ITALIAN LITERATURE

Landforms
• Southern Europe is made up of three peninsulas: Spain and Portugal on the
Iberian Peninsula, Italy on the Italian Peninsula, and Greece on the
southernmost part of the Balkan Peninsula.
• Andorra, San Marino, and Vatican City are smaller countries in the interior, while
the island nations of Malta and Cyprus serve important functions in the
Mediterranean Sea.
• Mountain ranges like the Pyrenees and the Alps form a natural border with
Northwestern Europe.
Southern Europe is made up of three peninsulas: Spain and Portugal on the Iberian Peninsula,
Italy on the Italian Peninsula, and Greece

on the southernmost part of the Balkan

Peninsula.
Andorra, San Marino, and Vatican City are smaller countries in the interior, while the island
nations of Malta and Cyprus serve important functions in the Mediterranean Sea.

European State-Building
 2nd half of 15th century = began to recover from the plague and rebuild its population
 State-building occurred as Europe rebuilt politically
 Fragmented system of many separate, independent, and highly competitive
states
 Examples: Spain, Portugal, France, England, etc.
 All of these states began to:
 Tax their citizens more efficiently
 Create more effective administrative structures
 Raise standing armies
 State-building driven by:
 The needs of war
 warfare very
frequent in such
a fragmented
and competitive
political
environment
The Hundred Year’s War (1337-
1453)
 Between England and
France
  Fought over rival claims to territories in France
 Result = French victory

Joan of Arc
 Born a peasant girl; became a French female knight
 Led the French army to several important victories in the Hundred Years’ War
 Claimed divine guidance
 Captured by the English and burned at the stake at 19 years old

The Renaissance (1300s-1600s)

 Cultural awakening in Western Europe
 Began in Italy
 Means “rebirth” in French
 Transition from the Dark Ages/Medieval Times to modern times
 Embraced ancient Roman and ancient Greek traditions

So Why Italy?
 Italy had avoided large economic crisis in Europe during Middle Ages
 Italian cities = centers of Mediterranean trade
 Italians = attached to classical Roman traditions
 Italian towns = close contact with Byzantine and Muslim Empires which preserved Greek
traditions
Major Themes of the Renaissance
 Importance of classical learning
 Emphasis on the individual
 Adventurous spirit and willingness to experiment
 Focus on realism in art and literature
  Questioning of traditional religious ideas

Humanism
 Renewed interests in the classics of Greece & Rome
 Humanism = intellectual movement that focused on secular (worldly, nonreligious)
themes rather than religious ideas that had dominated medieval thought
 Believed in individualism = emphasis on the dignity & worth of the individual person
 Believed that people should try to improve themselves

Education and Literature

 Opened schools that taught the humanities
 Greek, Latin, history, philosophy, etc.
 New types of literature
 Written in the vernacular = everyday language
 Sonnets = short poems of 14 lines
 Petrarch = wrote sonnets about love & nature
 New types of literature
 Autobiographies
 The Prince = book written by Niccolo Machiavelli
 Discussed politics
 Said rulers should use force & deceit to maintain power --> Do what you
gotta do
Italian City States – Florence
 Controlled by the Medici family
 Rulers encouraged humanism
 Birthplace of the Italian Renaissance
 Medici wealth was used to support artists, philosophers, writers
  City was wealthy due to wool production and banking
Italian City States – Rome
 Renaissance popes had the ancient city rebuilt
 Home of the Roman Catholic Church
 Large churches, magnificent paintings, and sculptures
 Most notable effort = rebuilding of St. Peter’s Basilica = largest Christian church in the
world (this would eventually cause the Reformation)
Italian City States – Venice
 Prospered as a trade city
 Wealthiest city-state of the Renaissance
 Trade link between Asia & western Europe
 Known for its artistic achievements
Italian City States – Milan
 Milan dominated the inland trade routes
 Gateway from Italy to northern Europe
Renaissance Art
 Subjects were lifelike
 Used perspective in paintings
 Studied human anatomy
 Great artists were revered & had a prominent place in society
 Art featured both classical mythology as well as religious themes
Architecture
 Returned to the classical style
 Domes, columns
 Greatest architect = Brunelleschi
Sculpture
 Nude figures in bronze & marble
  Resembled ancient Greek & Roman statues
 Donatello, Michelangelo, Ghiberti = came from Florence
 Famous statue by Michelangelo = Statue of David
Painting
 Realistic style
 Giotto = painted famous frescoes = murals/paintings on walls
 Leonardo da Vinci = painted the Mona Lisa & the Last Supper
 Michelangelo = painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel

Leonardo Da Vinci
 1452-1519
 Thought of himself as an artist
 Botany, anatomy, optics, music, architecture, engineering
 Made sketches of flying machines and undersea boats centuries before actually built
 Painted the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper
Michelangelo Buonarroti
 1475-1564
 Sculptor, engineer, painter, architect, and poet
 Work reflects life-long spiritual and artistic struggles
 David and the Pieta
 Sistine Chapel in Rome
 Dome of St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome
Raphael Sanzio
 1483-1520
 Artistic talent and “sweet and gracious nature”
 Blended Christian and classical styles
  Tender portrayals of the Madonna (mother of Jesus)
 The School of Athens

