Accordingt oCyr i

lHoule,"
Ifyouteachaper sonwhatt olearn,youar epr eparing
thatpersonf ort hepast.Ifyouteachaper sonhow t olearn,youarepr eparingt hat
personforthef uture.
"Thisqout
esigni
fi
eswhatChar lesMatthewP.Cacal dast atedt hat
"Ifyouteachsomeone" whattolear
n,"youar enotassi st
ingthem;r ather,youar e
simplycorrecti
ngt hem onwhattheyhavedonewr onginthepastandi nstructingt hem
nottodoi tagai n.Iti
salsoasifyouaret eachingat oddl
erhowt obrushhi steethone
stepatat i
me.However ,ifyout
eachsomeone" howt ostudy,"youareallowingt hem t o
l
ear nandfindont hei
rown,andyouareonl yguidingt hem."

Mostt eachersnowadaysar et eachingt heirstudent s"how t olear

n"andal lowi
ng
them todi scoveront heirownandt heteacherwi llonlyfaci
li
tatesthestudents'learni
ng
process.Thi si
sthemostsi gni
fi
cantgoalofeducat i
onwhi chist oteachstudentshowt o
l
ear nont hei rown.Itisabsol ut
elyessent ialthatst udentslearnhow t ostudyandt hat
theseabi l
itiesenablet hem tolearnnotj ustinschoolbutt hr
oughoutt heirl
ives .This
refer
stohowt heirmindsr ecei
veinformat i
onandhowt heydevel opdeeperawar eness.
Whent heirabi l
i
tytoeval uateisint hei
rowni deasandways,t hislearni
ngpr ocessi s
mor eeffective.Furt
hermor e,metacognit
ioni spr esentinallofthesel ear
ningprocesses.

JohnFlavel
l(1979-1987)desi gnedt het er
m" met acognit
ion"wher ei
naccor di
ngt o
him,iti
smadeupofmet acogni t
iveknowl edgeaswel lasmet acognit
iveexperienceor
regul
ati
on.Itisavar i
etyofhi gher-or
dert hinki
ngt hatimpliesact i
veawar enessand
contr
oloft he cogniti
ve pr oces ses involved inl earning.Fl avellalso classif
ies
metacogni
ti
veknowl edgei nt
ot hreecategor i
eswhi char eknowledgeofper sonvar i
abl
es,
knowledgeoftaskvariabl
es,andk nowl
edgeofst r
ategyvar i
ables.

 Personvar iablesisaknowl edgethatref

erstounderst
andinghow peopl
elearn
and pr ocess informat
ion,as wellas personalknowledge aboutone's own
l
ear ning processes.Forexampl e,you may be awar ethatyou study mor e
eff
icient
lyifyoust udyearl
yinthemor ni
ngrat
herthanlat
eintheevening,orthat
youwor kbetteri
naqui etl
ibr
aryrat
herthanathome.

 Taskvar iabl
esi
saknowl edgeoft henat ureoft het askaswel last hetypeof
processingdemandsitwilli
mposeont hei ndivi
dual.Itisallaboutdetermini
ng
whatneedst obedone,howdi ff
icul
titwil
lbe,andhowmuchef for
tyouwi l
lhave
toputi n.Forexample,youmaybeawar ethatr eadingandcompr ehendinga
bookoneducat i
onalphil
osophytakeslongert hanr eadingandcompr ehendinga
novel.

