Chapter 16

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND BODY DEFENSES

Lymphatic system – is a network of tissues, vessels and organs that work together
to move a colorless, watery fluid called lymph back into the circulatory system
(bloodstream).

- Some 20 liters of plasma flow through the body’s arteries and smaller arteriole
blood vessels and capillaries every day. After delivering nutrients to the body’s cells
and tissues and receiving their waste products, about 17 liters are returned to the
circulation by way of veins. The remaining three liters seep through the capillaries
and into the body’s tissues. The lymphatic system collects this excess fluid, now
called lymph, from tissues in the body and moves it along until it ultimately returns it
to the bloodstream.

Lymphatic system consist of two semi-independent parts:

1. Lymphatic vessels – transport fluids that have escaped from the blood back to
the cardiovascular system
2. Lymphoid tissues and organs – house phagocytic cells and lymphocytes that
play roles in body defenses and resistance to disease

Functions of lymphatic system:

1. Maintains fluid levels in the body:  lymphatic system collects excess fluid
that drains from cells and tissue throughout the body and returns it to the
bloodstream, which is then recirculated through the body.
2. Absorbs fats from the digestive tract: Lymph includes fluids from the
intestines that contain fats and proteins and transports it back to the
bloodstream.
3. Protects the body against foreign invaders: The lymphatic system is part
of the immune system. It produces and releases lymphocytes and other
immune cells that monitor and then destroy the foreign invaders — such as
bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi — that enter the body.
4. Transports and removes waste products and abnormal cells from the
lymph.

Parts of the lymphatic system:

1. Lymph: Lymph, also called lymphatic fluid, is a collection of the extra fluid
that drains from cells and tissues (that is not reabsorbed into the capillaries)
plus other substances. The other substances include proteins, minerals, fats,
nutrients, damaged cells, cancer cells and foreign invaders (bacteria, viruses,
etc). Lymph also transports infection-fighting white blood cells (lymphocytes).
2. Lymph nodes: Lymph nodes are bean-shaped glands that monitor and
cleanse the lymph as it filters through them. The nodes filter out the
damaged cells and cancer cells. These lymph nodes also produce and store
lymphocytes and other immune system cells that attack and destroy bacteria
and other harmful substances in the fluid. About 600 lymph nodes are
scattered throughout the body. Some exist as a single node; others are
closely connected groups called chains. A few of the more familiar
locations of lymph nodes are in your armpit, groin and neck. Lymph nodes
are connected to others by the lymphatic vessels.·
 3. Lymphatic vessels: Lymphatic vessels are the network of capillaries
(microvessels) and large network of tubes located throughout the body that
transport lymph away from tissues. Lymphatic vessels collect and filter lymph
(at the nodes) as it continues to move toward larger vessels called collecting
ducts. These vessels operate very much like the veins do: they work under
very low pressure, have a series of valves in them to keep the fluid moving
in one direction.
4. Collecting ducts: Lymphatic vessels empty the lymph into the right lymphatic
duct and left lymphatic duct (also called the thoracic duct). These ducts
connect to the subclavian vein, which returns lymph to the bloodstream. The
subclavian vein runs below the collarbone. Returning lymph to the
bloodstream helps to maintain normal blood volume and pressure. It also
prevents the excess buildup of fluid around the tissues (called edema).

Figure 16.1. The lymphatic vessels and blood vessels

The lymphatic system collects excess fluid that drains from cells and tissue
throughout the body and returns it to the bloodstream, which is then recirculated
through the body.

1. Spleen: largest lymphatic organ is located on the left side under the ribs and
above the stomach. The spleen filters and stores blood and produces
white blood cells that fight infection or disease.
2. Thymus:  located in the upper chest beneath the breast bone. It matures a
specific type of white blood cell that fights off foreign organisms (T lymphos)
 3. Tonsils and adenoid:  lymphoid organs that trap pathogens from the food
we eat and air we breathe. They are the body’s first line of defense against
foreign invaders.
4. Bone marrow:  soft, spongy tissue in the center of certain bones, such as the
hip bone and breastbone. White blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets
are made in the bone marrow.
5. Peyer’s patches: small masses of lymphatic tissue in the mucous membrane
that lines the small intestine. These lymphoid cells monitor and destroy
bacteria in the intestines.
6. Appendix: contains lymphoid tissue that can destroy bacteria before it
breaches the intestine wall during absorption. Scientists also believe the
appendix plays a role in housing “good bacteria” and repopulating the gut with
good bacteria after an infection has cleared.

Figure 16.2. Lymphoid tissues and organs

Organs that function as barriers

The skin and mucous membranes are the first line of defense against germs
entering from outside the body. They act as a physical barrier with support from the
following:
 1. Antibacterial substances can kill germs right from the start. A certain
enzyme found in saliva, the airways and tear fluid destroys the cell walls
of bacteria.
2. Mucus in the bronchi helps trap many of the germs we breathe in so they can
be moved out of the airways by hair-like structures called cilia.
3. Stomach acid stops most of the germs that enter the body in the food we
eat.
4. Harmless bacteria on our skin and many of the mucous membranes in our
body also act as part of the immune system.
In addition, the reflexes that cause us to cough and sneeze help to free our airways
of germs

What conditions affect the lymphatic system?

