 CE ) in the north, and, moving southward, the Chalukyas, the Pallavas, the Cholas, and the
Pandyas. An interesting comparison can be made between two 6th-century Gupta period temples: the
Shiva shrine on Elephanta Island, a rock-cut structure built by Shaivite monks for their own use, and
the Dasavatara Vishnu Temple at Deogarh, a brick-and-stone structure built for a large devotee
population.
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Deogarh is a new invention a shrine constructed with rock to appear as if it is monolithic (i.e., rock-cut).
The Deogarh has a representational mountain as its shikhara, begin with a square garbha-griha. Deogarh
would have had originally held an image of Vishnu, Deogarh is accessible only from the west (the
direction of Vishnu) and has three implied doors (ghana-dwaras, literally “blind doors”) along its
remaining cardinal directions. Deogarh’s main shrine is at the center of a nine-square mandala, with four
subsidiary shrines interlocked at its corners.
In North Indian temple architecture, the superstructure, tower, or spire above the sanctuary and also above
the pillared mandapas (porches or halls); it is the most dominant and characteristic feature of the
Hindu temple in the north. The North Indian shikhara is basically of two types: (1) the latina, curvilinear
in outline, the type most usually found above the sanctuary; and (2) the phamsana, rectilinear in outline
and capped by a bell-shaped member, the form more usually found above the mandapa.
The latina shikhara is composed of a series of horizontal roof slabs gradually receding toward the top
and provided with projections that extend from the base and wall of the temple. The surface of
the shikhara is covered with a vinelike tracery composed of diminutive chandrashalas
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(ogee arches). Above the truncated top (skandha) projects a necking on which rests a large grooved disk
(amalasaraka), and above it sits a pot with a crowning finial. Each story is indicated by
miniature amalasarakas at the four corners, repeated all the way to the top. The latina shikhara has two
further variations: the shekhari and the bhumija. The shekhari consists of the central latina spires with
one or more rows of half spires added on either side and miniature shikharas clustered along the base and
corners. The shekhari was popular from the 10th century onward and can be observed on most Central
Indian temples; the Lakshmana and Kandarya Mahadeva temples at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, have
excellent examples.
The bhumija variation has a flat vertical projection in the centre of each of the four sides, the quadrants
between being filled with rows of miniature shrines all the way up to the top of the tower.
The bhumija temple was particularly popular in Malwa, in the western part of Madhya Pradesh, and in the
Deccan; an example is the 11th-century Udayeshvara temple at Udayapur, Madhya Pradesh.
According to South Indian architecture texts, the term shikhara is reserved for the dome-shaped crowning
cap, though art historians have generally used the term to designate all temple spires, north and south. The
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South Indian spire, known as the kutina type, is quite different in shape from the North Indian shikhara,
having a pyramidal storied arrangement, with each story (bhumi) stepped and relatively
realistically delineated. The other forms of the Shikara are :
Sekhari. The latina shape has added engaged (attached) sub-spires or spirelets called urushringa echoing
the main shape. These may run up most of the face. There may be more than one size of these, sometimes
called secondary and tertiary. Tertiary spirelets are typically near the ends of the face or on the corners.
Bhumija. The tower has miniature spires, in horizontal and vertical rows, all the way to the top, creating a
grid-like effect on each face. The tower is generally less strongly vertical in overall shape, often
approaching a pyramidal shape. Mainly found in the northern Deccan and West India.
The early history of the Hindu shikhara is unclear, but the Buddhist Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh
Gaya has a straight-sided shikhara tower over 55 metres (180 feet) high, with an amalaka near the top.
The current structure dates from the Gupta Empire, in the 5th–6th century CE. When the temple acquired
its shikhara tower, today considered more characteristic of Hindu temples, is uncertain.
However the current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple may represent a restoration of earlier work of the
2nd or 3rd century CE. A plaque from Kumrahar dated 150-200 CE, based on its
dated Kharoshthi inscriptions and combined finds of Huvishka coins, already shows the Mahabodhi
Temple in its current shape with a stepped truncated pyramid and a stupa finial on top, together with
devotional images of the Buddha and the elephant-crowned Pillar of Ashoka next to the entrance. It is
thought that this shape of a truncated pyramid was derived from the design of the stepped stupas which
had developed in Gandhara, as seen in the stupas of Jaulian, with an elongated structure formed of a
succession of steps with niches containing Buddha images, alternating with Greco-Roman pillars, and
topped by a stupa.
By at least 600 CE in Odisha, and perhaps somewhat later in the Deccan Plateau and West India, the
Latina form of the shikhara is well-established, with an amalaka disk-stone at the top, and then
a kalasha urn. There is often a sukanasa feature over the entrance door.
The forms with smaller subsidiary spires begin in the 10th century, and from then on tend to predominate.
The Khajuraho Group of Monuments has several early forms from early in the century, though Latina
ones reappear after about 1050, in examples like the Vamana Temple. The bhumija spire probably first
appears around 1000-1025, with other temples begun in the 1050s, such as the Shiv Mandir, Ambarnath
Homogeneous Shikhara (but with rathas) of the Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar

Shikharas form an element in the many styles of Hindu temple architecture, of which the three most
common are:
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 the Nagara style prevalent in northern India. The shikhara is a high curved shape, and so called. In the
north-east, the local term deul or deula is more often used, both for towers and often the whole
temple. In Odisha a Rekha Deula is the sanctum and the tower over it; gandi is also a term for the
upper tower only, equating to shikhara. In Odisha the curve is very slight until the top, and the
amalaka rather large, typically supported by four lion sculptures facing out.[20] Of the many temples
in Bhubaneswar, only the Rajarani Temple has significant spirelets.
 the Vesara style, a synthesis of the two others, seen mostly in Karnataka and most commonly
in Hoysala and later Chalukya temples. In the vesara style, the tower moves towards a lower conical
shape, with highly ornate carving.
 the Dravidian style prevalent in southern India : The equivalent of the shikhara is the vimana. The
superstructure above the sanctum is typically more like a four-sided pyramid in overall shape,
consisting of progressively smaller storeys of pavilions (talas), with a profile that is normally straight
rather than curved. The Dravidian superstructure is generally highly ornate.
In every style of shikhara/vimana, the structure culminates with a "kalasha", or urn for offerings, or
water-pot, at its peak.
Mini Shikhara the Indian temple 'orders Indo-Aryan (north)Sculpture on a mass scale has these repeating
themselves Dravida (south) 2 types making up little structural inventiveness or technical ingenuity. These
structure of massive blocks one on top of the other ensured stability without using mortar Fine
appreciation of mass & value & effects of shadow to a marked degree can be seen here. Sikhara tower in
Nagara temples have a sloping curve as they rise • have decorative arches known as gavakshas and are
topped by an amalaka – a large fluted stone disk – and also a small pot and finial • walls of Nagara
temples present a complex exterior of projections (ratha), with seven on each side which create many
recesses.
Another name for the Shikhara is Vimana which is the structure over the garbhagriha or inner sanctum
in the Hindu temples of South India and Odisha in East India. In typical temples of Odisha using the
Kalinga style of architecture, the vimana is the tallest structure of the temple, as it is in
the shikhara towers of temples in West and North India. By contrast, in large South Indian temples, it is
typically smaller than the great gatehouses or gopuram, which are the most immediately striking
architectural elements in a temple complex. A vimana is usually shaped as a pyramid, consisting of
several stories or tala. Vimana are divided in two groups: jati vimanas that have up to
four tala and mukhya vimana that have five tala and more.
In North Indian temple architecture texts, the superstructure over the garbhagriha is called a shikhara.
However, in South Indian Hindu architecture texts, the term shikhara means a dome-shaped crowning cap
above the vimana.
A typical Hindu temple in Dravidian style have gopuram in the four directions i.e. East - main entrance,
North and south - side entrances, West - only opened on auspicious day where it is believed we will go
directly to Heaven.The temple's walls are typically square with the outer most wall having four gopura,
one each on every side, situated exactly in the center of each wall. This will continue to next tier
depending upon the size of the temple. The sanctum sanctorum and its towering roof (the central deity's
shrine) are also called the vimana. Generally, these do not assume as much significance as the
outer gopuram, with the exception of a few temples where the sanctum sanctorum's roofs are as famous
as the temple complex itself.
The kanaka-sabai (Golden Stage) at Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram, is another example. This shrine is
entirely covered with golden plates, but is different in its structure and massive in size when compared to
most other vimanas. Historical evidence states that during the ninth century, Parantaka I funded to cover
this vimana with ornamental gold and it retains its glory even today.
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The Ananda Nilayam vimana of the Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala, is a famous example where the
gopuram of the main shrine occupies a very special place in the temple's history and identity.
Meenakshi Temple has two golden vimana,[4] the huge one for Shiva and the second one for his
consort, Meenakshi.
The vimana of the Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur, is another example, with a very exaggerated height.
This form is not very common.
The Jagannath Temple, Puri, has the Neelachakra on the sikhara, i.e., the top of the vimana. It is a
representation of Vishnu's most powerful weapon, the sudarshana chakra.
The vimana of the Konark Sun Temple was the tallest of all vimana before it fell.
VIMANA
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157
FLYING TEMPLE or VIMANA