 Str
ategyvariablesi
saknowl edgethati
nvol
vesawarenessofthestr
ategyyou
areusingtol earnatopicandevaluat
esifiti
seff
ecti
ve.Ifthest
rat
egyisnot
worki
ng,thi
nkofvar i
ouswaysandt ryoutonetoseeifitwil
lhel
pyout olear
n
bett
er.Forexample,usi
ngaglossar
ytolookupunf
amili
arwords.
 Met a-att
enti
oni stheawar enessofspecifi
cstrat
egiessot hatyoucankeepyour
attentionf ocusedont hetopicort askathand.Met a-
memor yisyourawar enessof
memor ystrategi
est hatworkbes tforyou.FangandCoxshowedt hatmetacognit
ive
awar enesswasevi dentinpreschoolersandi nst
udentsasyoungasei ghtyearsold.
Chi l
drenal reasyhavet hecapacitytobemor eawareandr efl
ecti
veoftheirownlearni
ng.
Mor eover ,themet acogni
toninvolvesknowledgeandskil
lswhichyouandyourst udents
canl ear nandmast er.Teachersneedst oworkhardonappl yingteachingstr
ategi
est o
student ssot heirenhancementwi llbeveryevidentandi twillsur
elybear ewardi
ng
l
ear ningexper i
enceifyouexperiencedandaccompl i
shedit.

o Fi
rst
,moni
tort
hei
rownl
ear
ningandt
eachst
udent
stost
udyl
ear
ningst
rat
egi
es.

o Teachersshoul
dteachtheTQLRstr
ategyespeci
all
yift
hest udent
sar
einthei
r
youngeryearsandthi
ss t
rat
egyi
smer eeff
ecti
vewhenl i
steningtoast
oryor
present
ati
on.

o Tisfortunein,Q f
orquesti
on,Lf orl
i
sten,andR i
sf orremember
.These
st
rat
egywouldbeagreatcat
ertost
udent
sfocusandal
ert
ness.

o Anot
herstr
ategyter
medasPQ4R,andt hisstrat
egytypi
cal
lyusedforol
der
st
udent
s becausethis str
ategy r
equir
es i
ntermediat
elevel
s onwar
ds.This
st
rat
egycommonlyusest ostudyaunitorachapterofabook.

o Pi
sforpr
evi
ew,Qf
orquest
ion,and4Rar
eforr
ead,r
eci
te,r
evi
ewandr
efl
ect
.

o Next
,haveyourst
udent
stomakepr edict
ionsaboutwhattheyhaver
eadandt
o
r
elat
ethei
rideast
otheexi
st
ingknowledget hatt
heyl
earned.

o Theyneedtodevel
opquesti
onsandaskthemsel
veswhati
sgoi
ngonaround
t
hem toknowwhentoaskforhel
pift
heyarehavi
ngahardt
imet
ounder
stand
atopi
c.

o Lastl
y,show student
show t
otr
ansf
erknowl
edge,at
ti
tudes,val
ues,ski
l
lst
o
othersi
tuat
ionortaskst
obeabl
etoachi
evet
heobject
ivesthatt
heyneedst
o
bedone.

Amer i
canPsychol ogicalPrini
cipl
esputtogethert hel earner-
centeredpsychol ogical
pri
nciplest olear
ners.Theyf ocusedonpsychol ogicalf actorsthatarepr i
mar i
lyinternal
toexternal.Thesepr inciplesareintendedtodealhol i
sticall
ywi t
hlearnersincont extof
real
-wor l
dl earni
ngsi tuati
ons.Ther eare14pr i
nciplesandt hesear ecl assif
iedi nt
o
cogniti
veandmet acogni ti
ve,mot i
vati
onalandaf f
ective,devel opment alandsoci al,and
l
astl
yi ndivi
dualdif
ferencesf actors
.Thesepr i
nci
plesar eintendedt oapplytoal ll
earners.
 Cogni
ti
veandMet
acogni
ti
veFact
ors

 Nat
ureoft
hel
ear
ningpr
ocess

Thisl
earningisacompl exsubjectmat
terandismosteffect
ivewhenitisan
i
ntent
ionalpr
ocesaofconst
ruct
ingmeani
ngfrom i
nfor
mat
ionandexperi
ences.

 Goal
soft
hel
ear
ningpr
ocess

Overt
hetime,wi
thsupportandinst
ructi
onalgui
dance,t
hesuccessf
ull
ear
ner
s
cancr
eat
eameaningf
ul,coher
entrepresent
ati
onoft
rueknowl
edge.