Many conditions can affect the vessels, glands, and organs that make up the
lymphatic system. Some happen during development before birth or during
childhood. Others develop as a result of disease or injury. Some common and less
common diseases and disorders of the lymphatic system include:
1. Enlarged (swollen) lymph nodes (lymphadenopathy): Enlarged lymph
nodes are caused by infection, inflammation or cancer. Common infections
that can cause enlarged lymph nodes include strep throat, mononucleosis,
HIV infection and infected skin wounds. Lymphadenitis refers to
lymphadenopathy that is caused from an infection or inflammatory condition.
 2. Swelling or accumulation of fluid (lymphedema): can result from a
blockage in the lymphatic system caused by scar tissue from damaged lymph
vessels or nodes. Lymphedema is also often seen when lymph nodes are
removed in persons who have had surgery and/or radiation to remove a
cancer. The buildup of lymphatic fluid is most commonly seen in the arms
and legs. Lymphedema can be very mild or be quite painful, disfiguring and
disabling. People with lymphedema are at risk for serious and potentially life-
threatening deep skin infections.
3. Cancers of the lymphatic system: Lymphoma is cancer of the lymph
nodes and occurs when lymphocytes grow and multiply uncontrollably. There
are several different types of lymphoma, including Hodgkin’s
lymphoma and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Cancerous tumors can also block
lymphatic ducts or be near lymph nodes and interfere with the flow of lymph
through the node.
Other disorders include:
1. Lymphangitis: inflammation of the lymph vessels.
2. Lymphangioma: condition that are born with. It’s a malformation in the
lymphatic system. Lymphangiomatosis is the presence of multiple or
widespread lymphatic vascular malformations.
3. Intestinal lymphangiectasia: loss of lymph tissue in the small intestine leads to
loss of protein, gammaglobulins, albumin and lymphocytes.
4. Lymphocytosis:  higher-than-normal amount of lymphocytes in the body, (viral
infection)
5. Lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis): affects the lower limbs even the sex
organ, infection caused by a parasite that causes the lymphatic system not to
function correctly; due to parasitic worms: Wucheraria bancrofti and Brugia
malayi (larval form of the parasites transmitted to humans by the bite of
mosquito (Anopheles in Africa and America; Aedes and Mansonia in the
Pacific and Asia)
6. Castleman disease:  an overgrowth of cells in the body’s lymphatic system.
7. Lymphangioleiomyomatosis:  rare lung disease in which abnormal muscle-
like cells begin to grow out of control in the lungs, lymph nodes and kidneys.
8. Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome: rare genetic disorder in which
there is a high number of lymphocytes in the lymph nodes, liver and spleen.
9. Mesenteric lymphadenitis:  inflammation of the lymph nodes in the abdomen.
10. Tonsillitis:  inflammation and infection of the tonsils.

How to keep lymphatic system healthy?

To keep lymphatic system strong and healthy:
1. Avoid exposure to toxic chemicals like those in pesticides or cleaning
products. These chemicals can build up in the system and make it harder for
the body to filter waste.
2. Drink plenty of water to stay hydrated so lymph can easily move throughout
the body.
3. Maintain a healthy lifestyle that includes regular exercise and a healthy diet.

When should I call my doctor about an issue with my lymphatic system?

Call your doctor if you experience fatigue (extreme tiredness) or have unexplained
swelling that lasts more than a few weeks or interferes with your daily activities.

How will the doctor test the lymphatic system?

To see if the lymphatic system is working as it should, the doctor may use imaging
tests such as a CT scan or MRI. These tests allow your doctor to see blockages in
your lymphatic system. (CT – computed tomography), MRI – Magnetic Resonance
Imaging
Body Defenses: (Immune System)
1. Innate defense mechanism
2. Adaptive defense mechanism
Immune System - is a functional system rather than an organ system in
anatomical sense. Its “structures” are a variety of molecules and millions of
immune cells that inhabit lymphoid tissues and organs and circulate in body
fluids. The most important of the immune cells are:
1. Lymphocytes
2. Dendritic cells
3. Macrophages – both innate and adaptive mechanism

Innate Defense system – also called nonspecific defense system; responds

immediately to protect the body from all foreign substances.
Adaptive defense system or specific defense system – fights invaders that
get past the innate defenses by mounting an attack against one or more
particular foreign substances
Immunity – highly specific resistance to disease

THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

Innate (nonspecific) defense mechanisms Adaptive (specific)

defense mechanisms

First line of defense Second line of defense Third line of defense

-Skin -Phagocytic cells -Lymphocytes

-Mucous membranes -Natural killer cells -Antibodies
-Secretion of skin and -Antimicrobial proteins -Macrophages and
mucous membranes -The inflammatory other antigen-presenting
response cells
-fever

REFERENCES:

https://www.google.com/search?
q=lymphatic+system+organs&sxsrf=ALeKk00YXPBCkZZBAuuvBBVu4glTK1TjyA:16
21248226538&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=0TjPgMEFIeP_XM
%252CN0xASQrOgRD92M%252C%252Fm%252F0jdkj&vet=1&usg=AI4_-
kQmJbR9QMHfoII1wT4TWyC1tcdeTQ

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279395/

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/21199-lymphatic-system

Marieb, Elaine N. and Keller, Suzanne M. (2018). Essentials of Human Anatomy and
Physiology. 12th Edition. Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd. Singapore.
Marieb, Elaine N. and Brito, Simone (2019). Anatomy and Physiology coloring
workbook( A complete study guide). 12th Edition. Pearson Education South Asia
Pte Ltd. Singapore