Principles of Crop Science

Lesson 2. Genetic Factors

The genetic factors affecting plant growth and development and crop
productivity are all those which exclude the environmental factors. They refer to the
overall gene constitution of the plant or the smallest unit of this entirety which
dictates the expression of specific traits.
Genetic factors are also referred to as internal factors because they determine
plant characteristics from within the plant, specifically from within the cell. In other
words, a plant displays a unique trait because there is this genetically-dictated
blueprint which makes such trait inherent in the plant. Without such genetic blueprint,
any manipulation on the external factors (called environmental) will fail in
attempting to make the plant display such trait.

2.1. Crop Varieties

The increase in crop yields and other desirable characters are related to
genetic make-up of plants. Table 4 shows some of the selection indices or
characteristics for selecting superior cultivars of plant. Technologies required in
growing a certain crops are dependent on the characteristics of a particular variety
especially growth characteristics and yield, quality of the product, and market
acceptability.

Table 4. Some Selection Indices for Selecting Superior Cultivars

Crops Selection Indices
Field Crops
Rice Disease resistance (tungro), pest resistance (brown leafhopper),
early maturity
Corn Disease resitance (downy mildew, stalk rot), pest resistance
(corn borer), yield
Sweet potato Root yield, root dry matter, starch content, disease resistance
(feathery mottle virus, scab)
White potato Yield, disease resistance (potato blight)
Soybean Yield, growth , shattering characteristics
Peanut Yield, quality
Fruits
Banana Disease resistance (bunchy top, sigatoka), plant height, large
bunch and more uniform ripening
Papaya Disease resistance (ringspot virus, crown rot), fruit size, flesh
color, seediness, and bearing regularity
Durian Disease resistance, fruit size, flesh color
Coconut Yield, rate of leaf production, spherical crown
Coffee Disease resistance (coffee rust), short internodes, size of fruit
cluster
Cacao Disease resistance (vascular streak), pest resistance (pod borer),

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dieback
Pineapple Disease resistance, fruit quality (size, shape, and total solids)
Vegetables
Tomato Yield, disease resistance (bacterial wilt), tolerance to rain, fruit
size and color, dry matter content (for processing of tomato
paste), puffiness
Eggplant Yield, disease resistance (bacterial wilt), pest resistance (fruit
borer), fruit size, shape and color
Garlic Yield, disease resistance, pungency total dry matter (for
processing)
Onion Yield, disease resistance, pungency, early maturing, bulb size
Beans Yield, disease resistance, good postharvest, handling
characteristics, fruit quality (flavor and fibrousness)
Squash Yield, fruit quality (size, shape, color, mealiness), disease
resistance
Cabbage Yield, head quality (size and shape), disease resistance
Cauliflower Disease resistance, curd quality (size and color), yield
Ornamentals
Chrysanthemum Color, long, straight, strong stem, floral display, disease
(as cut flower) resistance (white rust), pest resistance (leaf miner), long
postharvest life
Roses Clear color, long strong and straight stem, resistant to blackspot
and powdery mildew diseases, long postharvest life (slow
opener), not prone to bluing, long bud and urn-shaped flowers
when partially open, few thorns, dark-green foliage
Anthurium Yield at least 6 flowers per plant per year, color uniform and
clear, spathe with high gloss, not too ridge or too smooth, heart-
shaped, spadix slightly reclined and not extending beyond tip of
spathe, should suckers freely but not too much, size of
inflorescence proportional to stalk, resistance to bacterial blight
and long postharvest life
Baby Aster Compact inflorescence, disease resistance, long postharvest life
Gladiolus Floret of clear color, good texture and placement, strong
straight spikes, at least 1 marketable spike per corm, rachis with
at least 16 florets, good opening characteristics, good floral
display, goof corm yield and resistant to fusarium wilt
Dendrobium orchid Long flower sprays (at least 10”), adopted to a wide range of
(as cut flower) growing conditions, resistant of pests and diseases (mites, thrips
and soft rot), blooming period peaking at period of peak
demands, long shelf life (at least 2 weeks), available in a variety
of colors, large flowers (2 ½ - 3” flower spread), high yield (at
least 12 sprays per year) bloom several times during the year,
and not prone to bud drop.

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Moreover, the choice of variety is one of the most critical decisions in crop
production. The list of varieties of some selected agricultural crops is presented in
Table 5-6.