 Const
ruct
ionofknowl
edge

Thesuccessf
ull
earnercanlinknew inf
ormat
ionsandi
deaswi
thexi
sti
ngt
he
knowl
edgeinaver
ymeani ngf
ulways.

 St
rat
egi
cthi
nki
ng

Theycancreat
eanduseareper
toi
reoft
hinkingtobeasuccessf
ull
ear
nert
od
reasoni
ngst
rat
egi
esandt
oachi
evecompl
exl ear
ninggoal
s.

 Thi
nki
ngaboutt
hinki
ng

Thi
shi gherorderstrategyi
sforsel
ectingandmoni
tor
ingt
hement
aloper
ati
ons
t
hatfacil
it
atescreat
ivit
yandcri
ti
calt
hinking.

 Cont
extofl
ear
ning

The lear
ning process i
si nf
luenced by t
he envi
ronment
alf
act
ors,i
ncl
udi
ng
cul
tur
es,teachnologyandinst
ructi
onalpr
act
ices.

Mot
ivat
i
onalandAf
fect
iveFact
ors

 Mot
ivat
ionalandemot
ional
inf
luencesonl
ear
ning

Thi
si s whatand how much islear
ned and i
sinfl
uenced by t
he learner
's
moti
vati
on.Moti
vat
iontolearnisi
nfl
uencedbytheindi
vi
dualsemotionalstat
e,
bel
i
efs,i
nter
est
s,goal
s,habitandt
hei
rwayofthi
nki
ng.

 I
ntr
insi
cmot
ivat
iont
olear
n

Ahigherorderthi
nkingwhereint hel
earner
'screati
vi
tyandnatur
alcuri
ous
it
yall
cont
ri
butestomotivati
ontolearn.Thisissti
mulatedbytasksofopti
malnovel
ty
anddif
fi
cul
tythati
srelevantt
opr ovi
dingper
sonalchoiceamdcontr
ol.
 Ef
fect
sofmot
ivat
iononef
for
t

Theacqui si
ti
onofcompl exknowledgeandski l
lsrequir
esext endedl
earner
s'
effortamdguidedpract
iceswi
thouthavingthel earner
s'motivati
ontof
lopand
theirwil
l
ngnesstoexer
tthei
ref
for
twillunl
ikel
yfosterwit
houtcoerci
on.

Devel
opment
alandSoci
alFact
ors

 Devel
opment
ali
nfl
uencesonl
ear
ning

As the indi
vi
duals devel
ops theirdif
ferentopport
unit
ies and constr
aint
sfor
l
earning,thei
rknowl dege process is mostef f
ect
ive when iti s di
ff
erent
ial
dev
el opmentwit
hinacrossphysical
,int
ell
ectual
,emoti
onalandsocialdomains.

 Soci
ali
nfl
uencesonl
ear
ning

Theirlear
ningisinf
luencedbysoci alinteracti
onst hatcanbeenhancedwhen
col
laborat
ionisexi
sti
ng.Itisjustl
i
kei nterpersonalrelat
ionsandcommuni
cat
ion
wit
hot her
stofost
ersocial
izi
ngopportunitytopeer s.

I
ndi
vi
dualDi
ff
erencesFact
ors

 I
ndi
vi
dualdi
ff
erencesi
nlear
ning

Thelearnershavedi
ff
erentstrategies,appr
oachesandcapabi l
iti
esforlearni
ng
thatf
uncti
onsasapr i
ork nowledgeandher edi
tyofthel earni
ngpr ocess.Also,
educat
orsmustexaminetheirstudentstoknowtheirpreferencelearni
ngprocess
tobeablethem t
oexpandt hei
rlearningmoreconfi
dently.