Vimana
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Vimana
The temple style was in full vigour in the wake of vast religious and cultural resurgence that took
place when the Sailodbhavas ruled from the middle of 6th century A.D till the first quarter of 8th
century A.D .The temple building activities gained momentum under the Bhaumakaras (736- 950
A.D) and the Somavamsis (950-1112 A.D) and reached the climax during the Ganga period
(1112-1435 A.D) .The activities however continued even under the Suryavamsi-Gajapatis (1435-
1542 A.D) though on a very small and impoverished scale. The Vimana in the South Indian
temple history had an interesting career. For instance, the most magnificent Vimana of the Raja-
rajeshwara temple at Tanjavur (1009 AD) rises to an imposing height of 58 meters. Another temple
of the same period at Gangaikonda-chola-puram (1025 AD) rises to a height of 48 meters.
Thereafter, in the subsequent periods, the Vimanas tended to grow shorter. But the Gopuras, the
towers that stand over the gate-ways (dwara-gopura) became increasingly ornate, complicated and
huge.
It being the most important feature of the Dravida style is that its superstructure is always in the shape of
a stepped pyramid where all its tiers are strongly visible; rather each tier is decorated with a combination
of Kuta, Panjara and Shala at intervals that distinguish the tiers.
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Unlike the Nagara tradition, the Dravida style doesn’t allow for variety in the Shikhara typologies in
general. The Dravida style was codified with fixed components. Under this, we see a completely different
form of temple architecture which is nothing but a combination of Alpa vimana, Kuta, Shala and Panjara
(refer the figure below). The Dravida style incorporates all these elements in a temple arranging them
from top to bottom on an increasing scale. The most important feature of the Dravida style is that its
superstructure is always in the shape of a stepped pyramid where all its tiers are strongly visible; rather
each tier is decorated with a combination of Kuta, Panjara and Shala at intervals that distinguish the
tiers. The walls of the Dravida temple always have pillar-couplets at intervals. However, this rule wasn’t
followed in every structure. Sometimes a niche or aedicule was carved in between those coupled pillars in
order to place a sculpture within.
The term Vimana has acquired various interpretations. Sometimes the term Vimana stands for the
temple. Often, Vimana means the tower shikara, raised to its final height above the sanctum .
But, some say that the term Vimana should, strictly, refer to the rotund structure above the series
of elevations (tala) which stand on kapota (the flat roof over the sanctum).
In other words, the term vimana, it is said, should refer to the structure between the final Tala and
the stupi, the end. The Vimana rests or is surrounded by the Kanta (neck).
Another interpretation is that Sikhara meaning mountain peak, refers to the rising tower of a
temple constructed as per the architecture of North India; and is it’s most prominent and visible
feature. While the Northern texts identify the Sikhara as Prasada; the Southern texts call them
Vimana. The Vimana is pyramid like; and Prasada is curvilinear in its outline. We may for the
present go with the last mentioned interpretation.
Among the several styles of Sikharas that obtain in temple architecture, the three most common
ones are: the Dravida prevalent in south India; the Nagara the most common style; and the third
born from the synthesis of the other two called the Vesara, seen mostly in Hoysala and later
Chalukya temples of Karnataka.
ORNATE: The Dravida style is highly ornate; the Nagara style is simpler and consists of a
curvilinear dome. In the Vesara style, the dome is highly ornate and emerges from the Sukanasi or
from the richly carved outer walls of the temple. In every style of Sikhara/Vimanam, the structure
culminates with a Kalashaat its peak.
EARLY VIMANAS: The early vimanas, in south, were circular until they ended in a point of the
finial (stupi); like the vimanam of Kadambar koil. In some cases , the flat-roof (kapota) of the
sanctum on which the tower rest and rises is overlaid by a single square stone slab known in the
text as “the stone denoting the upper passage of life” (brahma-ranhra-sila). In certain structures,
slab after slab is placed in a diminishing order with the final slab crowned by a perforated stone
ring (amalaka) giving the structure a pyramid shape.
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During the later times, the body of the Vimana tended to be more complex and multi layered rising
up in several stages (tala). Each stage of the sikhara contained within itself several layers of
mouldings depicting traditional motifs. The layers in a Tala are called Varga; and the sadvarga (six
modules) is regarded the classic version. The southern texts describe the temples as sadvarga
Devalaya. The sadvargas of a Vimana are Adistana, Pada, Prastara, Kanta, Sikhara and stupi. The
vertical expansion of the sadvarga developed into Vimanas of Dvitala (in two stages) and tritala (in
three stages) structures.
The sanctity of Vimanas was not in any manner affected by its diminished size. While the
sculptures on the outer Gopuras could house secular and even erotic themes, the Vimana had to be
austere and carry only the prescribed divinities associated with the mula-bhera in the sanctum. The
Vimana is verily the representation or the outer visible form of the murthi that resides within it;
and is revered as such. It represents the glory (vaibhava) of the deity the antaryamin who resides
within it. The Gopura on the other hand does not usually command an equal status.
The ‘Barrel-vault’ also known as a tunnel vault or a wagon vault is an

architectural design looking like an oblong wagon-top or a vault or resembling a boat placed up-
side down, is rather an old feature of the Indian temple architecture. Its curvy shape lends the
structure a semi-cylindrical appearance.
The term Valabhi could relate to the name of an ancient city located in the Saurashtra region of
Western India. It was the seat of the Maitraka dynasty who ruled the peninsula and parts of
southern Rajasthan (from fifth to the eighth century). The City of Valabhi was also a celebrated
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centre of learning, with numerous Buddhist monasteries. It might be that such architectural type
was the main characteristic of the Valabhi region, where there were numbers of Buddhist Chityas.
In the earlier periods, the temples and Stupas, which were successors to the huts, were constructed
out of brick and timber. These were generally either elliptical (Kuta) or rectangular huts with gable
roofs (Sala) made of bamboos.
In South, the centre of the sanctum, from where the divine grace flows into the Man. His effort is
the ascent towards. There, the earlier temples had taller Vimanas (say, as in Brihadisvara of
Tanjore-58 meters; Gangaikonda-chola-puram – 48 meters). But the in the temples of later
centuries, the Vimana tended to grow comparatively shorter. Over a period, the Vimanas assumed
pyramidal or curvilinear form that we are familiar with. But the Gopura at the entrance (dvara)
grew increasingly ornate, complicated, huge and monumental in size.
Thus, the Vimanas over the sanctum grew shorter or modest; and , in the process , lost their wide
vaulted- roof- the Valabhi. In contrast to that, by about the twelfth century, the Gopura (gate-
house) at the entrance grew amazingly massive, towering in pyramidal structures, as tall as up to
sixteen stories, elaborately adorned and covered with brightly coloured plethora of sculpture of and
guardian deities; and, capped at the top by an apsidal, eight-sided, or oblong, barrel vault shaped
Sala (roof) pinnacle by a series of Stupi, the temple Kalashas.
Thus, the ‘Barrel-vault’, the Valabhi, did not entirely disappear. It transformed, moved up and sat
on the top of a magnificent Gopura.
While the temple complex is designed as a Mandala with the sanctum at its heart (Brahma –
sthana); the sanctum along with the Vimana atop is itself regarded a Mandala. The image is located
in the mid-point of the sanctum which is designed as a square; that is, where its diagonals intersect
each other. This point is elevated, in a three dimensional projection, and rendered as the sthupi or
the central point of the Vimana. The Kalasha is installed at this point.
In order to appreciate the Mandala configuration of the Vimana, one could take its top-elevation;
that is, take an aerial view from directly above the Vimana. The entire structure of the Vimana
resting on a square base, projecting into the air in successive diminishing tiers and concluding into
a needle (bindu) is a Mandala resembling the Chakra. The sanctum with its Vimana, thus,
represents the worshipful (archa) form of the divinity. The different deities associated with the
mula-bhera are aligned along the four sides of the Vimana (Mandala), according to their
importance, starting with the grosser ones on the outer periphery of the Vimana (outermost layer
of the Mandala).The sthupi , the central point , the needle of the Vimana being the bindu of its
Mandala configuration.
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The crowning glory of the Brihadeeswara temple is the staggering cupola of the Vimana comprising
two huge, sculpted, granite blocks weighing 40 tonnes each. The engineering skills and the expertise
that made the mounting of these huge stones atop a structure that is nearly 200 feet high must have
been way ahead of their times. Legend says that the stone was brought from Sarapallam (scaffold-
hollow), four miles north-east of the city, using a specially designed ramp.
Vertically the vimana is organized by pilasters that break up the facade of the base, creating spaces
for niches and windows in between. However, the temple departs from southern Indian convention
in one significant way: the vimana is taller than the gopura (gateways) of the temple’s walls.
Normally the gopuras are taller than the vimana.
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Rajendra Chola who built the temple
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The Vimana rises to a height of abut 216 feet, a tower of fourteen storeys. The basement of the
structure which supports the tower is 96 feet square. The gilded Kalasa over it is 12.5 feet high. It is
believed the sikhara and the stupi does not throw on the ground. The dome rests on a single block of
granite, 25.5 feet square.
The architects and engineers attribute the stability of the massive temple to its pyramidal structure.
They say it is more robust than its counterparts from north India with their complex curvilinear
profiles.
Another fine example of the Chola temple architecture is the temple in Gangaikondacholapuram,
which succeeded Tanjore as the capital of the Chola Empire. The Vimanam of this temple, in
contrast to the rigid pyramidal structure of the Brihadeeswara temple, rises up in a concave
manner with fluid lines. The tallest Sikhara of a Hindu temple, it is said, is under construction at
Mayapur in west Bengal. The temple when completed (say by 2014) will be 35 stories tall and
almost as high as the great pyramid in Giza.
Kalasha
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The crowning glory of the Vimana is its Kalasha, the vase. Some say it is reminiscent of the life
giving Amrita-kalasha that emerged out of the milky ocean when it was churned. Kalash
symbolizes blessings and well-being.
In the development of the Indian temple this feature appears to have arrived rather late. The early
kalashas were perhaps made of stone blocks, round or ribbed. They might have been in the nature
of cap-stones that structurally held the tall and tapering vimana, as in the North Indian temples.
The copper and brass vases seem to have been the later innovations; and the agama books favor use
of copper vases.
Kalasha has several members, such as “the foot-hold” (padagrahi) which is its foothold, the egg
(anda) or the belly, the neck (griva), the lotus-band (padma-pashika), the rim (karnika) and the
bud (bija-pura). The shape of this unit could resemble the bell, the flower bud, the lump, coconut,
alter or pot. all these shapes symbolize the potential and the possibilities of life.
Interestingly, the Kalasa placed on top of the Vimana, it is said, is not imbedded into the structure
by packing it with mortar or cement. It is, in fact, placed in position by a hollow rod that juts out of
the centre of the tower and runs through the vase, the Kalasha. It is through this tube that the
lanchana‘tokens’ (cereals and precious stones) are introduced. One of the explanations is the
hallow tube represents the central channel of energy the Shushumna that connects to the Sahasra,
the seat of consciousness, through the Brahma randra. This is completes the analogy of the temple
to the purusha ot to the human form.
Kalasha, the pot, on top of the Vimana has an important hidden component, the golden person
(suvarna purusha) who is regarded the personification of the temple-spirit. The belly of the Kalasha
contains a tiny cot made of silver, copper or sandal; over which is laid a soft feather mattress. A
tiny golden icon holding a lotus flower and a triple flag rests on that cot. Four tiny pots made of
gold, silver or copper containing consecrated water are placed on the four sides of the cot. There is
also a tiny pot of ghee near the cot. This entire procedure of introducing the “golden-person “into
the Kalasha is known as hrudaya-varnaka-vidhi.
Another kalasha is deposited under the sanctum. And, like the one on top of the Vimana, this
Kalasha also contain tokens of growth and prosperity, viz., cereals with subtle seeds (such as millet)
and nine types of precious stones. The womb, the icon and the sthupi the finial run along the same
axis.
There are a few other symbolisms associated with the Kalasha. The structure of the Kalasha
resembles an inverted tree; and is almost a replica of the “womb” buried under the sanctum. Both
are described as roots. The one at the bottom urges upward growth; while the one atop is the root
of the inverted tree.
The earliest specimens of Dravida tradition are present in the form of brick shrines in Ter, Maharashtra
and Chezarla, Andhra Pradesh.
Under the constant cultural influx from north India, the south Indian temple architecture evolved out of
the pre-existing secular architecture prevalent in the region. The earliest specimens of Dravidatradition
are present in the form of brick shrines in Ter, Maharashtra and Chezarla, Andhra Pradesh.Both were
Buddhist sites, most probably Chaitya halls later converted into Hindu shrines. These shrines feature
apsidal types of Alpa-vimana crowned by a barrel roof Shala covering and they are dated around the 3rd to
4th century CE.
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Ter Temple, Maharashtra
Components of
Dravida Shikhara or Vimana
We see variations in the heights and details of the fixed superstructural elements. However, we do see
some different types of roof forms in the famous rock-cut Pancharathas at Mahabalipuram carved out
under the Pallava dynasty most probably in mid-7th CE or earlier. These types of roof forms can be
basically assigned to the early form of Dravida temple architecture. Texts like Mansara, Mayamatam and
Kashyapa Shilpa talk about the Dravida style in greater detail.
ukhamandapa attached to it. The roof form is complex as compared to Draupadi Ratha. It is aDvitala or
two-tiered Shikhara adorned with a Vimanam and elements like Kuta, Shala and Panjara.
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Draupadi and Arjuna Ratha at