Table 5. List of some NSIC-registered crop varieties in the Philippines

Crop Varieties
Rice Sahod Ulan (Rainfed), Tubigan (Irrigated), Mestiso (Hybrid), Salinas
(Saline areas), Katihan (Upland), Submarino (Submerged), Mabango,
Malagkit, Japonica, Zinc Rice
Garlic Ilocos White (Balitok), Batanes Red, Ilocos Pink (Gameng), Mexican
(Sanikua), Bang-ar, Ilocos Tan Bolters, MMSU Gem
Mungbean Luntian, Mabunga, Kinang, Kulabo
Soybean La Carlota Sy 4, Mapusyaw 2
Peanut Asha, Namnama
Cassava Raying, Sultan, Rajah
Potato Gloria Patatas, Bengueta Patatas
Coffee Robusta, Arabica, Exclesa, Liberica
Cacao K9, S5, UF 18
Banana Mapilak
Abaca Abuab, Inosa, Tangonon
Mango Carabao, Mangoming, Golden Pico, P1 King Rodolfo, JTA Sweet,
Tanaleon, Guimaras Super
Longan LRALVIAR Pride
Rambutan Angel Sweet
Lanzones Longkong
Pili Orbase, Allenoz
Breadfruit FB Cachola, Allen Ol, Lavasarez
Camachile Rochelle Ann
Duhat Consuelo Giant Duhat
Jackfruit Baybay Sweet
Pumelo Siamese Abulug
Citrus Gayunan Mandarin, Pummelo, Ponkan Mandarin (California), Ponkan
Coconut VMAC
Tomato Olivia, Margaux, Mikaela, Golden Globe, Animax, Nomiarc Tm 1
Bush Snap Bean Cali, Sablan, Bokod
Pole Snap Bean Kibungan, Tuba, Wangal, Itogon, Tublay, Mabunga, Kapangan
Garden Pea Bomiero, Betag
Pole Sitao Rikit, Hitik
Eggplant Tanglaw, Tanyag, Sikat, Sulit
Mulberry Alfonso
Mussaenda Teresita Lantin-Rosario, Emerlinda R. Roman Donas, Clara L. Davide
Gumamela Thessalonica, Evelyn Mae Tecson Mendoza, Carmencita David
Padilla, Catharanthus roseus, Olie Damasco, Lelen Delfin, Dory
Dizon, Perly Nuevo, Lil Pateña, Aislyn, Cheery Twirl, ,Sleepy Lady,
Vicky

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Dracaena Sun Beam

Anthurium Eternity, UPLB White
Sanseviera Sword of Ibe
Freycinita Golden Stairs

Table 6. Recommended varieties of vegetables for container gardening

Kind Variety
Bunching or Green Onion Benizome, Aqua Green, Fuyuyo, Natsuyo, Tokyo Long
White
Celery Tall Utah, Tendercrisp
Ceylon Spinach (Alugbati) Red variety
Endive Fullhearted
Leaf lettuce Lollo Rosa, Wonder of 4 seasons, Red Salad Bowl, Denies
Red, Red Sails, Romaine
Head lettuce Batavia Green, Great Lakes, White Boston, President,
Iceberg, Getto, Emperor, Green Lakes, Ontario
Brocolli Turbo, Jubilee, Calabrese, Grandeur, Top Green (for high
temperature areas), Legacy
Cabbage Red Dynasty, Red Mast, Red Amager, Red Charm, Red
Drumhead
Cauliflower Kirin, Alba Rich 45, Graffiti, White Coral, Snowball, White
Summer, White Baron
Bitter gourd (Ampalaya) Maldita, Sta. Isabelle, Galaxy, Sta. Rita, Mayon, Green
Comet, Sta. Fe
Bottle gourd (Upo) Tambuli, Tambuli Supreme
Cucumber Batangas White
Squash Shiroguri, Giant Melon, Rizalina, Igorota
Zucchini Zucchini Grey
Okra Smooth Green
Pole Bean (Sitaw) Scarlet Max
Snap bean Dwarf Yellow
Winged bean Native
Eggplant Black Jack, Black Ninja, Fiesta, Casino, Jackpot, Long
Purple, Domino
Long pepper Django, Cayenne, Long Thin Cayenne
Capsicum pepper Majesty, Trinity, Celica, Lamuyo, California Wonder, Yolo
Wonder, Sweet Spanish, Enterprise, Marengo
Tomato Paruche, Marimar, Maxima, Rocky, Mountain Pride, Money
Maker, Enrico, Apollo, F 4-7
Carrot Argo Kuroda, KS Kuroda, Kuroda, Improved Kuroda

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2.2. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)

Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct
manipulation of an organism’s genome using biotechnology. Biotechnology is a set of
technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of
genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organism.
An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be a
genetically modified organism (GMO). Genetic engineering techniques have been
applied in numerous fields including research, agriculture, industrial biotechnology,
and medicine.
Plants have been modified for insect protection, herbicide resistance, virus
resistance, enhanced nutrition, tolerance to environmental pressures, and production
of edible vaccines. Table 7 presented the important crop traits modified by genetic
engineering.

Table 7. Important crop traits modified by genetic engineering.