 Lear
ninganddi
ver
sit
y

Thislearni
ngismostef fect
ivewhendi f
ferencesi
nl ear
ners'li
nguist
ics,cul
tur
al
and socialbackgroundsaret aken i
nto accountto per
ceive the harmonyof
respectandtograduall
ylett
hem toexert
st hei
rabi
li
ti
eswithoutfearofjudgement.

 St
andar
dandassessment

Toset sanappropriat
ehi ghandchallengingstandar
dstoassessthel
earneras
wellast helearni
ngpr ocess.Thisincludesdiagnost
icassessmentt
hatisthe
i
ntegralpar
tofthelearni
ngpr ocesst
oai mt hemeasurabl
eoutcome.
 AlexandarandMurphygaveasummar
yoft
he14pr
inci
plesanddi
sti
l
ledt
hem i
nto
f
ivear
eas,theseare:

 Theknowl
edgebased

Thi
sisaone'sexi
sti
ngknowledgethatservesasthefoundat
ionofallfut
ure
l
earni
ngst
hatt
hel
earner
'sspeci
fi
cal
l
yr epr
esentst
ofi
lt
ersnewexper
iences.

 St
rat
egi
cpr
ocessi
ngandcont
rol

The learnercan devel

op ski
ll
st or ef
lectand r
egulat
ethei
rthought
s and
behavior
sinordert
olear
nmor eeff
ect
ivel
yandeffi
ci
ent
ly.

 Mot
ivat
ionandef
fect

Somefact
orssuchasintr
insi
cmoti
vati
onfrom wit
hinistor
easoni
ngforwant
ing
t
olear
nandpersonalgoal
senjoymentareallcr
uci
alrol
eint
helear
ningpr
ocess.

 Devel
opmentandi
ndi
vi
dualdi
ff
erences

Thi
slearni
ngi
sauni quejour
neyforeachpersonthatthelearnerhashisown
st
ylecombi
nat
ionofgenet
icandenvi
ronment
alfact
orst
hatinf
luencelear
ning.

 Si
tuat
ionorcont
ext

Thelear
ningthathappensint
hecontextoft
heli
vingsoci
etyandaswellast
he
rol
eofanindi
vidualwi
thi
nthewider
angeoftheenvir
onmentalhar
mony.

Hil
l
iardcoined"learni
ngstyle"asthesum ofpatt
ernsohhow i ndi
vidual
sdevel op
thei
rhabi t
ualwaysofr espondingtoexper
ience.Thi
si salsoreff
eredtothepr ef
fered
wayoft heindivi
dualtopr ocessinfor
mati
on.Therear esevaralperspecti
vesabout
l
earninf
-thi
nkingst
yleandweshal lf
ocusonsensor
yprefer
encesandt heglobal-
analyti
c
conti
nuum.

 Sensor
yPr
efer
ences

I
ndi
vi
dualst
end t
o gr
avi
tat
etowar
d one ortwo t
ypesofsensor
yinputand
mai
ntai
nadomi
nancei
noneofthef
oll
owi
ngtypes:

o Vi
suall
ear
ner
s

Thesel
earnersusual
l
yseesthei
rteacher
'sact
ionsandf
aci
alexpr
essi
onst
o
f
ull
yunder
standthecont
entoft
helesson.

 Vi
sual
-i
coni
c
 Thesel
earner
swhoprefert
hisf
orm ofinputaremorei
nterestedinvi
sual
i
magerysuchasf
il
m andgraphi
cpi
cturesinordert
osol
i
difylearni
ng.

 Vi
sual
-symbol
i
c

Thesel
ear
nerswhoprefert
hisfor
m ofi
nputf
eelcomfor
tabl
ewit
habst
ract
symbol
i
sm suchasmathemati
calf
ormul
asorthewri
tt
enword.

o Audi
tor
yLear
ner
s

Theselearnerslear
nsbestthroughver
ballectures,discussi
onsandtalki
ng
t
hrough li
steni
ng.Audit
or yint
erpr
etst
he undr erl
ying meaning ofspeech
t
hroughtoneofvoice,pi
tch,speedandothernuances.