Writers of the Renaissance

 Writers began to write in the vernacular, meaning their native language rather than
Latin.
 Renaissance writers wrote for self-expression or to portray the individuality of their
subjects.
Francesco Petrarch
 Early Humanist
 Great poet
 Wrote in both Latin and Italian
Giovanni Boccaccio
 Best known for Decameron
 Sarcastic and off-color humor
 Author of The Prince
 “A prince must be strong as a lion and shrewd as a fox”
 The book supports absolutism and does not support civil liberties.
 Niccolo Machiavelli
The Northern Renaissance
 Centered in the Low Countries – Belgium and the Netherlands
 Art styles were determined partially by climate – few frescos, more stained glass,
wooden carvings, canvas oil paintings
 Jan van Eyck – Flemish painter famous for using oil paints
 Albrecht Durer – German wood carver
The Printing Press

 Johannes Gutenberg was first European to develop movable type – lead to the mass
production of books.
 Writings from Miguel de Cervantes, William Shakespeare, and many Protestant
reformers spread across Europe as a result

THE DECAMERON
Giovanni Boccaccio
 Contemporary Florence, during the terrible Black Plague, is the setting chosen by
Boccaccio for The Decameron, which historians generally agree was written between
1349 and 1351. A desire to escape the horrors of the city prompts a group of ten young
people (seven women and three men) to retreat to a country villa. There, they amuse
themselves by telling each other stories.
 Each daily collection of stories takes a different tone or theme. Day 1 consists of a witty
discussion of human vices. On Day 2, fortune triumphs over its human playthings, but it
is trounced by human will on Day 3. Day 4 is marked by tragic love stories. Day 5 brings
happy endings to love that does not at first run smoothly. Wit and gaiety again reign on
 Day 6. Trickery, deceit, and often bawdy license run free on Days 7, 8, and 9. By Day 10,
earlier themes are brought to a high pitch; the widely borrowed story “The Patient
Griselda” closes the cycle of tales.
 Filomena rules the second day, and her theme is those who overcome adverse fortune
to their advantage. Representative is the story of Andreuccio, a simple-minded horse
trader from Perugia, whose misfortunes in the city of Naples teach him to sharpen his
wits—an apt lesson for any merchant.
 The third day, under the reign of Neifile, is dominated by stories of lust, although the
proposed theme is the successes of people who seek to achieve through their own
efforts. The use of ingenuity and guile to achieve seduction is common to most of the
stories of the day, and members of the clergy are not spared as protagonists in this
collection of characters.
 The theme of the fourth day, ruled by Filostrata, is in striking contrast to its
predecessor. The theme of unhappy loves is designated, and the stories that follow are,
for the most part, of a pathetic, if not tragic, nature. One example is the story of
Ghismonda, who eloquently defends her love of a man of low breeding to her
disapproving father by stating that his is the only true nobility, one of character.
Ghismonda ultimately kills herself after her father has the lover’s heart cut out and sent
to her in a goblet.
TENTH DAY TENTH TALE
GRISELDA
 There was in olden days a certain Marquis of Saluzzo, Gualtieri by name, a young man,
but head of the house, who, having neither wife nor child, passed his time in nought
else but in hawking and hunting, and of taking a wife and begetting children had no
thought; wherein he should have been accounted very wise: [ 005 ] but his vassals,
brooking it ill, did oftentimes entreat him to take a wife, that he might not die without
an heir, and they be left without a lord; offering to find him one of such a pattern, and of
such parentage, that he might marry with good hope, and be well content with the
sequel.
 To whom: “ My friends, ” replied Gualtieri, “ you enforce me to that which I had
resolved never to do, seeing how hard it is to find a wife, whose ways accord well with
one's own, and how plentiful is the supply of such as run counter thereto, and how
grievous a life he leads who chances upon a lady that matches ill with him. [ 007 ] And to
say that you think to know the daughters by the qualities of their fathers and mothers,
and thereby--so you would argue--to provide me with a wife to my liking, is but folly; for
I won’t not how you may penetrate the secrets of their mothers so as to know their
fathers; and granted that you do know them, daughters oftentimes resemble neither of
their parents.
 However, as you are minded to rivet these fetters upon me, I am content that so it be;
and that I may have no cause to reproach any but myself, should it turn out ill, I am
resolved that my wife shall be of my own choosing; but of this rest assured, that, no
matter whom I choose, if she receive not from you the honour due to a lady, you shall
prove to your great cost, how sorely I resent being thus constrained by your importunity
to take a wife against my will. ”
 The worthy men replied that they were well content, so only he would marry without
more ado. And Gualtieri, who had long noted with approval the mien of a poor girl that
dwelt on a farm hard by his house, and found her fair enough, deemed that with her he
might pass a tolerably happy life. Wherefore he sought no further, but forthwith
resolved to marry her; and having sent for her father, who was a very poor man, he
contracted with him to take her to wife. The worthy men, one and all, answered with
alacrity that they were well content, and that, whoever she might be, they would
entreat her as a lady, and pay her all due honour as such. After which, they all addressed
them to make goodly and grand and gladsome celebration of the event, as did also
Gualtieri. He arranged for a wedding most stately and fair, and bade thereto a goodly
number of his friends and kinsfolk, and great gentlemen, and others, of the
neighbourhood; and there with all he caused many a fine and costly robe to be cut and
fashioned to the figure of a girl who seemed to him of the like proportions as the girl
that he purposed to wed; and laid in store, besides, of girdles and rings, with a costly
and beautiful crown, and all the other paraphernalia of a bride.
 The day that he had appointed for the wedding being come, about half tierce he got him
to horse with as many as had come to do him honour, and having made all needful