Mahabalipuram (Source: Wikipedia)
The Bhima Ratha is a long rectangular shrine with an Ektala barrelled roof or Shala Shikhara. The
presence of ornate columns on all sides gives a sense of circumambulation path within of Sandharaplan.
The Nakula-Sahadev Ratha is a different type of monolithic shrine with a Gajaprishtha roof; shaped like
an elephant back adorned with two ornate columns.
Bhima Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Source: Wikipedia)

\
Parts of a Dravidian Temple Vimana:
1)Sopana Marga: The staircase to enter the Garbha Griha. South Indian Temple Stair cases are flanked on
both sides with Yali (Vyala) Figures
2)Upa Pitha: Sub Base of the Garbha Griha
3)Adhishthana: Base to support the wall of Garbha Griha
4)Simhaavari: Band of Lions
5)Paada: Wall of Garbha Griha
6)Koshtha: Miniature Temples on external wall of Garbha Griha with Avataras of Main deity
7)Prastara: Area between pillars & Roof – Entablature
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8)Vyaalaavari: Band of Vyaali figures

9)Haara: Parapet looking like the Necklace
10)Koota: Square Miniature shrine on Haara region
11)Shaala: Rectangular Miniature Shrine on Haara Region
12)Tala: Storeys. Eka Tala (1 Storey), Dwitala (2 Storey), Tritala (3 Storey)
13)Tala Vahana: Vahana of Main deity on the Top Storey
14)Griva: Neck of the Vimana
15)Kudu: A motif that appears like Gavaksha (also called Naasi) – An horse shoe shaped Arch
16)Shikhara: The main tower of the Vimana
17)Stupi: The Finial (Final) of the Vimana - Kalasa
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Evolution of Hindu Temples Architecture in Orissa
Etymologically the term temple is derived from the Latin word ‘Tempulum’ which in its original
sense means a square or a rectangular place marked out by the augur for the purpose of worship. In its
primitive sense this word corresponds to a place marked off as sacred to a God, in which the house of
God may be erected.
The shrine or the abode of the God has different nomenclatures. In ancient Sastras or literature the temple
is referred as Devagriha, Devalay, Devakula, etc. In the Vastusastra the North Indian temples are known
170
as Prasada while as the Southern Indian temples are known as Vimana, Harmya and occasionally as
Prasada. The term ‘mandira’ for the first time occurs in Banabhatta’s Kadambari, a text of 7th century
AD.
The temple architecture in India had its humble beginning right from the Mauryan period, i.e. 3rd century
BC, as evident from the archaeological excavation at Sanchi (Madhy Pradesh, temple no. 40 and 18) and
Bairat (Rajasthan). However, it gained momentum in the Gupta period. The temple no.17 at Sanchi and
temple no.1 at Udayagiri near Vidisa were the earliest examples of temple architecture, which blossomed
during the Gupta period.
The Indian Silpasastras recognize three main types of temples known as the Nagara, Dravida and Vesara.
Nagara temple belongs to the country from the Himalay to the Vindhy, Vesara from the Vindhy to the
Krishna, and the Dravida from the Krishna to the Cape Camorin. However, an inscription of 1235 AD in
the mukhamandapa of the Amritesvara temple at Holal in Bellary distrct of Karnatak speaks of a fourth
style, i.e. Kalinga, in addition to the above three. Pratistha Lakhsyanasara Samuchaya by Vaivochana, a
Silpa text of 11th-12th century AD, mentions Kalinga temples as of rekha order. Indigenous texts like
Bhubana Pradip, Silpa Prakasa, Silpa Ratnakosha, etc. deals exclusively with the Kalingan style of
architecture. These silpa text of Orissa mentions three types of temples, rekhadeul, pidhadeul and
khakaradeul.
The rekha and pidha form two component parts of one architectural scheme, the former is represented by
a sanctum with its curvilinear spire and the latter by the frontal porch having pyramidal roof of receding
tires known as pidhas. In the earlier phase, there was no pidha deul and the Jagamohan or the frontal hall
had a by a flat roof. In course of time to meet the growing need of the rituals two more structures were
added namely natamandapa (dancing hall) and bhogamandapa (offering hall) during the Ganga period
(12th century). All the four components are arranged in one axial alignment and often the temple complex
is enclosed by a prakara (boundary) wall. The khakara order is noted by a semi-cylindrical vaulted that
looks like a inverted boat (boita) or a pumpkin gourd roof. The temples of this order are usually meant for
Sakti worship.
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Orissan temples constituted a sub-style of the Nagara style of North Indian temples. The building
activity of this sub-regional style continued for nearly one thousand years from the 6th-7th century to the
15th-16th century AD in unbroken continuity. Bhubaneswar, the ancient Ekamra Kshetra served as the
experimental ground of these temple building activities without being distracted by the change of ruling
dynasties or their cult affiliation. As a result, the temples are identified with the land Kalinga rather than
the royal families such as Pallava art, Rastrakuta art, Chandella art, Chalukyan art, etc. It is worthwhile to
mention here that temple building activities of another tradition were prevalent in ancient Orissa, as
attested by epigraphic evidences. Hathigumpha inscription (line-17) of the 1st century BC described
Kharavela as the “repairer of all shrines of Gods” (sava-devayatana- sankara-karako). From the village of
Asanpat in Keonjhar district, a stone inscription records the construction of a temple by Maharaja
Satrubhanja, who is ascribed to 3rd-4th century AD.
The Orissan temple is remarkable for its plan and elevation. The interior ground plan of the temple is
square as a rule. Rarely, however the temple has a star-shaped layout (as noticed at Boudh) or circular
plan (Ranipur-Jharial & Hirapur) to conform to the nature of rituals. Generally speaking, the Orissan
temples are distinguished by vertical offset projections called rathas (on plan) or pagas (on elevation).
Depending on the number pagas, the temples are classified into triratha, pancharatha, saptaratha and
navaratha. The earlier temples are characterized by a triratha plan.
On elevation, the temples show interesting features. Both sanctum and the porch can be divided into three
parts along the vertical plane viz. bada, gandi and mastaka. From bottom to top or final, each part of the
temple has a special name corresponding to that of limbs of the human body standing on a pista or the
platform on which the temple stands (which is not a compulsory element in early temples and is generally
found in later temples).
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The bada or the vertical wall portion of the temple is divisible into pabhaga, jangha and baranda. This
type of three-fold division of Triangabada is found in early temples and in later temples. Bada has five
elements namely pabhaga (or the foot portion is composed of five mouldings called khura, kumbha, patta,
kani and basanta), tala jangha (lower thigh), bandhana (mouldings joining the two thigh), upara jangha
(upper thigh) and baranda (the waist portion). The baranda, forming the top most part of the bada has a set
of mouldings, starting with one moulding in the early phase progressing into seven and ten mouldings in
the later and last phases of the classical tradition. The gandi (or the torso) of deul has a curvilinear super
structure; in the temples of early phase gandi is devoid of any sculptural embellishment.
Fully developed temples have ornamental bhumis, chaity motifs and angasikharas (miniature shrines).
The gandi of jagamohana is of pyramidal shape (designed with receding tiers in a sequence so as to
reduce the top most tier to the half of the lower tier). The mastaka (the head) consisted of the beki (neck)
or recessed cylindrical portion above gandi, amalaka (ribbed circular stone, resembling the amla fruit),
khapuri (skull), kalasa ( auspicious pot) and the ayudha (weapon of the enshrined deity) in succession.
The mastaka of the pidha deul has the same features except for the addition of ghanta (bell). The
horizontal cross- section of the bada and gandi in both the rekha and the pidha deul are square, while the
mastaka is circular. The ground plan of khakhara deul is oblong. The temples are remarkable for
abundance of sculptures. Stella Kramarisch has aptly remarked, “Architecture in Orissa is but sculpture
on a gigantic scale”. The sculptural repertory consists of human figures, kanyas, erotic motifs, cult icons,
animal figures including mythical and composite figures, decorative designs like variety of scrolls and
architectural motifs like pidha mundi, khakhara mundi, vajra mundi, etc.
The temple style was in full vigour in the wake of vast religious and cultural resurgence that took place
when the Sailodbhavas ruled from the middle of 6th century A.D till the first quarter of 8th century A.D
.The temple building activities gained momentum under the Bhaumakaras (736- 950 A.D) and the
Somavamsis (950-1112 A.D) and reached the climax during the Ganga period (1112-1435 A.D) .The
activities however continued even under the Suryavamsi-Gajapatis (1435-1542 A.D) though on a very
small and impoverished scale.
To a keen observer, the temples of Orissa portray a picture of organic evolution from Parasuramesvara to
Lingaraja through Muktesvara and Vaital, which ultimately culminated in Puri and the gigantic Konark.
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The evolution can be seen through four distinctive phases of temple building; viz. i) Formative phase, ii)
Transitional phase, iii) Mature phase, iv) Phase of decadence.
Formative Phase:
The period in between the 6th century AD to the first half of the 9th century AD is considered as the
formative phase that synchronized with the rule of the Sailodbhavas and early phase of Bhauma-karas.
The representative temples are Lakshamaneswar, Bharateswar, Satrughaneswar, Swarnajaleswar,
Parsurameswar, Mohini and Kapalini. Of these, Parsurameswar assigned to the 7th century is the best
preserved specimen of the early phase. Its triratha vimana has a rekha sikhara. The jagamohana is a
rectangular pillared hall with a terraced roof sloping in two tiers. The graha architrave has eight grahas
with the absence of Ketu. Temples of this period are triratha on plan with a central graha offset and two
corner projections. On elevation Bada is triangle, with three divisions, i.e. pabhaga, jangha, and baranda.
Pabhaga or the foot portion consists of three mouldings of khura, kumbha and pata. Gandi became a
gradual curveture and started from of the sikhara unburdened by any angasikhara. The temples are of
small and moderate height. Baranda is terminating in a recessed kanthi. Absence of dopicha simha in the
beki, below the amlaka, absence of Dikpalas, absence of baby on the lap of Matrikas. The sculptures are
in low relief, flattish and entrusted on the surface of the stone, beginning with disproportioned and rigid
limbs assumed flexibility and proportion during the Bhauma-kara period.
Transitional Phase:
The temple activities entered into a transitional period in the second half of the 9th century that continued
up to the first quarter of the 11th century under the rule of the later Bhauma-karas and the first half of the
rule of the Somavamsis (Kesharis). The temples of this period are Vaital (khakhra deula), Sisireswar, and
Markandeswar in Bhubaneswar and Bringesvara at Bajarkot (District Angul), Swapaneswar at Kualo
(District Dhenkanal), Siva temple at Badgaon, Simhanatha temple in an island of Mahanadi river at
Gopinathpur (District Cuttack), twin Hari-Hara temple at Gandharadi District Baud, Varahi temple
(khakhara deul) at Churasi (District Cuttack).
The notable feature of the period was the introduction of rampant erotic sculptures due to the influence of
Vajrayana philosophy. Mukteswar at Bhubaneswar, which is considered as the gem of Orissan
architecture, was the last monument of the period. Mukhasala or the jagamohana became an inseparable
element with a perfect and natural joining of the vimana with jagamohana without the crude overlapping
of the sanctum decoration as seen in the formative phase. Both the structures were conceived as a uniform
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complex in the original plan. Towards the end, the plan and elevation of the mukhasala transformed from
a rectangular flat roof to a square hall with a pyramidal superstructure. Pabhaga had four mouldings.
Introduction of naga-nagi pilasters and chaitya medallions as decorative motifs, introduction of the vyala
and jagrata motifs in the jangha portion, baranda recess is carved with base-reliefs, kanika is divided into
fife horizontal bhumis (storey) by bhumiamlas.
Parsvadevata images are carved of separate single stone unlike the earlier tradition of blocks of stones that
constitute a part of the temple wall. Sculptural treatment of the interior part (particularly the ceiling)
which is a characteristic feature of the Somavamsis period and not noticed in the earlier or the later
temples, Matrikas carry babies on their lap. Finally Ketu was added to the list of planets, which became a
permanent feature of the graha panel in the temples of the subsequent period.
Mature Phase:
The building activity attended its maturity towards the middle of the 11th century (Somavamsis) that
continued till the 13th century (Gangas). The temple architecture developed further under the
Somavamsis, which can be traced through a series of temples like Rajarani, Brahmeswar, and finally the
Lingaraj that presents the Orissan temple style at its best. The building tradition was continued by the
Gangas who are credited with the construction of the great Jagannath temple at Puri, Chateswar temple at
Kakudia (District Cuttack), Sobhaneswar temple at Niali District, Cuttack, Drakshaprajapati at Banapur, a
few shrines at Bhubaneswar, the magnificent Konark temple (District Puri), marks the grand climax of the
Orissan style. The features are quite discernible as given in the discussion.
Bada is devided into five segments, i.e. pabhaga, talajangha, bandana, upara jangha and baranda. Pabhaga
has five mouldings (khura, kumbha, pata, kani and basanta). Gandi is embellished with angasikharas
(miniature temples) of diminishing size as they rise upwards.
The pagas projections are fully developed and prominently articulated. Amlaka sila is supported by
deulacharinis or seated divinities and dopicha simhas being set in the beki. Introduction of structural
motifs like pidhamundi, khakharamundi and vajramundi are in the jangha portion. The sculptures of this
period are excellent in their plasticity and modeling includes non-iconic female figures. These are more
proportionate, elongated and in alto-relievo. In the iconography of the cult deities new elements were
introduced with profusion of female figures, Ketu in a serpant body and Hanuman head in latter phase,
projected lion (udyota simha) on the Rahapaga. Pista and platform became a regular feature. Natamandap
and Bhogamandap were added to the Jagamohan. Introduction of subsidiary shrines in front of the
parsvadevata niche. Introduced of vahanastambha in front of the temple. Appearance of the female
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counter parts of the dikpalas on the uparjangha.
Phase of decadence:
After the Gangas during the 14th to 16th century AD under the Suryavamsi-Gajapatis, the temple building
activities entered into a phase of decadence. The great period of Orissan temple architecture came to halt
with the crowning achievement at Konark. The Suryavamsis, who succeded the Gangas remained
preoccupied with political problems and could not give much time for temple building. Of the few
temples, the temples at Kapilesvara at Bhubaneswar belonged to this period.
Towards the later part of the 15th century AD impoverishment was noticed. Pidha deul became the choice
for both vimana and the jagamohana. The building materials are mostly laterite. The walls of the temple
are devoid of sculptural embellishment and decoration. Such insolvency was also noticed in the
decoration of doorjambs, which also largely remained plain. Thus the temple building activities that
started during the 6th century AD reached its climax during the Ganga Period started declining during the
Gajapati. The most important factors for the declines of temple building activities are a lack of royal
patronage and decline of Hindu power. Whatever it may be, till recently Orissa has possessed a rich
temple heritage which is the imprints of our ancestor, still existing with the ravage of time. These are the
pride of Orissan people in particular and that of India in general. These are the most compact and
homogenous architectural group in India.
From the scholarly article of By: D.B. Garnayak
South-East Asian Hindu temples
Prambanan in Java, Indonesia (9th century) and Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century), examples of Southeast Asian
Hindu temple architecture. Both temples were modelled after Mount Meru in Hindu cosmology.
Possibly the oldest Hindu temples in South East Asia dates back to 2nd century BCE from the Oc
Eo culture of Mekong Delta from southern Vietnam. They were probably dedicated to a sun god, Shiva
and Vishnu. The temple were constructed using granite blocks and bricks, one with a small stepped pond.
The cultural sphere often called Greater India extended into South-East Asia. The earliest evidence trace
to Sanskrit stone inscriptions found on the islands and the mainland Southeast Asia is Võ Cạnh
inscription dated to 2nd or 3rd century CE in Vietnam or in Cambodia between 4th and 5th-century
CE. Prior to the 14th-century local versions of Hindu temples were built in Myanmar, Malaysia,
Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. These developed several national traditions, and often
mixed Hinduism and Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism prevailed in many parts of the South-East Asia,
except Malaysia and Indonesia where Islam displaced them both.
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Dravida and Nagara architecture on which the Khemer DESIGN is base
Dravidian (South Indian) Hindu Temple Architecture compared with Thai and Cambodian Khemer
design(Wat Chaiwatthanaram, an example of Thai Khmer style prang built by Jayavarman II)
Of the different styles of temple architecture in India, the Nagara architecture of northern India and
the Dravidian architecture of southern India are most common. Other styles are also found. For example,
the rainy climate and the materials of construction available in Bengal, Kerala, Java and Bali Indonesia
have influenced the evolutions of styles and structures in these regions. At other sites such
as Ellora and Pattadakal, adjacent temples may have features drawing from different traditions, as well as
features in a common style local to that region and period. In modern era literature, many styles have been
named after the royal dynasties in whose territories they were built.
Feature Nagara architecture Dravidian architecture Khemer
Vimana that may be

