/L

Rockwelt
InternationaI

pilot’s -H iide

Collins General Aviation Division

Collins WXR-200A
L
Weather Radar System

I ‘J7

L
 contents

.
introduction . . . . . . . . . . , , , , , . . . . . . . .
section 7
the WXR-200A weather radar system I I .. 2
IN0-2OOA indicator . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . , . . . .. 2
WXT-ZDOA receiver-transmitter .. . . .. e.. I 3
ANT-21O/ANT-212/ANT-212D antennas .. . .. 4
section 2
operational controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 5
range switch.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. 5
mode switch.. . . . . . ......................... 6
tilt and intensity con ........................ 8
weather hold and stabilization controls .. . . . .
fault monitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
section 3
preflight . . . . . . . . . . .I1
section 4
.. . .
operation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . .. . . . . . .I4
departure and enroute . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . .. . . . . .14
weather recognition and avoidance , , , ...
. . . . . . . .I5
use of weather h o l d . . . . . . . I . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .I5
. .

terrain mapping.. ....... .. I .. I 7

section 5
weather radar interpretation . . . . . . . . . ..
, , . . . . . . . . . .I8
thunderstorms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . , , , . . . . . . . .20
tornadoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . , , .. . . . . . . .22
hail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 2 3
advisory circular . ..26
introduction

The pilot's guide describes the operation of the WXR-2OOA

Weather Radar System and provides a basic understanding
of the techniques of weather detection and avoidance. This
booklet is not intended to provide a comprehensive treat-
ment of the interpretation of the weather radar display.
Proper use of radar for weather detection and avoidance
largely depends on the pilot's ability to evaluate the display
in terms of the associated weather conditions. This skill in
interpreting the display is gained through training and ex-
perience.

The WXR-200A system provides up to a 180-nautical-mile

range. The system consists of three units: a panel-mounted
indicator with all system operating controls; a remotely
mounted receiver-transmitter; and a nose-mounted, pitch-
corrected flat-plate antenna or an unstabilized dish anten-
na.

During adverse weather conditions, the pilot is concerned

about the safest possible flight path. The WXR-2OOA system
aids the pilot in choosing this path. The indicator display
shows targets in terms of range and azimuth relative to the
aircraft heading as an aid in navigating around areas of
heaviest rainfall. (Refer to the thunderstorms and radar sec-
tion of FAA Advisory Circulars No. 00-6A, Aviation
Weather, and No. 00-24, Thunderstorms, for additional in-
formation.)

The WXR-2OOA system may also be used for terrain map-

ping. The indicator display shows terrain features that
provide a navigational aid to effectively extend the pilot's
"vision" under otherwise restricted visibility conditions.

P R I M A R Y COLLISIQN AVOIDANCE O R GROUND NARNIN

PROXIMITY WARNING DEVICE. WHILE THE WEATHER
RADAR C A N SUPPLY SOME TERRAIN RANGE
INFORMATION, I T fS THE PILOT'S RESPONSIBILITY TO
BE ALERT TO THESE DANGEROUS SITUATIONS AND
TO USE ALL INFORMATION AT
The WXR-2OOA is an advanced design weather radar using a
digitally generated display that provides several operational
features not found in earlier generation weather radars.
These features include the following:

Continuous nonfading display.

4-intensity-level weather display.
Increased crt dot density for a smoother display outline.
Dual pulse width for optimum long- and short-range per-
formance.
Absence of random noise and interference.
Digitally generated azimuth lines at O", f22.5', and f 4 5 O .
Digitally generated alphanumeric display of mode, range,
and fault annunciation,
Short 5-nautical-mile range with five I-mile range marks
for close-in targets.
Weather hold function,
Weather identification function.
Automatic cyclic contouring.
Fast system warmup time.
Range adjusted contour.
Pitch-corrected antenna (ANT-210/212 only).

1
Section 1
The WXR-2OOA
Weather Radar System
The WXR-MOA Weather Radar System develops a display of
detectable weather conditions up to 180 nautical miles
ahead of, and 45 degrees either side of, the aircraft's
longitudinal axis.

The system consists of three units: an IND-200A Indicator; a

WXT-200A Receiver-Transmitter; and an ANT-210 (IO-inch)
or ANT-212 (12-inch) flat-plate, phased array antenna or an
ANT-212D dish antenna.

IND-200A indicator

L
The IND-ZOOA uses digital circuitry to process the video
signal from the receiver-transmitter.This digital technique
allows the indicator to provide a constant nonfading display
of all detectable targets within the selected range and
within the 90-degree antenna scan angle. The indicator
provides an alphanumeric display of selected range, miles
between range marks, and selected mode. These
alphanumerics appear at the outermost range mark at the
top of the screen.

2
All operating controls for the WXR-2DOA system are located
on the indicator. The controls and their functions are dis-
cussed in section 2 (Operational Controls) of this booklet.

The indicator display synchronizes the timing of the

transmitter rf pulses and the antenna position. The resulting
plan-position indication (PPI) is a display of range and
azimuth of tarpets with respect to the aircraft heading.