dispositions to take his bride. And so away he rode with his company to the village; [ 016
] where, being come to the house of the girl's father, they found her returning from the
spring with a bucket of water, making all the haste she could, that she might afterwards
go with the other women to see Gualtieri's bride come by. Whom Gualtieri no sooner
saw, than he called her by her name, to wit, Griselda, and asked her where her father
was.
 Whereupon Gualtieri dismounted, and having bidden the rest await him without,
entered the cottage alone; and meeting her father, whose name was Giannucolo. He
then asked her, whether, if he took her to wife, she would study to comply with his
wishes, and be not wroth, no matter what he might say or do, and be obedient, with not
a few other questions of a like sort: to all which she answered, ay. Whereupon Gualtieri
took her by the hand, led her forth, and before the eyes of all his company, and as many
other folk as were there, caused her to strip naked, and let bring the garments that he
had had fashioned for her, and had her forthwith arrayed therein, and upon her
unkempt head let et a crown.
 The wedding was fair and stately, and had he married a daughter of the King of France,
the feast could not have been more splendid. It seemed as if, with the change of her
garb, the bride had acquired a new dignity of mind and mien. She was, as we have said,
fair of form and feature; and therewithal she was now grown so engaging and gracious
and debonair, that she she wed no longer as the shepherdess, and the daughter of
Giannucolo, but as the daughter of some noble lord, insomuch that she caused as many
as had known her before to marvel. Moreover, she was so obedient and devoted to her
husband, that he deemed himself the happiest and luckiest man in the world. And
likewise so gracious and kindly was she to her husband's vassals, that there was none of
them but loved her more dearly than himself, and was zealous to do her honour, and
prayed for her welfare and prosperity and aggrandizement, and instead of, as erstwhile,
saying that Gualtieri had done foolishly to take her to wife, now averred that he had not
his like in the world for wisdom and discernment, for that, save to him, her noble
qualities would ever have remained hidden under her sorry apparel and the garb of the
peasant girl.
 And in short she so comported herself as in no long time to bring it to pass that, not only
in the marquisate, but far and wide besides, her virtues and her admirable conversation
were matter of common talk, and, if aught had been said to the disadvantage of her
husband, when he married her, the judgment was now altogether to the contrary effect.
 She had not been long with Gualtieri before she conceived; and in due time she was
delivered of a girl; whereat Gualtieri made great cheer. But, soon after, a strange
humour took possession of him, to wit, to put her patience to the proof by prolonged
and intolerable hard usage; wherefore he began by afflicting her with his gibes, putting
on a vexed air, and telling her that his vassals were most sorely dissatisfied with her by
reason of her base condition, and all the more so since they saw that she was a mother,
and that they did naught but most ruefully murmur at the birth of a daughter. Whereto
Griselda, without the least change of countenance or sign of discomposure, made
answer: “ My lord, do with me as thou mayst deem best for thine own honour and
comfort, for well that I am of less account than they, and unworthy of this honourable
estate to which of thy courtesy thou hast advanced me. ” By which answer Gualtieri was
well pleased, witting that she was in no degree puffed up with pride by his, or any
other's, honourable entreatment of her. A while afterwards, having in general terms
given his wife to understand that the vassals could not endure her daughter, he sent her
a message by a servant. So the servant came, and: “ Madam, ” quoth he with a most
dolorous mien, “ so I value my life, I must needs do my lord's bidding. He has bidden me
take your daughter and . . .
 ” He said no more, but the lady by what she heard, and read in his face, and
remembered of her husband's words, understood that he was bidden to put the child to
death. Whereupon she presently took the child from the cradle, and having kissed and
 blessed her, albeit she was very sore at heart, she changed not countenance, but placed
it in the servant's arms. So the servant took the child, and told Gualtieri what the lady
had said; and Gualtieri, marveling at her constancy, sent him with the child to Bologna,
to one of his kinswomen, whom he besought to rear and educate the child with all care,
but never to let it be known whose child she was.
 Soon after it befell that the lady again conceived, and in due time was delivered of a
son, whereat Gualtieri was overjoyed. But, not content with what he had done, he now
even more poignantly afflicted the lady; and one day with a ruffled mien: “ Wife, ”
quote he, “ since thou gavest birth to this boy, I may on no wise live in peace with my
vassals, so bitterly do they reproach me that a grandson of Giannucolo is to succeed me
as their lord; and therefore I fear that, so I be not minded to be sent a packing hence, I
must even do herein as I did before, and in the end put thee away, and take another
wife. ”
 The lady heard him patiently, and answered only: “ My lord, study how thou mayst
content thee and best please thyself, and waste no thought upon me, for there is
nought I desire save in so far as I know that 'tis thy pleasure. ” [ 037 ] Not many days
after, Gualtieri, in like manner as he had sent for the daughter, sent for the son, and
having made a show of putting him to death, provided for his, as for the girl's, nurture at
Bologna.
 Whereat the lady showed no more discomposure of countenance or speech than at the
loss of her daughter: which Gualtieri found passing strange, and inly affirmed that there
was never another woman in the world that would have so done. And but that he had
marked that she was most tenderly affectionate towards her children, while 'twas well
pleasing to him, he had supposed that she was tired of them, whereas he knew that
'twas of her discretion that she so did.
 His vassals, who believed that he had put the children to death, held him mightily to
blame for his cruelty, and felt the utmost compassion for the lady. She, however, said