Main temple
Sikhara above sanctum multistorey (talas), the top of
spire (tower)
which is called the sikhara
Mandapa spire
Yes No
(tower)
Curvilinear centred over the Straight-edged pyramidal,

Curvature of
sanctum, also straight- sometimes curvilinear centred
the spire
edged pyramidal over the sanctum
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Typically single (Vimana may

Sanctum Single or multi-storey
be multi-storey)
Mandapa, sanctum and

tower plans are
predominantly Chaturasra (
square);
Plan uncommon: Ashtasra, Vritt same, plus Prana Vikara
a, Ayatasra, Ayata
Ashtasra, Ayata
Vritta, Hasti
Prishta, Dwayasra Vrita
Characteristic, but not

essential; after 10th century
often higher than the vimana.
Gopuram Not a prominent feature
May be several, on all sides of
the compound, serving as
landmarks for pilgrims
sacred pools, many pillared

sacred pools, fewer pillared
mandapas in temple grounds
mandapas in temple
(used for rites of passage
grounds (separate
ceremonies, choultry, temple
Other features dharmashala), prakara walls
rituals), prakara walls became
rare (e.g. Odisha after 14th
common after 14th century,
century), single or multiple
single or multiple entrances
entrances into temple
into temple
Tamil (upper and lower

Major sub- Latina, Phamsana, Sekhari,
Dravidadesa), Karnata,
styles Valabhi
Andhra
northern, western and

southern parts of the Indian
Geography central of the Indian
subcontinent, southeast Asia
subcontinent
178
Chronology of
Late Kushana era, early
surviving Late Gupta era: rudimentary;
Gupta: rudimentary archaic;
stone-masonry 6th-10th century: zenith
6th-10th century: zenith
monuments
Southeast Asia as part of Greater India