Agronomic traits  weed control
 insect pest resistance
 resistance to diseases (fungi, viruses, bacteria,
nematodes)
 tolerance to environmental stresses (e.g. heat, cold,
drought, salt, AI, heavy metals)
increased nitrogen fixation
Quality traits  enhanced nutritional quality of food crops (e.g.
vitamins, minerals, proteins)
 delayed ripening of fruits
 changes of colour, flavour and texture, as well as
modification of oil, starch and protein composition
elimination of toxic or anti-nutritional factors
Industrial uses  high-value chemicals
 modified and speciality oils
 recombinant or engineered proteins including enzymes
 production of pharmaceuticals (e.g. antibodies,
vaccines)
 renewable non-food products (e.g. fuel, plastics)
 bioremediation

One of the best known and controversial applications of genetic engineering is

the creation and use of genetically modified crops which are used to produce
genetically modified food and materials with diverse uses. There are four main goals
in generating genetically modified crops:
1. To provide protection from environmental threats, such as pathogens and/or
resistance to herbicides. They have been developed to make the insect and
weed management of crops easier and can directly increase crop yield.
2. To modify the quality of produce by, for instance, increasing nutritional value
or providing more industrially useful qualities or quantities. The Amflora potato,

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for example, produces a more industrially useful blend of starches. Soybeans

and canola have been genetically modified to produce more healthy oils.
3. Driving the GMO to produce materials that it does not normally make. One
example is “pharming”, which uses crops as bioreactors to produce vaccines,
drug intermediates, or drug themselves; the useful product is purified from the
harvest and then used in the standard pharmaceutical production process.
4. To directly improve yield by accelerating growth, or making the organism more
hardy (for plants, by improving salt, cold or drought tolerance)

The genetic engineering of agricultural crops can increase the growth rates and
resistance to difference diseases caused by pathogens and parasites. This is beneficial
as it can greatly increase the production of food sources with the usage of fewer
resources that would be required to host the world’s growing populations. These
modified crops would also reduce the usage of chemicals, such as fertilizers and
pesticides, and therefore, decrease the severity and frequency of the damages
produced by this chemical pollution.

Some Plant Products of Biotechnology

Plant products of biotechnology have been available in the market for some
time now. These modified crops look like their traditional counterparts, but they
possess special characteristics that make them better.

a. Biotech Soybean
Herbicide-tolerant soybean varieties contain a gene that provides resistance
to one of two broad-spectrum, environmentally benign herbicides. This modified
soybean provides better weed control and reduces crop injury. It also improves farm
efficiency by optimizing yield, using arable land more efficiently, saving time for the
farmer, and increasing the flexibility of crop rotation. It also encourages the adoption
of no-till farming-an important part of soil conservation practice.
Oleic acid soybean
This modified soybean contains high levels of oleic acid, a monounsaturated fat.
According to health nutritionists, monounsaturated fats are considered “good” fats,
compared with saturated fats found in beef, pork, hard cheeses, and other dairy
products. Oil processed from these varieties is similar to that of peanut and olive oils.
Conventional soybeans have an oleic acid content of 24%. These new varieties have an
oleic acid content that exceeds 80%.

b. Biotech Corn
Insect-resistant corn. This modified corn contains a
built-in insecticidal protein from a naturally occurring soil
microorganism (Bt) that gives corn plants season-long
protection from corn borers. The Bt protein has been used
safely as an organic insect control agent for over 40 years.
This means most farmers do not have to spray insecticide to
protect corn from harmful pests, which can cause significant

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damage and yield loss in many areas. Bt corn also reduces toxin contamination arising
from fungal attack on the damaged grain.

c. Golden Rice. Biofortified with pro-vitamin A beta

carotene that is being developed by the PhilRice and
IRRI with support from the Bill and Melinda Gates
Foundationd (Inventors: Ingo Potrykus and Peter
Beyer in 2004)

d. Fruit and shoot borer resistant Bt eggplant

which was developed by the Institute of Plant
Breeding of the University of the Philippines Los
Baños (IPB-UPLB)

e. Biotech Canola
Herbicide-tolerant canola works in a manner similar to herbicide-tolerant
soybean
High laurate canola. These canola varieties contain high levels of laurate. Oil
processed from these novel varieties is similar to
coconut and palm oils. This new canola oil is being sold
to the food industry for use in chocolate candy coatings,
coffee whiteners, icings, frostings, and whipped
toppings. Benefits extend even to the cosmetics
industry.
Oleic acid canola. This new type of canola
contains high levels of oleic acid

f. Biotech Cotton

Herbicide-tolerant cotton. This cotton works

in a manner similar to herbicide-tolerant soybean.
Insect-resistant cotton. This modified cotton
works in a manner similar to insect-resistant corn. It
contains a protein that provides the plant with
season-long protection from budworms and
bollworms. The need for additional insecticide
applications for these pests is reduced or eliminated.