never aught to the ladies that condoled with her on the death of her children, but that
the pleasure of him that had begotten them was her pleasure likewise.
 Years not a few had passed since the girl's birth, when Gualtieri at length deemed the
time come to put his wife's patience to the final proof. Accordingly, in the presence of a
great company of his vassals he declared that on no wise might he longer brook to have
Griselda to wife, that he confessed that in taking her he had done a sorry thing and the
act of a stripling, and that he therefore meant to do what he could to procure the Pope's
dispensation to put Griselda away, and take another wife: for which cause being much
upbraided by many worthy men, he made no other answer but only that needs must it
so be.Whereof the lady being apprised, and now deeming that she must look to go back
to her father's house, and perchance tend the sheep, as she had aforetime, and see him,
 to whom she was utterly devoted, engrossed by another woman, did inly bewail herself
right sorely: but still with the same composed mien with which she had borne Fortune's
former buffets, she set herself to endure this last outrage.
 Nor was it long before Gualtieri by counterfeit letters, which he caused to be sent to him
from Rome, made his vassals believe that the Pope had thereby given him a
dispensation to put Griselda away, and take another wife. Wherefore, having caused her
to be brought before him, he said to her in the presence of not a few: “ Wife, by
license granted me by the Pope, I am now free to put thee away, and take another wife;
and, for that my forbears have always been great gentlemen and lords of these parts,
whereas thine have ever been husbandmen, I purpose that thou go back to
Giannucolo's house with the dowry that thou broughtest me; whereupon I shall bring
home a lady that I have found, and who is meet to be my wife. ”
 Giannucolo, who had ever deemed it a thing incredible that Gualtieri should keep his
daughter to wife, and had looked for this to happen every day, and had kept the clothes
that she had put off on the morning that Gualtieri had wedded her, now brought them
to her; and she, having resumed them, applied herself to the petty drudgery of her
father's house, as she had been won’t, enduring with fortitude this cruel visitation of
adverse Fortune.
 Now no sooner had Gualtieri dismissed Griselda, than he gave his vassals to understand
that he had taken to wife a daughter of one of the Counts of Panago. He accordingly
made great preparations as for the nuptials, during which he sent for Griselda.
 Griselda was then invited again to the palace to prepare everything for his husband’s
wedding. And so, clad in her sorry garments of coarse romagnole, she entered the
house, which, but a little before, she had quitted in her shift, and addressed her to
sweep the chambers, and arrange arras and cushions in the halls, and make ready the
kitchen, and set her hand to everything, as if she had been a paltry serving-wench: nor
did she rest until she had brought all into such meet and seemly trim as the occasion
demanded. This done, she invited in Gualtieri's name all the ladies of those parts to be
present at his nuptials, and awaited the event. The day being come, still wearing her
sorry weeds, but in heart and soul and mien the lady, she received the ladies as they
came, and gave each a gladsome greeting.
 Now Gualtieri, as we said, had caused his children to be carefully nurtured and brought
up by a kinswoman of his at Bologna, which kinswoman was married into the family of
the Counts of Panago; and, the girl being now twelve years old, and the loveliest
creature that ever was seen, and the boy being about six years old, he had sent word to
his kinswoman's husband at Bologna, praying him to be pleased to come with this girl
and boy of his to Saluzzo, and to see that he brought a goodly and honourable company
 with him, and to give all to understand that he brought the girl to him to wife, and on no
wisè to disclose to any, who she really was.
 The gentleman did as the Marquis bade him, and within a few days of his setting forth
arrived at Saluzzo about breakfast-time with the girl, and her brother, and a noble
company, and found all the folk of those parts, and much people besides, gathered
there in expectation of Gualtieri's new bride.
 Every one said that Gualtieri had made a good exchange, and Griselda joined with the
rest in greatly commending her, and also her little brother. Soon after, Gualtieri revealed
to everybody that he just put all those test like killing his daughter and son to test the
patience and virtue of his wife Griselda.
 He then revealed that this girl, whom thou supposest to be my bride, and her brother,
with glad heart, as thy children and mine. These are they, whom by thee and many
another it has long been supposed that I did ruthlessly to death, and I am thy husband,
that loves thee more dearly than aught else, deeming that other there is none that has
the like good cause to be well content with his wife. ”
 Which said, he embraced and kissed her; and then, while she wept for joy, they rose and
hide them there where sate the daughter, all astonished to hear the news, whom, as
also her brother, they tenderly embraced, and explained to them, and many others that
stood by, the whole mystery. Whereat the ladies, transported with delight, rose from
table and betook them with Griselda to a chamber, and, with better omen, divested her
of her sorry garb, and arrayed her in one of her own robes of state; and so, in guise of a
lady (howbeit in her rags she had showed as no less) they led her back into the hall.
Wondrous was the cheer which there they made with the children; and, all overjoyed at
the event, they reveled and made merry again, and prolonged the festivities for several
days; and very discreet they pronounced Gualtieri, albeit they censured as intolerably
harsh the probation to which he had subjected Griselda, and most discreet beyond all
compare they accounted Griselda.
 Some days after, the Count of Panago returned to Bologna, and Gualtieri took
Giannucolo from his husbandry, and established him in honour as his father-in-law,
wherein to his great solace he lived for the rest of his days. Gualtieri himself, having
mated his daughter with a husband of high degree, lived long and happily thereafter
with Griselda, to whom he ever paid all honour.