Architecture of the southeast nations was inspired by the Indian temple architecture, as those
were Indianised as part of the Greater India.
Champa architecture
The profile of the 13th-century Po Klong Garai Temple near Phan Rang includes all the buildings typical
of a Cham temple. From left to right one can see the gopura, the saddle-shaped kosagrha,
and mandapa attached to the kalan tower.
Between the 6th and the 16th century, the Kingdom of Champa flourished in present-day central and
southern Vietnam. Unlike the Javanese that mostly used volcanic andesite stone for their temples,
and Khmer of Angkor which mostly employed grey sandstones to construct their religious buildings,
the Cham built their temples from reddish bricks. The most important remaining sites of Cham bricks
temple architecture include Mỹ Sơn near Da Nang, Po Nagar near Nha Trang, and Po Klong Garai near
Phan Rang.
Typically, a Cham temple complex consisted of several different kinds of buildings.[76] They are kalan, a
brick sanctuary, typically in the form of a tower with garbahgriha used to host the murti of deity.
A mandapa is an entry hallway connected with a sanctuary. A kosagrha or "fire-house" is a temple
construction typically with a saddle-shaped roof, used to house the valuables belonging to the deity or to
cook for the deity. The gopura was a gate-tower leading into a walled temple complex. These building
types are typical for Hindu temples in general; the classification is valid not only for the architecture of
Champa, but also for other architectural traditions of Greater India
Indonesian architecture
Prambanan, an example of Indonesian temple architecture
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Prambanan temple (Shivagrha) of Central Java, an example of the 9th century Indonesian Javanese Hindu temple
architecture with mandala layout and prasad tower crowned with stylized ratna-vajra.
Temples are called candi in Indonesia, regardless of whether it is Buddhist or Hindu. A Candi refers to a
structure based on the Indian type of single-celled shrine, with a pyramidal tower above it (Meru
tower in Bali), and a portico for entrance, mostly built between the 7th to 15th centuries. In
Hindu Balinese architecture, a candi shrine can be found within a pura compound. The best example of
Indonesian Javanese Hindu temple architecture is the 9th century Prambanan (Shivagrha) temple
compound, located in Central Java, near Yogyakarta. This largest Hindu temple in Indonesia has three
main prasad towers, dedicated to Trimurti gods. Shiva temple, the largest main temple is towering to 47
metre-high (154 ft).
However, the term "candi" itself is derived from the Sanskrit word Candika, one of the manifestations of
the goddess Durga as the goddess of death
The candi architecture follows the typical Hindu architecture traditions based on Vastu Shastra. The
temple layout, especially in central Java period, incorporated mandala temple plan arrangements and also
the typical high towering spires of Hindu temples. The candi was designed to mimic Meru, the holy
mountain the abode of gods. The whole temple is a model of Hindu universe according to Hindu
cosmology and the layers of Loka.[80]
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The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones, spanned from the less holy to the
holiest realms. The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognize the concept of arranging
elements in three parts or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout of the temple follows
the rule of space allocation within three elements; commonly identified as foot (base), body (centre), and
head (roof). They are Bhurloka represented by the outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each
temples, Bhuvarloka represented by the middle courtyard and the body of each temples,
and Svarloka which symbolized by the roof of Hindu structure usually crowned with ratna (sanskrit:
jewel) or vajra.
Khmer architecture
A diagram map of Angkor Wat reveal the concentric square galleries. On the right is an aerial view of the central structure of
Angkor Wat, in front of it lies the cruciform terrace.
Before the 14th century, the Khmer Empire flourished in present-day Cambodia with its influence
extended to most of mainland Southeast Asia. Its great capital, Angkor "Capital City", derived from
Sanskrit "nagara", contains some of the most important and the most magnificent example of Khmer
temple architecture. The classic style of Angkorian temple is demonstrated by the 12th century Angkor
Wat. Angkorian builders mainly used sandstone and laterite as temple building materials.
The main superstructure of typical Khmer temple is a towering prasat called prang which houses
the garbhagriha inner chamber, where the murti of Vishnu or Shiva, or a lingam resides. Khmer temples
were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle; this
arrangement represented the mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods.
Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple itself. The
walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries, while passage through
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the walls is by way of gopuras located at the cardinal points. The main entrance usually adorned with
elevated causeway with cruciform terrace.
The Hindu texts on temple architecture have an extensive terminology. Most terms have several different
names in the various Indian languages used in different regions of India, as well as the Sanscrit names
used in ancient texts. A few of the more common terms are tabulated below, mostly in their
Sanscrit/Hindi forms:
Term Explanation Image
stylobate, plinth, base typically with mouldings on the side, on

Adhisthana
which a temple building or pillar stands
a crowning ornament on the top of shikara, shape of an

Amalaka Indian amalok fruit that looks like a cogged wheel. The amalaka
supports the kalasha.
lit. interior space of any building; in temples, it is the

Antarala intermediate space (vestibule, antechamber) between the
sanctum and space where pilgrims gather
Ardhamandap half hall at each entrance, usually the reception area that
a connects to the mandapa
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Ayatana assembly hall, grounds inside a temple or monastery compound
a projection often aligned to one of the cardinal directions;

Bhadra typically of central part of walls; decoration or a projected porch
for pilgrims; also may be a tower storey projection
a mythical dwarf or goblin usually with a protruded belly and

Gana
with humorous expression
The womb-house, adytum, sanctum sanctorum; it is the loci of

the temple and the darshana, the spiritual space that Hindus
circumambulate clockwise about. This is where the
Garbhagriha
main murti image is placed. Usually the space is very plain, with
no distractions from the murti, which is rich in symbolism. A
large temple may have many shrines, each with a garbhagriya.
one of the arch motifs; it is horseshoe-shaped, found with

Gavaksha
windows or for decorating spires, pillars and other elements
a gateway at entrance or one that connects two sacred spaces

of the temple; becomes very large in South Indian temples,
Gopuram
which may have several; it has roots in ancient Indian
monasteries and the Vedic word gomatipur;[89]
183
Hara neck ornament such as necklace
Jala a trellis, stone grille, net, first seen in 6th-century temples
any moulded base or pedestal for the temple or a statue that

Jagati extends out, part of platform that forms a terrace to stand on or
circumambulate around on, while reading the reliefs and friezes
Kalasha the pinnacle element of a temple, a vase finial, cupola or pitcher
temple tank, stepwell, pool, usually with steps, public utility for
Kunda taking a dip; often connected to a nearby river or mountain
stream
184
liana, creeper-style plant, vine, one type of scroll work; also

Lata
found on sikhara
a mythical fusion sea creature with fish-crocodile like face, trunk

Makara or snout, legs sometimes with lion claws and a tail; vahana
of Varuna
pillared hall or pavilion, with pillars usually carved; a mandapa is

typically square, rectangle, octagonal or circular; it may have
walls with perforated stone windows, it may just be open on
some or all sides. Large temples may have many
Mandapa interconnected mandapas. It is a gathering place, a place for
pilgrims to rest (choultry), a part of the circumambulation space,
or to wait during prayers or Sanskara (rite of passage) rituals. A
mandapa may have a tower (shikhara) of its own, but it is lower
than that above the sanctum.
Mulaprasada main shrine in a temple complex
Nisha niche on temple walls or in pillars for sculptures or stele
the art of arranging images and friezes to create a narrative or

composition, in some texts it refers to relative placement of
Nyasa
images within a panel to summarize a Hindu legend or fable;
also a form a ritual.
185
wall that separates an inner zone of temple ground from an

outer zone; typically concentric, defensive and fortified, a
Prakara
feature added after the wars and plunders starting in the 14th-
century
entablature, horizontal superstructure of bands and moldings

Prastara above column capitals, sometimes functions as a parapet of a
storey
a facet or vertical offset projection on the plan of the sanctum

and shikhara above, or other structure. It is generally carried up
from the bottom of the temple to the superstructure. A ratha,
Ratha meaning cart, is also the temple chariot used for processing the
murti at festivals, and a "ratha temple" is one designed to
resemble a cart, with wheels on the sides, and often horses.
The most famous example is the Sun Temple, Konarak.
Round barrel-roofed, wagon-roofed pavilion; rooted in the

thatched roofed stall for people or cattle tradition, then other
materials of construction; any mansion or griha; a pilgrim
services building with mandapas or pillared veranda or both
Sala
inside the temple complex, Hindu texts describe multi-storey
Sala; in south, sala are structures used as a decorative motif, or
an actual roof, as at the top of gopurams; rooted in ancient
thatched roof styles.
186
In North India, the tower above the sanctum (entire spire above
Sikhara/Viman
mulaprasada); in South India, that top part of tower that is
a
above the vimana
A pillar; it can be a load bearing element or an independent

standing element with diya (lamps) and Hindu icons below,
Stambha around and / or on top; the designs vary significantly by region,
in Kerala Hindu temples they are at the entrance; on festive
occasions the wick lamps are loaded with oil and lit up.
an external ornamented feature over the entrance to

the garbhagriha or inner shrine. It sits on the face of
Sukanasa
the sikhara tower (in South India, the vimana) as a sort
of antefix. Can refer to the antarala below as well.
Tala tier or storey of a shikhara, vimana or gopuram
any arch or canopy motif, ornament or architectural member in

Torana
temples and buildings; it also refers to an arched gateway
subsidiary turret-like shikharas on the side of the main shikhara;

Urushringa
the primary turret is called shringa
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Single storey gopura (Dravidian architecture)/ Two storey gopura (Dravidian architecture)/
Entablature elements/A vimana with mandapam elements (Dravidian architecture)
Thai - Khemer temples
Wat Chaiwatthanaram, an example of Thai style prang
The first prangs in Thailand were built in Phimai and Khao Phnom Rung and Lopburi between the early
10th century and the late 12th century, when the Khmer kingdom was dominant.
After the Khmer Empire collapsed, the Thai building masters of the Sukhothai Kingdom adapted the
Prang form. They extended and developed it. The building material was no more separate small sandstone
blocks, instead the Thais built the Prang in brick or laterite covered with stucco. And the cella could be
reached only by stairs. An example for this is the Prang of the Wat Mahathat in Phitsanulok. Later
developments of the Prang suggested the cella only. The entrance door became a niche, in which was
placed the Buddharupa (Buddha statue), which had originally taken the central position inside. For
reasons of symmetry the niche was repeated on all four sides. On its pinnacle was a Trishul, the "weapon
of Indra".
A "more modern" Prang is a slim construction, like an ear of corn, which lets its Khmer origin be only
suspected. The best example is Wat Arun, the landmark of Bangkok. Also Wat Phra Kaeo has six thin
Prangs arranged in a row. Another example is the four Prangs arranged in all four directions around Wat
Pho in Bangkok, and the five Prangs in Wat Pichayart in Thonburi.
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Angkor’s greatest monument, Angkor Wat, is the culmination of centuries of temple