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 Principles of Crop Science

g. Biotech Potato
Insect-resistant potato. This biotech potato works like insect-resistant corn. It
contains a protein that provides the plant with built-in protection from the Colorado
potato beetle. Thus, this potato needs no additional protection for this pest,
benefiting farmers, consumers, and the environment.
Virus-resistant potato. Several potato varieties have been modified to resist
potato leafroll virus (PLRV) and potato virus Y (PVY). In the same way that people get
inoculations to prevent disease, these potato varieties are protected through
biotechnology from certain viruses. Furthermore, virus resistance often results in
reduced insecticide use, which is needed to control insect vectors that transmit
viruses.

h. Biotech Squash

Virus-resistant squash. A biotech yellow crookneck

squash is now able to resist watermelon mosaic virus
(WMV) and zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV).
These new varieties contain the coat protein genes
of both viruses. This biotech approach bypasses
aphid control, which may reduce or eliminate the
use of insecticides.

i. Biotech Tomato

Delayed-ripening tomato. The delayed-ripening tomato became the first

genetically modified food crop to be produced in a developed country. These tomato
varieties have extended shelf life. They contain a gene that slows the natural
softening process that accompanies ripening. These
tomatoes spend more days on the vine than other
tomatoes, thus resulting in better flavor. Furthermore,
the longer shelf life has commercial advantages in
harvesting and shipping that can reduce the costs of
production

j. Biotech papaya

Virus-resistant papaya. This Hawaiian-developed papaya

contains a viral gene that encodes for the coat protein of
papaya ringspot virus (PRSV). This protein provides the papaya
plant with built-in protection against PRSV. This biotech papaya
works in a manner similar to virus resistant potato.

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k. Biotech Apple

Non-browning apple. They use gene

silencing to produce less polyphenol oxidase
(PPO), the enzyme that causes the flesh to
turn brown. Apple slices with the trait do
not brown for as long as three weeks.

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Lesson 3. Human factors

Human factors determine agricultural activity, often overlooked but probably it

is the core of the system itself, it is the reason for crop production, for farming.

3.1. Farmer’s preference

This is with regards to what crop to grow, variety to use, or technology to
accept or reject. It is ideally based on farmer’s objectives and aspirations but often
dictated by external factors such as:
 Market. Includes accessibility of farms, nearness to population center as
markets, local market situation and preference of the populace. Supply and
demand situation should be known so that operations can be adjusted for
harvesting to coincide with the slack periods of supply when prices are high.
 Government policies. Government may provide subsidies and loans to
encourage new farming practices. Policies such as land conversion,
international trade agreements, tax, subsidies, grants

3.2. Farmer’s capability

Success of farming depends on the resources and knowledge of the farmer. Our
culture is very rich in indigenous knowledge particularly about farming. Farmers may
have always farmed in a certain way and be unwilling to change. Some will take the
risk and adapt new and appropriate technologies for farming.
On the other hand, most Filipino farmers are resource-poor. The economic
condition of the farmers greatly decides the input/resource mobilizing ability
(marginal, small, medium and large farmers)

3.3. Cultural practices

This involves the religion, norms, customs and social institutions. It may
include the cropping pattern being followed by the community. One cannot deviate
much unless the community as a whole, changes the pattern (e.g. the risk from pest
damage in the field are greater if planting is not synchronized with that of the
community). Production practices in the area also influence the farming management.
There must be good reasons for adopting existing practices in the area. Information
on yields of the best farms in the area must be obtained and may be used as the
standard for upgrading farming operations.

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Almendras, R.P. 2017. Principles and Techniques of Plant Breeding. Arcler Press LLC,
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Fitter, A., & Hay, R. (2002). Environmental Physiology of Plants (3rd ed.). London, UK:
Academic Press.

Keller, B. & E. H. Carabias. 2001. Transgenic Plants for Sustainable Crop Production.
In Crop Science: Progress and Prospects. CABI Publishing, New York, USA. p353

https://www.cropsreview.com/genetic-factors.html

Philippines Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and
Development (PCAARRD). 2013. Book Series No. 176/2013 Urban Vegetable
Production in the Philippines. Los Baños, Laguna. pp 11-13

Philippine Institute for Development Studies. 2005. Basics on Philippine climatology.

https://dirp4.pids.gov.ph/ris/eid/pidseid0502.pdf

Sagun, A.V. 2012. Lecture Manual on Crop Science 101 Principles of Crop Production.
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Sutton, W.R., et al., 2019. Striking a Balance Managing El Niño and La Niña in
Philippines’ Agriculture. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/
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Philippines-Agriculture.pdf

Taiz, L., & Zeiger, E. (2010). Plant Physiology (5th ed.). USA: Sinauer Associates, Inc.

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