INFERNO SUMMARY
 At the age of thirty-five, on the night of Good Friday in the year 1300, Dante finds
himself lost in a dark wood and full of fear.
  The first part of The Divine Comedy begins with Dante lost in a forest. He is confused
and does not know how he got there. Dante is the protagonist and main character of all
three parts of the poem. His journey is an autobiographical portrayal where he includes
many of his enemies and historical figures of the past to all intervene in a complicated
world of Heaven and Hell. He is spiritually lost and is in need of guidance to find the way
of righteousness to God—called the “True Way”. When he goes through the circles of
Hell, he is often portrayed as having pity and compassion for the sinners. He realizes
that they are guilty of their sins, but he still believes in the good in them and finds their
suffering devastating. He is also terrified by all the horrors he encounters in Inferno and
seems a little frightened. Though, Dante is very curious, so he attempts to talk with a lot
of the sinners along his way.
 In the forest, he sees a mountain nearby and tries to climb it, but his path is blocked by
a lion, a leopard, and a wolf. A spirit of Virgil, an Ancient Roman poet whose major
work is titled Aenid, comes to help him get through this obstacle and lead him through
Inferno and Purgatorio to Heaven. Virgil is a brave and courageous soul. He represents
human reason and wisdom acquired throughout the ages.
 On their journey through Inferno they meet many beasts and scary creatures, but Virgil
stands up to each and every one one of them. He is also incredibly smart and intelligent;
he can trick any creature into helping them because he is a gifted speaker. He is a good
friend as he supports Dante and comforts him when he feels scared or uneasy about the
challenges he faces throughout Inferno and Purgatorio. Virgil understands that Dante
and his fate are dependent on him. Despite this, he is fair to Dante, scolds him when he
gets too soft, and pities the sinners a little too much. He encourages him to be strong
and brave.
 Virgil was sent to help Dante by Beatrice, his beloved. Her character was inspired by a
real woman, also named Beatrice, whom Dante met when he was a child and instantly
fell in love with. Unfortunately, she died when she was only 25. Dante wrote many
beautiful poems dedicated to her, praising her beauty and love.
 Dante and Virgil approach the entrance to Inferno and see a group of souls whose fate
will later be determined, as it is not clear whether there is more bad or good they have
committed. In order to get to Hell, one must cross the river Acheron. Charon is an old
man who takes souls across the river. He is hesitant to transport Dante at first,
because, technically he is still alive, but Virgil convinces him to do so anyway, because
Dante’s journey is overseen by God. When they enter Inferno, they see an inscription on
its gate, “Abandon all hope, ye who enter here.”
First Circle – Limbo
 The first circle consists not of sinners, but people who are not baptized; either they
lived before Christ when baptism had not yet spread, or they never got baptized. They
 reside in a castle with seven gates, symbols of the seven virtues. Technically, it is an
inferior form of Heaven where pagans are stuck and punished for eternity. Here, Dante
and Virgil meet many Greek and Roman philosophers, poets, and artists, such as Homer,
Ovid, Socrates, Cicero, and even Julius Cesar.
Second Circle – Lust
 The second circle has a more traditional appearance of Hell. It is dark, full of screaming
noises, and suffering. Near the entrance to the second circle stands Minos, a huge beast
who decides where souls should be sent for torment. The second circle holds people
who were lustful throughout their lives. They are punished by strong winds blown over
them, throwing them back and forth. These winds symbolize the restlessness and
instability of people guilty of lust. Dante and Virgil notice many people of Greek and
Roman antiquity, mythology and history—such as Cleopatra, Tristan, and Helen of Troy.
Among other sinners punished for lust, they meet the souls of Paolo and Francesca da
Rimini—a couple condemned to Hell for their adultery and numerous love affairs.
Third Circle – Gluttony
 In the third circle of Hell, Dante and Virgil encounter souls whose sin is gluttony. A
worm-monster, Cerberus, watches over them. They are punished with icy, slushy rain
that pours all over them without stopping. They are not permitted to stand, so the
slushy water covers their entire body as they lie. The slushy rain is a symbol of personal
destruction and the inability to stop eating. People who are in this circle of Inferno have
weak will and cannot resist the earthly pleasures of indulgence—food and drinks. Here,
the protagonist meets the soul Ciacco, his political opponent from Florence.
Fourth Circle – Greed
 The fourth circle of Dante’s Inferno is guarded by Pluto, a Roman god of the
underworld who is also regarded as the god of wealth. Here, the sinners are divided