building, design innovation and artistic refinement, which wa s first experimented on
smaller temples. One such temple was located at Vimayapura, a frontier town in today’s
Nakhon Ratchasima province in northeast Thailand. This is important because ancient
Angkor is not just a single city in Cambodia, but a collectio n of cities scattered over
Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Thailand.
These cities were connected to each other by a network of royal highways that allowed
easy transport and human migration. Vimayapura was located on one of the longest
highways—250 km—connecting Angkor’s capital at Yashodharapura to the Khorat
Plateau. Many temples and arogyashalas (hospitals) dot this strategic route, including at
Phanom Rung, Prasat Muang Kao, Prasat Huay Khaen, Prasat Muang Tam and Prasat
Phanom Wan. The road continued further west to Lopburi, a major outpost of Angkor in
the Chao Phraya River basin.
Vimayapura was initially a provincial capital but came into relevance in the late eleventh
century when a power base was established there by Jayavarman VI (r. 1080 –1107 CE).
Jayavarman VI was not a legitimate claimant to the throne but had usurped it from
Harshavarman III (r. 1066–80 CE), whose reign was fraught with internal rebellions and
war with the Chams. This brought a new dynasty to power, and, for a period, Angkor was
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probably ruled simultaneously by two dynasties: one from the capital at Yashodhar apura
and the other from Vimayapura. This new dynasty, Mahidharapura, produced many later
kings, including Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat, and Jayavarman VII.
Vimayapura’s name is derived from Vimaya, a Sanskrit word meaning ‘one who has
overcome the desire of maya (the illusion/misperception of reality)’, referring to the
Buddha.
Vimayapura was not located in the heart of the empire, but far away, bordering the Mon
kingdoms at Haripunjaya (modern Lamphun) and Lavo (modern Lopburi). Vimayapura’s
location may have played a key role in how the new dynasty patronised religion. From the
sixth century onwards, the Khorat Plateau was part of Dwaravati kingdom, which
had developed a highly syncretic culture through longstanding contact and trade with
India, Sri Lanka and Myanmar. Both Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism was widely
followed by the largely Mon -speaking population of Dwaravati, which finds a mention in
the memoirs of Xuan Zhang, the Chinese monk who travelled to India from China in the
seventh century.
Jayavarman VI commissioned a temple to enshrine an image of the Buddha. Conceived as

a Vajrayana Buddhist shrine, the temple had Tantric elements and other esoteric forms,
never seen at Angkor thereafter. An inscription on a doorjamb of the south ern gopuram
mention a local chieftain, Virendradhipativarman, installing an image of the Vajrayana
Buddhist deity Trailokyavijaya in 1108 CE. The presence of Vajrayana and Tantric
elements make the Vimayapura Temple unique amongst Angkor’s temples, which t ill that
point were exclusively Hindu. The original Buddha image —mentioned in inscriptions as
Kamarateng Jagata Vimaya—is now on display at the Phimai Museum.
However, though a Buddhist temple, the design and sacred geometry of the temple is in
accordance to the Hindu Shilpa Shastras. The temple is a manifestation of Mount Meru,
considered the epicentre of the physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes in Hindu,
Jain and Buddhist cosmology. The main temple has a mandapa (congregation
hall), antarala (antechamber) and garbagriha (sanctum sanctorum); architectural elements
of a Hindu Temple. The shikhara (tower) has dikpalas (guardian of the directions),
Garudas (mount of Lord Vishnu) and Nagas (serpents). Exterior bas -reliefs depict scenes
from the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, and events from the life of Sri Krishna and
Lord Shiva. Sculptural elements depicting Buddha’s life are found only in the interior, but
much smaller in scale.
Though the temple is indeed notable for this syncretism, it looks awkward and forced. The
reason for this lack of harmony is not clear. The dominant culture at Angkor was Hindu,
centered around veneration of the Devaraja (god -king) which manifested in a royal lingam.
Buddhism, though widely practiced by the population and e ven by some rulers, did
not enjoy the same patronage as Hindu cults. It is possible the Mahidharapura dynasty did
not want to break from the long-established Hindu traditions, hence though they
commissioned a Buddhist shrine, it retained the iconography an d design principles of a
Hindu temple.
More structures were added by the next king Dharanindravarman I (r. 1107–12 CE). His
successor, Suryavarman II (r. 1113 –50 CE), expanded the empire and reunited political
authority at Angkor. He patronised the Hindu god Vishnu, to whom he dedicated Angkor
Wat, the largest religious monument in the world. Suryavarman II was greatly impressed
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by the graceful lotus form of the shikara at Vimayapura Temple and used that template for
the five central towers at Angkor Wat, built in the same century, a few decades later.
Jayavarman VII (r. 1181–1218 CE), the first king to majorly patronise Buddhism in
Angkor, commissioned two towers flanking the Vimaya Temple. A devout Buddhist, he
had a statue of himself installed in the t emple, now shifted to the Phimai Museum. He also
constructed 17 arogyashalas (hospitals) along the royal highway. Jayavarman VII’s reign
saw hectic building activity, but in doing so, he had overstretched the resources of the
empire, and Angkor saw a steady decline by the mid-thirteenth century.
This period of Angkor’s slow decline also saw the emergence of the Tai people as strong
challengers to Angkor’s authority in the Chao Phraya River basin. The Sukhothai kingdom
rebelled against Angkor, and Vimayapu ra was later absorbed within the Ayuthhaya
kingdom. Unfortunately for Angkor, the Thais used the same highway network to make
repeated raids on Angkor’s capital, which, in 1431 CE, was shifted further south, and
thereafter the empire survived as a rump sta te. With Angkor’s decline, Vimayapura also
suffered a decline, and the temple was abandoned. The site was destroyed in a raid made
by Laotians in the nineteenth century.
It was during the period of Thai rule that Vimayapura was renamed Phimai, and the tem ple
was termed a prasat (palace). In 1964, a new museum was built in Phimai town to store
artefacts recovered from the temple site. Between 1964 –69, the Royal Thai Government
and French archaeologists jointly restored the damaged shikara by the anastylosi s method.
In 1976, the Fine Arts Department undertook a restoration project of the temple site and
historical structures in Phimai town, and the Phimai Historical Park was officially
inaugurated by Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn on April 12, 1989.
Prang : ព្ាង្គ
A prang is a tall tower-like spire, usually richly carved. They were a common shrine element
of Hindu and Buddhist architecture in the Khmer Empire. They were later adapted by Buddhist builders
in Thailand, especially during the Ayutthaya Kingdom (1350–1767) and Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–
1932). In Thailand it appears only with the most important Buddhist temples.
The term prang is a compound of the Sanskrit terms pra- ('forward, in front') and aṅga (limb of the
body), with the contacting vowels united by sandhi.
Prang tower took form of a multi-tiered structure with receding size as it ascends. The receding size of
almost identical roof structures of the stepped pyramidal tower, creates a perspective illusion as if the
tower is taller than it actually is. The form of the tower is a reminiscent of Indic shikhara of Hindu temple,
although slightly different in design. On each cardinal points, a prang usually has richly
adorned tympanum and lintel above doorways or blind doors. The prang took plan of multi corners
rectangular, which on top of each roof steps are adorned with antefixes, which mostly took theme of
multi-headed Nāgas, Garuda or deities.
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Khmer
The central prang of Angkor Wat temple symbolizes the mount Meru.
Originally the Khmer prang temples were for the worship of the Hindu gods, such as Shiva and Vishnu.
The space within the prang tower, the cella, was relatively small for two reasons:
1. The rituals which were held in them were reserved for a small elite (in the capital of the Khmer
only the god king could enter the shrine).
2. The technology of the Khmer could not yet make large airy halls. (Ringis, 1990)
The cella was entered via a small porch, usually aligned to the east, which was called the Mandapa. Over
the cubic cella rose the central tower, the bud-shaped prang, modeled after the cosmic mountain Meru,
crowned by a top stone in form of a lotus bud.
The Khmer prangs resembled north Indian temples' shikhara and rekha (temple towers) elements. The
early 10th century and the late 12th century prangs in Thailand were influenced by the Khmer architects
of the great temple complexes of Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom.
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The temple was galleried – meaning it progresses upwards through a series of galleries - giving ample
room for the designers to explore the cultural, religious, and temporal history of the people. The outer
gallery of the temple stretches for over 1,960 feet (600 m) covered in these reliefs. Angkor Wat was
designed to represent the world with the four corners of the outer wall anchored at the four corners of the
earth and the moat representing the surrounding oceans. Scenes from everyday life, mythological tales,
religious iconography, and royal processions all wind themselves around the façade.
At the western entrance, a large statue of eight-armed Vishnu has been placed in the present day to
receive visitors who place offerings at his feet in supplication or in gratitude for prayers answered. The
central sanctuary of the temple is aligned north-south to the axis of the earth, and the Vishnu statue once
stood in the center, making clear that Vishnu was at the heart of all earthly and divine occurrences. The
galleries, according to some scholars, were used for astronomical observations and were built specifically
for that purpose so that astronomers could clearly view the rotation of the heavens in the night sky. There
is no doubt the site was linked to astronomical observances as it is precisely positioned to mirror the
constellation of Draco, the dragon, which represents eternity because it never sets.
Transformation & Decay
THE BUDDHIST CRAFTSMEN ADDED TO THE INTRICATE STORY OF THE TEMPLE

WHILE TAKING NOTHING AWAY.
Angkor Wat was rededicated as a Buddhist temple in the 14th century CE and statues of the Buddha and
Buddha-related stories were added to the already impressive iconography. As the Buddhists respected the
beliefs of the Hindus who still worshipped there, all of the original statuary and artwork was left in place.
The Buddhist craftsmen added to the intricate story of the temple while taking nothing away.
By the early 16th century CE, use of the temple had waned, even though it was still occupied by Buddhist
monks, and it became the subject of stories and legends. It was said to have been built by the gods in the
distant past and a popular story emerged that the god Indra had built it as a palace for his son and that it
rose from nothing in the course of a single night. The temple was protected from the surrounding jungle
by the immense moat and so, unlike other ancient temples and cities (such as those of the Maya of
Mesoamerica) it was never completely lost.
Even though local people still visited the site, it became increasingly associated with hauntings and dark
spirits. The great enthusiasm of devotees who used to visit the temple, it was said, needed to be continued
to infuse the area with positive energy. Once worship at the site fell off, the dark spirits, attracted by the
afterglow of the high energy, moved in and made the place their home. Dark energy was now thought to
emanate from the empty galleries, porches, and entranceways, and fewer and fewer people went to visit.
With only a few monks to care for it, the buildings began to decay and even though it was never
completely taken by the jungle, natural growth made headway up the walls and through the cracks
between the stones.
Western Discovery & Restoration