 Li
stener
s

Thi
sisamorecommontypeofl
ear
nerthatmostli
kelyt
odowellinschool
.
Theyusual
lyr
ememberthi
ngssai
dt othem andmakest hei
nfor
mation
t
heirownandt
heycanevencar
rymentalconver
ati
onsoutofi
t.

 Tal
ker
s

Thisaret helearner
swhopr ef
ert
ot al
kanddi scussandtheyoftenfi
nd
themselvestalki
ngtothosepeopl
ear oundthem togatherinf
ormat
ions.
They tebd to whisperthei
ranswerst othemselves t
ot r
yt o be not
disr
upti
vewhent heteacheri
sthemiddl
eofdiscussi
on.

o Tact
il
e/Ki
nest
het
icLear
ner
s

Thistypeofl
earnersbenef
it
smuchf rom ahands-onappr
oachandac ti
vel
y
explor
ingt
hephtsicalwor
ldaroundthem.Theyf i
ndithar
dt ost
aysti
lland
al
wayswant storoam aroundtolearnsomething.Theytendtopref
erthe
"l
erani
ngbydoing"skil
l
sanditi
sreal
lybenef
ici
alandeff
ect
ivet
othem.

 Gl
obal
-Anal
yti
calCont
inuum

o Anal
yti
c

Theytendt
othi
nktowar
dthel
inear,step-
by-
stepprocessofl
ear
ning.They
seef
ini
teel
ement
sofpat
ter
nsr
atherthanthewhole.Theyar
ethet
rees eer
s.

o Gl
obal

Theytendtothi
nktowardsnon-l
i
nearthoughtandt endtoseet
hewhol
e
pat
ter
nrat
hert
hanpart
icl
eelement
s.Theyarethefor
estseer
s.
 Howar dGar dner( 1983)coi nedt heni neki ndsofi ntell
igencest hatindivi
dualsmay
have.Thi stheoryi st ermedas( MI )mul t
ipleintelli
gencest hatdef i
nesi ntell
i
genceasan
abil
it
yt hatall
owsaper sont osol veapr oblem ort ofashionapr oductthati sval
uedi n
one ormor e cult
ur es.Gar dneral so bel i
evest hatdi ff
erenti ntell
igences maybe i
dependentabi lit
ies andal lofuspossesst hei ntell
i
gences,buti nvar yingdegreesof
str
egth.I tisimpor tantt ouset heirlearningst ylet ohelpst udentstol earneffecti
vel
y.
Theset ypologiesi sasensi blepracticet oteacheachchi l
daccor dingt otheirmulti
ple
i
ntell
igenc eorlear ningst yle.Thes ear et heninedi sti
nctformsofi ntel
li
gencesi norder
tofacil
it
atelearningef f
ectively:

 Vi
sual
/Spat
ialI
ntel
l
igence(
Pict
ureSmar
t)

Theirlear
ning i
sthrough vi
sual
s and organi
zi
ng i
deas spat
ial
l
y.They see
conceptsi
nacti
oninordert
ounderst
andthem morecl
earer
.

 Ver
bal
/Li
ngui
sti
c(Wor
dSmar
t)

Thei
rlearni
ngisthr
oughspokenandwr i
tt
enword.Theyal
sohi
ghl
yval
uedi
n
t
radi
ti
onalcl
assr
oomsandtr
adit
ionalassessment
s.

 Mat
hemat
ical
/Logi
cal(
NumberSmar
t/
Logi
cSmar
t)

Thei
rlearni
ngi st
hroughreasoni
ngandproblem-solvi
ng.Thesekindofstudent
s
ar
ehighlyvaluedwherei
ntheyadaptt
ologicalsequenceddeli
ver
yofinst
ructi
ons.

 Bol
dil
y/Ki
nest
het
ic(
BodySmar
t)

Theirl
ear
ningist
hroughint
eract
ionwi
thone'senvir
onment.Theyarethe" over
ly
act
ive"l
earner
sanditpromotesunder
standi
ngthroughconcr
eteexper
ience.