into two groups: those who hoarded their possessions, and those who spent
sumptuously. Their punishment is to push very heavy weights up a mountain—mostly
boulders, which symbolize their lust for never-ending money and possessions. There,
Dante recognizes many people he is familiar with, such as clergymen, popes, and
cardinals—all of whom have been greedy throughout their lifetime.
Fifth Circle – Anger
 In this circle of hell, Dante and Virgil encounter people who are guilty of wrath and fury.
Those found guilty of being angry and impatient are immersed in the river Styx, or
simply are forced to fight among each other on its surface. They gurgle the water of
the river, struggle, and drown. The water is made up of a black toxic liquid and they are
left there to suffer. Dante encounters another political enemy of his, Filippo Argenti,
 who confiscated his possessions when he was banished from Florence. He tries to
climb up into a boat, but gets pushed away.
 Phlegyas is the boatman who helps Dante and Virgil get across this river. They are
stopped by a group of fallen angels. Furies threatens to summon Medusa so that she
can turn Dante into stone, because he does not belong in the world of the dead. An
angel arrives and opens the gate for them before Medusa is able to get to them.
Sixth Circle – Heresy
 The sixth circle of Inferno is for heretics – people who have contrary opinions to
Christian beliefs. There, they lie in tombs that burn them alive. Dante talks with Farinata
degli Uberti, a political leader and his contemporary, who did not believe in God. He also
sees Epicurus, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, and Pope Anastasius II.
Seventh Circle – Violence
 The passage to the seventh circle is blocked by a Minotaur—half-man, half-bull. Virgil
insults him, and the minotaur bursts into a violent outrage, letting Dante and Virgil
sneak past him. The seventh circle of Hell of Dante’s Inferno is divided into three rings.
Nessus is a centaur who carries the protagonist through the first ring. In this circle,
they see a forest inhabited by harpies – mythological creatures with birds’ bodies and
womens’ heads. Dante tears off a branch from a tree that shrieks in horror and pain. The
tree turns out to be the soul of Pier della Vigna. He ended his life because he was
accused of conspiracy against the emperor. They blinded him for treason and threw him
into jail where he killed himself. He explains that all the souls who commit suicide are
kept in the seventh circle and become trees. There, their leaves are eaten by harpies,
which cause the trees a lot of pain.
Eighth Circle – Fraud
 This circle is divided up into ten Bolgias – ditches with bridges between them, that are
placed around a circular well. Malacoda is the leader who guards the entrance to the
eighth circle of Hell. He lies and deceives both the poet and Virgil by telling them that
there are bridges in this circle, and that they have nothing to worry about. Nonetheless,
their path is very dangerous.
 They encounter panderers, seducers, sorcerers, false prophets, corrupt politicians,
hypocrites, thieves, evil counselors and advisers, alchemists, counterfeits, and perjurers.
Pope Boniface VIII, Dante’s political enemy, is among the sinners they meet in this circle.
In the journey from the eighth to the ninth of Dante’s Inferno circles of hell, they get
help from Antaeus, a giant who carries them down the well, which is the path to the
ninth, and final circle of Hell.
Ninth Circle – Treachery
  This circle is made up of a lake – Cocytus. The sinners here are submerged in ice, only
their heads stick out. Dante sees Bocca degli Abati, a Florentine traitor, who is so
ashamed of his sins, he does not want to tell Dante his name, at first. As Dante and Virgil
proceed through the lake, they see the giant figure of Lucifer, also stuck in ice. Lucifer is
the Prince of Hell. He has three mouths, and in each of them he holds a sinner: Judas,
Brutus and Cassius.
 In order to get out of Inferno Dante and Virgil must climb Lucifer’s body. They manage
to crawl out of the hole and find themselves on an island where they see a lot of bright
stars, and Mt. Purgatory. This ends the Dante’s Inferno book.
PURGATORIO SUMMARY
 At the beginning of the second part of The Divine Comedy, Dante and Virgil find
themselves at the dawn of a new day. They stand at the shore and see a boat arrives. On
the boat, there are souls brought by an angel who will climb Mount Purgatory, along
with Dante, to rid themselves of sins and proceed to Heaven. Dante cannot waste any
time, but he is forced to spend the night outside of Purgatory with other souls, who,
unlike him, cannot travel at night. Dante falls asleep, and when he wakes up, Virgil tells
him that St. Lucia helped him and carried him straight to the gates of Purgatory.
 In Purgatory, they have seven terraces to journey through. Before they enter, an angel
puts seven “P”’s on Dante’s forehead. They correspond to the seven deadly sins. The
angel says that every time a terrace of a sin is surpassed, a “P” will be removed.