The temple did not sit quietly for long, however. In western documents, Angkor Wat was first visited by
the Portuguese monk Antonio da Madalena in 1586 CE whose notes on the complex clearly convey his
sense of wonder. He made no efforts at restoring the site, or even suggesting it, but recorded its location.
The next westerner to visit was the French archaeologist Henri Mouhot c. 1860 CE. Mouhot is always
cited as the man who "discovered" Angkor Wat but, actually, it was never lost. Anyone who lived in the
area knew of the site, and it was known in legend by people far off.
Mouhot was, however, the first westerner to take an active interest in Angkor Wat and publicize its
existence. He was so impressed by the temple that he devoted himself to its renovation and restoration.
Mouhot believed the temple had been built by some ancient civilization now lost and considered the
stories of how Indra had raised the structure in a night to be evidence of an ancient culture's lost
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technology. He refused to accept that it could have been built by the ancestors of the Cambodians he
interacted with on a daily basis in exactly the same way that westerners c. 1850 CE rejected the notion
that the great cities and temples of Mexico and Central America could have been built by the Maya.
Main shrine Shikara EAST face and FRONT face to RIGHT :Picture
Hindu temples in South-East Asia developed their own distinct versions, mostly based on Indian
architectural models, both North Indian and South Indian styles.[24] However, the Southeast Asian temple
architecture styles are different and there is no known single temple in India that can be the source of the
Southeast Asian temples. According to Michell, it is as if the Southeast Asian architects learned from "the
theoretical prescriptions about temple building" from Indian texts, but never saw one. They reassembled
the elements with their own creative interpretations. The Hindu temples found in Southeast Asia are more
conservative and far more strongly link the Mount Meru-related cosmological elements of Indian thought
than the Hindu temples found in the subcontinent. Additionally, unlike the Indian temples, the sacred
architecture in Southeast Asia associated the ruler (devaraja) with the divine, with the temple serving as a
memorial to the king as much as being house of gods. Notable examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple
architecture are the Shivaist Prambanan Trimurti temple compound in Java, Indonesia (9th century),] and
the Vishnuite Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century).
How many buildings are in Angkor Wat? thousand buildings 1150 to be precise: The vast religious
complex of Angkor Wat comprises more than a thousand buildings, and it is one of the great cultural
wonders of the world. Angkor Wat is the world's largest religious structure, covering some 400 acres (160
hectares), and marks the high point of Khmer architecture.
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Pointed Shikaras
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Flattened but spirev like Shikaras with no klash. Kalash is absent in Angkor temples or has been knocked
down
10 Largest Temples in the World

Although roughly defined as a structure reserved for religious or spiritual activities not all religions use
the word temple. In the Western Christian tradition temple is rarely used for example so these churches
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and cathedrals will be excluded. In contrast, in the Eastern Christian tradition the word temple is used
very frequently.
Second what measure of size to use? According to the Guinness World Record the Akshardham Temple
is the largest Hindu temple in the world but this is disputed by at least 3 other temples in India which are
all claimed to be the largest temple. These temples are often part of a larger complex which makes it even
less clear. In this list I’ll focus on the main temple (if any) to determine which is the largest temple in the
word.
10. Baalbek
flickr/upyernoz
Baalbek, also called Heliopolis, is a spectacular archaeological site in northeastern Lebanon. From the 1st
century BC and over a period of two centuries, the Romans built three temples here: Jupiter, Bacchus and
Venus. Created to be the largest temple in the Roman empire, the temple of Jupiter was lined by 54
massive granite columns. Only 6 of these titanic columns remain standing but even they are incredibly
impressive. The best preserved temple at the site is the Temple of Bacchus built in 150 AD. The temple is
69 meters long and 36 meters wide. Its walls are adorned by 42 Corinthian columns, 19 of which remain
upright in position standing 19 meters (62 feet) high.
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9. Temple of Christ the Saviour
flickr/akk_rus
One of the most imposing and controversial buildings in Moscow, the resurrected Temple of Christ the
Saviour has had a short but turbulent history. It was originally commissioned after the defeat of Napoleon,
but construction did not begin until 1839. In 1931 it was blown to pieces by orders of Stalin to make way
for a proposed Palace of the Soviets, which was never built. In 1990, the Russian Orthodox Church
received permission to rebuilt the cathedral. Completed in 2000, the new cathedral is loosely based on the
original design, but constructed with modern building materials. At a height of 105 meters (344 feet) it is
the tallest Orthodox church in the world.
8. Temple of Saint Sava
flickr/Jorge-11
The Temple of Saint Sava in Belgrade is the largest Orthodox church building in the world. It is dedicated
to the founder of the Serbian Orthodox Church. The construction of the church began in 1985 and was
mostly completed by 2004. The internal decorations are still not finished. In English, it is usually called a
cathedral because of its size and importance but it is not the seat of a bishop and therefore technically not
a cathedral. In Serbian it is called a hram (temple). The church is 91 meters (299 feet) long from and 81
meters (266 feet) wide. It is 70 meters (230 feet) tall, with the main gold-plated cross on top of the dome
extends the church for 12 more meters (39 feet). It has a surface area of 3,500 m2 on the ground floor.
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7. Tikal (Temple IV)
Tikal was the largest Mayan city between ca. 200 to 900 AD with an estimated population between
100,000 and 200,000 inhabitants. Tikal contains 6 very large step pyramids. The largest, Temple-pyramid
IV, is some 72 meters (230 feet) high and was finished around 720 AD. Temple IV is the largest temple
built anywhere in the Maya region, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the
Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have
been one of the jungle covered pyramids at El Mirador.
6. Jetavanaramaya Stupa, Srilanka
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Located in the city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, the Jetavanaramaya is the largest stupa in the world if
measured by volume. The temple was built by king Mahasena in the 3rd century AD and took 15 years to
complete. Approximately 93.3 million baked bricks were used in the construction. With a height of 122
meters (400 feet), Jetavanaramaya was the third tallest structure in the world behind the pyramids of Giza
at the time of its completion. The diameter of the dome itself is approximately 95 meters (312 feet).
5. Sri Ranganathaswamy, INDIA
flickr/Melanie M
Dedicated to Lord Ranganatha (a reclining form of Lord Vishnu), the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple in
Srirangam is an important shrine that receives millions of visitors and pilgrims every year. With an area
of 156 acres (6,31,000 m²), the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple is one of the largest temples in the world.
In fact, the temple can be easily termed as the largest functioning Hindu temple complex in the world.
The oldest structure of the temple dates back to the 10th century. There are 21 gopurams (tower), among
which the Rajagopuram is the biggest temple in South India. It is 73 meters (240 feet) in height, and dates
from the 17th century, although it was only completed in 1987.
4. Akshardham Temple,Delhi INDIA
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Completed in 2005 by the spiritual organization BAPS, no expense has been spared in decorating the
Akshardham temple. The building was inspired and moderated by Pramukh Swami Maharaj, the current
head of Swaminarayan Hinduism. The central monument is 43 meters (141 feet) high, 96 meters (316
feet) wide, and 110 meters (370 feet) long, and is covered top to bottom with carved details of flora,
fauna, dancers, musicians, and deities. It is constructed entirely from Rajasthani pink sandstone and
Italian Carrara marble, and has no support from steel or concrete.
3. Borobudur, Java
Located on the Indonesian island of Java, 40 km (25 miles) northwest of Yogyakarta, the Borobudur is
the largest Buddhist temple in the world. The temple was built over a period of some 75 years in the 8th
and 9th centuries by the kingdom of Sailendra, out of an estimated 2 million blocks of stone. The
Borobodur can be divided into three groups: base, body, and top, which resembles the three major
division of a human body. The base is a 123×123 meters (403.5×403.5 feet) square in size and 4 meters
(13 feet) high of walls. The total surface area is approximately 2,500 m2. The body is composed of 5
square platforms each with diminishing heights. The top is a monumental stupa with a main dome at the
center . The dome has a height of 35 meters (115 feet) from the ground level.
2. Karnak (Great Hypostyle Hall)
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Although badly ruined, few sites in Egypt are more impressive than Karnak. It is the largest ancient
temple complex in the world, and represents the combined achievement of many generations of Egyptian
builders. Karnak actually consists of several temples. One of most famous structures of Karnak is the
Hypostyle Hall, a hall area of 5,000 m2 (50,000 sq ft). The 134 massive columns arranged in 16 rows
supported a roof that has now fallen. At a height of 24 meters (80 feet) the 2 middle rows are higher than
the others.
1. Angkor Wat Temple
Angkor s a vast temple complex in Cambodia featuring the magnificent remains of several capitals of the
Khmer Empire, from the 9th to the 15th century AD. These include the famous Angkor Wat temple, the
largest temple in the world. The Angkor temple stands on a raised terrace above the rest of the city. It is
made of three rectangular galleries rising to a central tower, each level higher than the last. The outer
gallery of the Angkor Wat temple measures 187 x 215 meters (614 x 705 feet). After this, the next two
galleries are connected to each other. On the second level, it measures 100 x 115 meters (328 x 377 feet).
The inner gallery is a 60 x 60 meter (197 x 197 feet) square area. The tower above the central shrine rises
65 meters (213 feet) above the ground.
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
UDAY DOKRAS
The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He
was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human
Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday Inn;was General Manager-Health Human
Resources at the Lata Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant
to Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of
Business Management and Research, Nagpur.
In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a multi

millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of
Science, Bachelor of Arts(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done
his Graduate Studies in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a
MBA from USA, and Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he
has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.
A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth
Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5 years.
In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was
invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of
Seychelles.
Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the
English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English.
SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.”
RESEARCH PAPERS-320 + in Researchgate and academia.edu & scribd

Followers(readers) 65,000 consolidated as on 26 th September,2020.
203
Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS
Dr. Uday Dokras

B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India
Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada,
MBA, CALSTATE,Los-Angeles, USA,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Management and Efficacy Consultant, India
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Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and offer success and
failure factors guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students in global project
marketplace.
Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN
205
From the Newspaper Times of India March

24, 2018
206
Iceland Sweden both countries use the English Text SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in
which is about Dr Uday Dokras
207
Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Instituye of Architects, New Delhi INDIA

releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA
gimes( May 2010)
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209
210
211
Some of my books
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213
214
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Some of the 80 BOOKS BY DR UDAY DOKRAS

Published by
The Indo Swedish Author’s Collective Stockholm
The Indo Swedish Author’s Collective Finland
Dr. Uday Dokras
Tamil People as Traders and Voyagers
216
The Cambodian Trilogy
I.HINDU CAMBODIA
II.HYDROLOGY of ANGKOR
ANGKOR is known as a Hydraulic city- full or canals and river and
waterways. It is this water system they say that brought the downfall of this
intrinsic kingdom. But is that TRUE?
III.ENTER…… THE KINGDOM THAT

VANISHED- Angkor
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Building Materials of the Hindu Temple

Indo Nordic Author's collective, 2021
In depth study of how Building Materials of the Hindu Temple was used in
India,Indonesia and Cambodia and India
The Art & Architecture of THE GOLDEN TEMPLE