WXT-2OOA receiver-transmitter

The WXT-2M)A transmits a 5-kw pulse of X-band rf energy

120 times per second and "listens" between pulses. The
transmitted pulses are applied to the antenna and radiated
into space in a narrow beam. When the pulses strike a
target, echoes are reflected back to the antenna where they
are applied to the receiver portion of the WXT-200A during
the "listening" period. Echoes from targets within range are
amplified and digitized in the receiver and applied to the
indicator for processing and display.
ANT-21O/ANT-212/ANT-212D antennas

The ANT-210 and the ANT-212 are flat-plate, phased array

antennas differing only in antenna plate diameter and
radiated beam characteristics. The ANT-210 is 10 inches in
diameter and has a 9.5-degree beam width. The ANT-212 is
12 inches in diameter and has an &degree beam width. The
larger the diameter of the plate, the narrower the beam
width and the higher the gain of the antenna, resulting in
better target resolution and in detection of weaker targets.
Both antennas consist of two separate units: the drive
mechanisms for the %degree scan and *IS-degree tilt,
and the radiating element itself. Both antennas are pitch-
corrected (f2degrees) in response to changes in aircraft
pitch attitude and antenna manual tilt information.

The ANT-212D (not shown) is 12 inches in diameter and has

an 8-degree beam width. The antenna consists of the drive
mechanism for %degree scan and fl5-degree tilt, and a
parabolic reflector. The ANT-212D is nonstabilized.

4
 Section 2
Operational Controls
All operating controls for the WXR-200A Weather Radar
System are located on the right side of the IND-200A In-
dicator. The following paragraphs describe the controls and
their function.

NOTE

range switch

OFF
range switch -
- Removes power from the weather radar system.
STBY - Power is applied to the system and a 60-second
warmup period is initiated. The indicator display and
transmitter circuits are inhibited during the 60-second
warmup period and whenever STBY i s selected. Three range
marks and five azimuth lines should appear within 20
seconds after applying power. The antenna scan drive cir-
cuit i 5 also inhibited in STBY. STBY is displayed at the top of
the screen.
5 - The antenna begins to scan and after the 60-second
warmup period has elapsed, the transmitter is energized.
This position selects a 5-nautical-mile range (maximum1
with five 1-mile range marks. 5-1 is displayed a t top left of
screen, and the selected mode is displayed at top right of
screen.
i o - Same as 5, except selects a 10-nautical-mile range
(maximum] with five 2-mite range marks (10-2is displayed).
15 - Same as 5, except selects a 'Ihautical-mile range
(maximum) with three 5-mile range marks (15-5 is dis-
played).
XI- Same as 5, except selects a 30-nautical-mile range
(maximum) with three 10-mile range marks (30-10is dis-
played).
60 - Same as 5, except selects a 60-nautical-mlle range
(maximum) with three 20-mile range marks (60-20 is dis-
played).
- Same as 5, except selects a '120-nautical-mile range
(maximum) with three ?mile range marks (120-40 is dis-
played).
180 - Same as 5, except selects a 180-nautical-milerange
(maximum) with three 60-mile range marks (180-60 is dis-
played).

mode switch

6
TST - Initiates the self-test function when the RANGE
switch is positioned to one of the seven ranges. After
system warmup time (approximately 60 seconds) has
elapsed, the display shown on page 13 should appear. For a
normal-size test pattern, the RANGE switch should be
positioned to 30. Other positions will increase or decrease
the test pattern size, resulting in an incomplete pattern.
TEST will be displayed at top right, and the selected range
(normally 30-10) will be at upper left.

WX - Enables the automatic cyclic contour mode in the

indicator. Contouring storm cells will appear as a black area
outlined by two lighter levels of brilliance for the first
sweep; then the contouring cell will become the brightest
area on the display for the next sweep. (In WX mode, the
first sweep is contoured and the second sweep i; noncon-
toured.) The STC (sensitivity time control) circuit allows dis-
tant targets to appear with the same relative brightness or
intensity as close-in targets. WX mode and selected range
are displayed at top of screen.

NORM -
Disables the automatic cyclic contour feature.
NORM mode and selected range are displayed at top of
screen.

MAP/CAIN-MIN - Selecting MAP mode or one of the

four manual GAIN positions also disables the automatic
cyclic contour feature. The ability of a target to be dis-
played is dependent upon the particular GAIN setting used,
with the MAP having the highest gain (same as WX and
NORM), and each of the four manual GAIN positions,
reducing receiver sensitivity 6 dB, for a total reduction of 24
dB in M I N position. All detectable targets will be shown in
one of three distinct levels of brightness (plus the black in-
dicator screen), depending on the GAIN setting used and
the radar echo strength. The selected range will be dis-
played at top left of screen. If MAP mode is selected, the
word MAP will appear at top right of screen. If one of the
four manual GAIN positions is selected, the words GAIN-
MAP-GAIN-MAP, etc, will appear at top right of screen,
alternating at a I - H z rate. The alternating words serve to re-
mind the pilot that the system is operating in a reduced
gain condition and some targets may not be displayed.