 The first terrace is of Pride. There, Dante and Virgil see penitents carry heavy weights up
the mountain of humility to cure them of their pride
 The second terrace is dedicated to Envy. The envious penitents there are treated by
having their eyelids sewn shut with iron wire. Voices shout examples of punished envy
to intensify the effect.
 The third terrace has to do with Wrath. The penitents here are treated with black
smoke that gets into their eyes and makes them blind.
 The fourth terrace is of the Slothful. They are punished by running without stopping, or
any rest.
 On the fifth terrace, they punish greedy and avaricious souls. The punished are tied by
their feet and arms, face down on the ground. In order to rid themselves of these sins,
they must shout examples of poverty and generosity.
 The sixth terrace is dedicated to Gluttony. Here, penitents clean their souls by
experiencing extreme hunger and thirst.
  The seventh and final terrace is of Lust, where the penitents walk in flames and shout
out examples of chastity.
 At sunset, they reach the exit of the last terrace, and Dante’s last “P” is removed by the
angel. Although, in order to proceed, he must go through a wall of flames that separates
Purgatorio and Paradiso. He is very scared and hesitates a lot, but Virgil convinces him
to cheer up and be brave, because, once he is through this obstacle, he will finally see
Beatrice. When Dante passes through the flames, he falls asleep. He wakes up the
following morning ready to start his journey through Paradiso. They approach the banks
of the river Lethe, and suddenly, Virgil disappears, and instead Beatrice appears in front
of the protagonist. He is devastated by the loss of his friend and grieves.
 Beatrice is portrayed as Dante’s guide through Purgatorio. She is very knowledgeable, a
little strict, and obviously believes in the good in Dante. She believes that this trip will
save his soul and grant him salvation. She is a personification of divine knowledge,
wisdom, and good, righteous judgment.
 Dante confesses to Beatrice all of his sins. She judges him for them and expresses her
disappointment.
 A woman named Matilda washes them off in the river Lethe when Dante falls asleep.
When he wakes up, Beatrice tells him that he can proceed under one condition: he has
to write about everything he sees in Paradiso when he returns to earth.
 Then, Matilda submerges Dante in the river Eunoe, which makes him ready to ascend to
Heaven alongside Beatrice.
PARADISO SUMMARY
 Paradiso consists of nine spheres:
 The first sphere is of the Moon. Beatrice explains to Dante the structure of the universe.
She says that the Moon is the home for souls that broke their vows. Their words lacked
in courage and cannot be trusted.
 The second sphere is of Mercury. There, Dante and Beatrice meet Justinian, who
explains the history of Ancient Rome. This sphere is situated too close to the sun, it
represents those who did good deeds for fame and glory.
 The third sphere is of Venus. There, Dante encounters Charles Martel of Anjou. He talks
to Dante about the importance of societal diversity and improving its function by the
inclusion of people with different backgrounds.
 The fourth sphere is the sphere of the Sun. There, St. Thomas, along with another
eleven souls, explain to Dante the importance of not judging hastily and being aware of
prudence.
  The fifth heavenly sphere is Mars. It has to do with warriors who died for their faith and
God. There, Dante meets Cacciaguida, who tells him about the noble past of Florentines,
and Dante’s mission in delivering all the knowledge he has gained on his journey to
Florence and its citizens.
 The sixth sphere is of Jupiter. It is a place of kings who display justice. A giant eagle
speaks to Dante of divine justice and the rulers of the past, such as Constantine and
Trajan.
 The seventh level of heaven is the sphere of Saturn. It is dedicated to those who live by
temperance and pray vigorously all their lives. He witnesses people who climb up and
down a golden ladder. Here, Dante meets St. Peter Damian, who lectures him on
corruption of clergy and predestination. They discuss the moral decline of the institute
of church.
 The eighth level is called the Fixed Stars. Here, Dante and Beatrice find the Virgin Mary
and other Biblical characters, such as Adam, John, Peter, and James. They explain to
Dante the complexities of Heaven and Eden.
 The ninth sphere is known as the Premium Mobile. It is controlled by God specifically
and therefore affects all the lower spheres accordingly. It is the place where angels live.
Beatrice explains to Dante the story of the creation of the universe and angels’ lives.
They slowly ascend to Empyrean, the highest place in heaven. Once they get there,
Dante becomes covered in light, and it allows him to see God and the Holy Trinity.
 After his journey has ended, Dante realizes that God’s love is eternal. He now fully
understands the mystery of Incarnation. The answer is blessed upon Dante by God’s
hand, and now he fully grasps the complete picture of the world.