COMPLEX, AMRITSAR
Mathematics in Temple Designs
218
Jain ART
Book on Jain Art and Iconography
Jain Temples- Part I -Complete Compendium-

Book I
A to Z of the architecture, Design,Cosmology,Philosophy of Jain temples in
Jain Temples II
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARCHITECTURE OF JAIN TEMPLES AND THE
ACTUAL PHOTOGRAPHS(ORIGINAL) OF 3JAIN TEMPLES of Nagpur
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DWARKA- CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the Lost

CITY of KRISHNA
TIRUPATI TEMPLE Book part I
TIRUPATI TemplePart II
Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods

Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods. Animals in Hinduism. demi Gods
220
SATYANARAYAN PUJA-The Complete Compendium

Satyanarayan Puja or 9 Graha Puja( a puja of 9 planets) has been
performed by most Hindus not only now but for 1,000’s of years.
MAHALAXMI Puja
Hindu Goddess MAHALAXMI Puja
ARCHITECTURE OF PALESTINE
Palestine my Love
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Palestine my Love is about the culture arts and crafts of palestine so we

recognize it as a entity that is fighting for recognition of not only its
legitimacy but also its cultural heritage
QUINTET (5) BOOKS ON MANDALA
Unravelling the MAZE of the MANDALA BOOK I

First part of a two book treatise on MANDALAS. This introductory phase
introduces mandalas
Maze of MANDALA BOOK II

Advanced Mandala routine for those who want to know more about
MANDALAS
Mandala BOOK III on Nakshatra
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BOOK IV MANDALA & ARCHITECTURE

The Use of Mandalas in Building Temples and Modern Buildings
Book V on Mandala of the Oriental Kingdoms
Islamic Architectureal Arts of of Imam Ali's 2

Shrines
Hindu Gods in Scandinavia

223
Did the Hindu Gods originate or live in Scandinavia once? Find out
Book on Divinity and Architecture

What is divinity? How has man tried to harness architecture to create magic
in space
Virat Hridaya Padma-sthalam CHIDAMBARAM

Temple -Celestial Mysteries
This book is about a mysterious and revered tempe built by the Chola
Kings of South India 2000 years ago
T2- Temple Tech. A Book

How are Hindu temples built and the technology that follows this craft.
From A to Z Complete Guide.
224
Rendezvous with Sri RAM Portfolio of Temple Art

by Srishti Dokras, Architect Special section on
Hindu Foods by Karan Dokras, Product Guru
Best Foot Forward

The story of Footwear through the ages up to COVID times
Hindu Temple Panorama-Celestial Mysteries

A to Z of Temples. A total Panoramic View of design and architecture of
Hindu temples in 350 page...
225
DUOLOGY (2) on JAINISM

Ativir
ATIVIR means Very Brave and is the name given to Lord Mahavir the 24 th
Saint(TIRTHANKAR) Contains rare translations of the Dialogue of the
Mahavir with his disciples called GHANDHARVAVAD
Vardhaman-वर्धमान
IThis book is about Jainism- written by a non-
THE TRILOGY(3) on DEVRAJA The God kIngs of

Khemer
Book I DEVRAJ- The God Kings of Indo China-

Cambodia.
This is the first Book of a Trilogy that traces the growth of Hinduism in
South East Asia.
BOOK I I DEVRAJA- The Great Civilizations of

South East Asia -HINDU Era
226
How Hinduism reached Cambodia and how the Hindu Kings called Devraj
Built these magnificent structures
Devraja BOOK II I Devraja and Raj Dharma God

King and Kingly Religion The HINDU Era of
Great Civilizations of Khemer
Book 2 of a Trilogy that traces the advent of Hinduism on South East Asian
and Indo-Chinese
Vayu- Man's taming of the winds

Man's conquest of nature spans a million years. How was wind tamed by
him. Here is the full story... more
VIMANA Ancient Conquests of Wind
227
Ancient flying machines of Gods and Men(?) Were they true. Did they really
exist. 7000 years ago?
LIGHT HOUSES In words and pictures
BOOK Architecture of the Lighthouse of

Alexandria-BOOK
Indo Swedish Author's Collective, 2020
The lighthouse was built on an island off the coast of Alexandria called
Pharos. Its name, legend
Cosmology of lotus
Indo Nordic Author's Collective, 2020
The Lotus is the king of the flower world but few know it as a part of
creation. Find out the Cosmology.
228
Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple

Borobudur remains a mystery even today. The largest Buddhist Stupa in
the world has many unanswered...
Win with this new DIET
Hindu tempel of India , Cambodia and Indonesia

Hindu Temples dot India, Cambodia and Indonesia
DISRUPTION-Book
Book Architecture Creativity

Creativity and Architecture are linked and go hand in hand. This Book is a
culmination of 16 publications that have been put together as a book
229
Project HR Management
Indo Swedish Author's Collective
PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT/'Dr UDAY DOKRAS The
project sphere has not been valued appropriately
Human Resource Engineering in Theme Parks.

by Dr. Uday Dokras and Mansse Bhandari
As theme parks evolve into facilitating for greater thrill seeking
audience,the role of human res... more
Health Human Resource Management

Management of Health care workers in hospitals and the human resource
practices to be followed in hospitals.
230
WIN DIET Lose fat-Diet and Exercise Book ONLY

BODY SHAPING GUIDE YOU NEED
The Act on Co-determination at Work – an Efficacy

study
Thesis of the Author for the degree of Doctor of Law
Stockholm University, SWEDEN 1990
Later Bookks by the Authors
231
Alexander Arendering on taking into account all inscriptions and details
Nagpur’s Prolific and Successful Writer
Dr. Uday Vasant Dokras, son of the later Principal of VNIT Dr. Vasant Dokras, has
proved his mettle in writing; making history and India proud. He has written, 80
books since 1990 and 400 Technical and research papers/ articles. His books adorn
many international Libraries such as Royal Swedish Library, European Union,
Harvard University, StanfordUniversity amongst others-as well as the US Library of
Congress, Washington DC.
Recently, he has co-authored a Trilogy on Palestine with Australian Islamic Studies

Research author Muhsin Dadarkar who hails from Konkan but settled in Sydney
since past 40 years. Muhsin has sold Dr Dokras books to 6 arab countries and will be
translated in Arabic. Dr Uday’s other books have been translated into Portugese(
Brazil) and French. The French editions will be sold on Googlebooks(French).
His expertise on Hindu temples in Bharat and Cambodia is unmatched on which he

has written 22 books and 180 papers. His work can be read on academia.edu. Dr
Uday together with his daughter Srishti who lives in Seattle,USA heads and operate
the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective- which gives budding author’s a chance to get
published.
He co-authors with professors from Norway, USA, Reunion (France) and Museum
Curators from USA . His brief life sketch is part of the English study text books of 7 th Class
232
Students in Sweden -“Studying English. SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8 th Class students in Iceland -
“SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.”A first for an Indian.
To celebrate 5 lakh readers of his books ( Half Million) , Shri Joginder Singh Uberoi
our Chartered Accountant felicitated him at the Gondwana Club.
Shri Uberoi at left and Dr Dokras at Right
Half Million Readers to Dr Uday Dokras’

books. & Technical Papers and articles
233
Dr Uday DOKRAS-Srishti DOKRAS
The Curious Capitals of the

Greeks
And other essays on Indo- GRECIAN
Art and Architecture
234
The Golden Spires of Angkor
235

Lighthouse of Angkor

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Dr U.

DOKRAS PhD Stockholm

Dr UDAY DOKRAS Ph D Stockholm, SWEDEN

CHAPTER I-Angkor The Surprising Discovery page 4

The first Western visitor to Angkor

António da Madalena a Portugese frair visited and stayed in

“On one of the sides of this town there were incomplete

Henri Mouhot's diary

Bernard-Philippe Groslier became the first European to visit Angkor after a

It “is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a

Stranded in the jungle

Mind boggling Angkor

Helen Churchill Candee's classic 1024 AD tale of Asian adventure Angkor-

As laser-mapping technology becomes more readily available, perhaps archaeologists

1.Mahendraparvata: an early Angkor-period capital defined through airborne laser scanning at

King Suryavarman II/Angkor Wat

Lost Cities Of The World

13. Troy – Çanakkale

1. To talk of the Glory of the empire

THE LIGHTHOUSE AT ALEXANDRIA

The Lighthouse of Alexandria

Dr. Uday Dokras

Golden age of Khmer Civilization

Jayavarman VII – Angkor Thom

Jayavarman VIII – the last blooming

LIGHTHOUSE to the EMPIRE

The many LIGHTHOUSES of the South East Asian skies

The Role of Astronomy at Angkor Wat

3. THE ROLE OF ASTRONOMY IN THE “ANOMALOUS” ORIENTATIONS OF TWO

4. The Solar Numbers in Angkor Wat

8. Solstice Alignments at Angkor Wat and Nearby Temples-Connecting to the Cycles of

10. Equinox at Angkor Wat (ព្រឹត្តិការណ៏សមរាព្ត្ីនៅអង្គ រ),Sophia,

12. Astronomy and Cosmology at Angkor Wat,Parag

PlanetQuest: The History of Astronomy

The architecture of Angkor Wat also has numerous

 The central tower at Angkor Wat contains nine inner

Aspara in Moon light Central tower of Angkor Wat, Cambodia

Angkor Wat – The Bas-Relief Galleries

Based on material from

Types of Relief Sculpture

INVITING THE GALLERY OF BAS-RELIEFS

A bas-relief in a tympanum at Banteay Srei shows Indra releasing the rains in an

 bas-reliefs in the tympana at Banteay Srei (10th century)

Angkor Wat Bas-Reliefs

Narrative and exquisitely carved

Elaborate bass-reliefs on the lower-level gallery

West Gallery, South Section: Battle of Kurukshetra

right side.Raging Battle

Battle of Kurukshetra bas-relief depicting melee of Kaurava and Pandava warriors

South Gallery, West Section: Procession of King Suryavarman II

Suryavarman II as the King

Bas-relief of Khmer King

Suryavarman II as the Commander-in-Chief

A commander riding an elephant in the procession of King Suryavarman II

The image shows an army commander standing majestically on an elephant. He is

Narakas – Punishing the Sinners

According to Hindu mythology, a naraka is designed to punish a specific type of sin.

East Gallery, South Section: Samudra Manthana

East Gallery, North Section: Vishnu’s Victory over Asuras

A section of the Gods

North Gallery, East Section: Krishna’s Victory over Banasura

Krishna riding Vishnu’s

North Gallery, West Section: Battle between Gods and Asuras

Vishnu riding Garuda