 Musi
cal(
Musi
cSmar
t)

Thei
rlearni
ngisthroughpatt
erns,rhyt
hmsandmusi cs.Thisi
ncl
udesnotonl
y
audi
tor
ylearni
ng,butal
sotheident
if
yingpat
ter
nst
hroughalloft
hesenses

 I
ntr
aper
sonal(
Sel
fSmar
t)

Theirlear
ning i
sthrough feel
i
ngs,values amd at
ti
tudes.Thi
sis deci
dedl
y
af
fecti
vecomponetoflear
ningwhichst
udent
splaceval
ueonwhattheyl
earn.

 I
nter
per
sonal(
Peopl
eSmar
t)

Theirlear
ningthr
oughint
eract
ionwi t
hotherandt hi
sisnotthedomainofa
chi
ldrenwhoi ssi
mplytal
kati
veorover l
ysocail
,butthi
sint
ell
i
gencepr
omot
es
col
laborat
ionandworki
ngcooperat
ivel
ywit
hothers.
  Nat
ural
i
st(
Nat
ureSmar
t)

Thei
rlearni
ngthr
oughclassi
fi
cat
ion,cat
egori
esandhier
archi
es.Theypickupon
subt
ledif
fer
encesinmeaningandnotsimplystudyi
ngt
henature,buti
tswhol
e.

 Exi
stent
ial(
Spi
ri
tSmar
t)

Theirl
earni
ngthroughseei
ngthe"bi
gpictur
e"li
ke"whyar
eweher e?"and"What
i
smyr ol
ei nthisworl
d?".Thisint
ell
i
gence seeksconnect
ion t
or ealwor
ld
underst
andingandappli
cat
ionoft
henewl earni
ng.

Behaviorscanbelearnedthroughmodel i
ngt hatthest
udentscanwat chpar ent
s
readandwr i
tetobeabl
et oatt
racttheint
erestofthechil
d.Aggressi
oncanbel ear
ned
thr
ough model sand i
tindicat
est hatchil
dren become more aggressi
ve when they
observed viol
entmodels.Mor althinki
ng and mor albehavi
or ar ei nfl
uenced by
observat
ionamdmodel i
ng.Thisincludesmor aljudgement
sr egardi
ngt herightand
wringwhichcan,inpar
t,developthroughmodeling.

AlbertBandur
amentionsf
ourcondit
ionst
hatar
enecessar
ybef or
eani
ndi
vi
dual
cansuccessf
ull
ymodelt
hebehavi
orofsomeoneel
se,andt
heseare:

 At
tent
ion

Theper
sonmustf
ir
stpayat
tent
iont
othemodel
.

 Ret
ent
ion

Theobser
vermustbeabletor
ememberthebehavi
orthathasbeenobser
ved.
Onewayofincr
easi
ngt
hisi
susi
ngt
hetechni
queofrehear
sal
.

 Mot
orRepr
oduct
ion

Theabi
l
it
ytorepl
i
catet
hebehavi
orthatt
hemodelhasjustdemonst
rat
ed.Thi
sis
t
obeabletor
epli
cat
etheact
ionanddevel
opment
all
yreadytodemonstr
atei
t.

 Mot
ivat
ion

Thefi
nali
ngredi
entformodel
i
ngthatt
hel
ear
ner
smustembodiedwit
hin.Leaner
s
musthavethewantstodemonst
rat
eandt
akepar
toft
hatact
ionandl
ear ni
t.

Faci
li
tat
ing Lear
ner-
Centered Teaching i
sa t opicthatfocuses on mostbasic
i
nformati
onandt oavoidt
he" mil
e-wideandinch-deep"tr
eatmentofthecoursel
ear
ning.
Themodul eof t
engraspsto" synapsethestrengtheners"andforthem tobeablet o
accompli
shitappropr
iat
elyandeffecti
vel
y.