 Dante’s Divine Comedy is a complex work of art. It takes the reader through the nine
circles of Hell, the seven terraces of Purgatory and the nine spheres of Paradise. Each of
the parts of the journey are full of dead souls who suffer trying to rid themselves of their
sins, or simply survive in the afterlife. It is filled with many historical figures, and
mystical and mythological creatures.
THE JAR
LUIGI PIRANDELLO
 was born in Girgenti, Sicily.
 He studied philology at Rome and at Bonn and wrote a dissertation on the dialect of his
native town (1891).
 His father, Stefano, belonged to a wealthy family involved in the sulfur industry and his
mother, Caterina Ricci Gramitto, was also of a well-to-do background, descending from
 a family of the bourgeoisie professional class of Agrigento. Both families, the Pirandellos
and the Ricci Gramittos, were ferociously anti-Bourbonic and actively participated in the
struggle for unification and democracy ("Il Risorgimento"). Stefano participated in the
famous adventure of the Thousand, later following Garibaldi all the way to the battle of
Aspromonte.
THE JAR SUMMARY
 The Jar is primarily the story of Don Lollo Zirafa and it is also the story of Zi' Dima and his
comic plight. The action and reaction between these two stories define the meaning of
the whole. Don Lollo Zirafa was a farmer at Primosole. That year his olive crop was very
good. He thought that the five old jars would not be sufficient to hold all the oil of that
harvest, so he placed an order to make a great jar. He paid four florins for the jar. The
new jar was placed in the crushing shed for a few days.
 The harvesting of the olives had begun. Lollo Zirafa had been very angry because he had
to supervise the men who were beating down the olives and also a number of other
people who were bringing manure on the mules. He would threaten all of the workers.
He would rush here and there and look about him like a wolf.
 At the end of the third day's work three workers went to the crushing Shed to replace
the Iadders and the poles in the shed. They were frightened when they saw the new jar
in two pieces. One of them wanted to go away secretly, but the second one called Lollo
Zirafa. When the farmer saw the damage, he poured his anger on the workers. He
wondered who broke the jar and why. But he was sure that it was not broken when it
arrived from the pottery. When the master's anger was spent, the workers suggested
that he should call Zi' Dima, who would repair it as good as the new one with his
marvelous cement.
 Zi' Dima arrived at Primosole with his equipment. He was an old man. He looked sad and
dissatisfied. He always suspected that people wanted to steal the secret of his cement.
He did not allow Lollo Zirafa to see it. He wanted to show him only the result. He
examined the jar and the broken piece wearing his spectacles and said that the cement
would hold. But Lollo Zirafa did not trust cement alone. He wanted Zi' Dima to use rivets
as well. Lollo insisted on using both cement and rivets.
 Zi' Dima started to make holes in the jar and in the broken piece. The more he worked,
the more angry he became. After boring the holes, he cut rivets with his pliers. Then he
called one of the workers to help him. He opened the tin and took the cement out. Then
he began to spread it all round the broken piece and along the broken edge of the jar.
Taking the pliers and the rivets he went into the jar. He asked the worker to hold the
piece up and fit it closely into the jar. He put the rivets into the holes and twisted them
with his pliers. In an hour the work was complete and he wanted to come out. But the
neck of the jar was narrow. He had ignored the neck because he was lost in his sorrow.
 He could not come out without breaking the jar. The worker began to laugh. Lollo Zirafa
also arrived there. He was surprised to see Zi' Dima imprisoned in the jar. It was a new
case. He needed the lawyer's advice. But before he went to the city, he gave Zi' Dima
five lire for the repair and also some food. The lawyer could not stop laughing when he
heard this story. Then he advised Lollo Zirafa to free Zi' Dima and make him pay for the
loss caused by his stupidity. But the value of the jar would be estimated by Zi' Dima
himself. After this he hurriedly returned home. He found Zi' Dima happy inside the jar.
Lollo Zirafa asked him the present value of the jar. And he said that Zi' Dima could come
out if he paid him its present value. Zi' Dima liked to stay there, but he did not like to
pay anything. Lollo Zirafa and his lawyer had not foreseen this new situation.
 After Lollo had gone into the farmhouse, Zi' Dima sent one of the workers to the tavern
to make the necessary purchases. The workers had planned to pass the night there.
They drank and danced. Zi' Dima sang. At night Lollo Zirafa was awakened by the noise.
He could not control himself. He ran down like a mad bull and pushed the jar down. It
started rolling down the slope. It hit an olive tree and broke into pieces and Zi' Dima
became the winner because he could come out without paying anything.