7
WX ID - The momentary WX ID button (concentric with
the MODE switch) is used to verify that a displayed target
ha5 a contouring area. When WX mode is selected, the
weather identification feature can be used to verify that a
contoured area (dark hole) i s actually a storm cell. If the
dark hole is a storm cell, pressing the WX ID button will
cause the dark hole to become the brightest of the three
levels of brilliance displayed on the indicator. Returns not
contouring will be erased from the display. If the WX ID
button is pressed and a bright area does not show in place
of the dark hole, this particular area does not represent a
contour or a storm cell. If one of the manual GAIN settings
i s selected and the WX ID button is pressed, only detectable
contouring storm cell targets will be displayed and the rest
of the screen wit1 be dark. It is also possible to determine
the relative intensity of the contoured area by using the
manual GAIN settings. For instance, if the GAIN is reduced
12 dB (two positions down from M A P ) and the contouring
area is still visible, the contouring storm is at least 12 dB
stronger than the preset level. Releasing the WX ID button
allows the system to return to normal operation within ap-
proximately 10 seconds or until the WX ID button is
released if held more than ID seconds.

tilt and intensity controls

tllt and lntentlltycontrol 1

8
TILT - The TILT control manually adjusts the pitch axis of
the antenna from approximately + I S to -15 degrees to
allow the best target presentation.

IN1 - Concentric with the TILT control and controls the

intensity of the indicator display.

weather hold and stabilization controls

WX HOLD - The push-on/push-off WX HOLD button

allows the display on the indicator to be frozen until a
different range is selected, or until the WX HOLD button i 5
again pressed, or until power is removed from the system.
Target updating will not occur when operating in the WX
HOLD mode. Selected range will appear at top left of
screen. The word HOLD and the mode selected on the
MODE switch will appear at top right of screen, alternating
at a I-Hz rate (ie, HOLD-WX-HOLD-WX). The alternating
words serve to remind the pilot that the system is in the
HOLD mode and the display is not being updated.

STAB - Pulling the STAB switch outward disables the

ANT-210/212 Antenna pitch-correction circuits. This func-
tion is used in case of gyro input signal failure.

The STAB switch is not functional if the ANT-212D Antenna

is being used.

9
fault monitor

faun monbr
, - .

The fault monitor circuit has priority over any selected

mode. The word FAULT will appear at the top right of the
screen and will alternate at a 7 - H t rate if the transmitter
shuts down or ifthere is a momentary power interruption.
To reset the system, momentarily position the RANGE
switch to STBY; then reselect the desired range.

II i r r r woiu

The WXR-2OA Weather Radar System has been designer

to exhibit a very high degree of functional integrity.
Nevertheless, the user must recognize that it is not practica
to provide monitoring for all conceeivable system failure!
and, however unlikely, it is possible that erroneous opera.
tion could occur without a fault indication. It is the respon
of the p,ilot to detect such an occurrence by con-
assessing the ;onableness of the displayed infor.
 Section 3
Preflight
The operational status of the weather radar system should
be verified before each flight by performing the followinp
procedure.

, "
,, s,.,, y,:,. ";..'
. . ?i.*a..,:a~~!i:.rl:.~.;i; '
'

6,". i
.. .
i~ ' - - - ~ T H E K K A u A K i u A h Y VOSiTiuN
EXCEPT OFF, STBV. C ST WHEN THE AhTE\hA WILL BE
DIRECTED TOWARD GROUND PERSOhhEL, kEAR
HANGARS OR OTHER LARGE METAL BUILDINGS. b n
DTHER AIRCRAFT. NEVER OPERATE THE RADAR DURlNC
FbELlhG O R DEFUELING OPERATlOhS REFER TO FAA
9DVISORY CIRCULAR NO. 20-68A, IN THE BACK Of T U ' c
'
PILOT s WIDE, FOR FLRTHER INFORMATION.:

Verify that the radar bus circuit breaker is on.

Position controls on the IND-200A Indicator as follows:

MODE switch to TST.

RANGE switch to 30.

TILT control to +5 degrees. After approximately 20

seconds, three range marks and five azimuth lines
should appear, and the alphanumerics 30-10 and TEST
will be displayed at top of screen.

After approximately 60 seconds, the test pattern shown

below should appear. The display will alternate with one
contouring and one noncontouring test pattern. Adjust
INT control for desired brightness.

Verify the following items on the display:

a. There are three distinct levels of brightness from apex
to center of screen.
b. From the apex of the display, there are five distinct
bands extending outward (excluding the range
marks). The shading of these bands is as follows:

First band is light shading.

Second band is intermediate shading.

11
 Third band i s the cyclic contour band and cycles
from brightest shading to dark in a one-to-one
ratio.

Fourth band i s intermediate shading.

Fifth band i s light shading.

c . No noise (more than six -random dots) is present on

display.

EFORE ENERGIZING THE TRANSMITTER, ENSURE THAT

HE ANTENNA WILL NOT BE DIRECTED TOWARn 'ARNINC.
ERSONNEL, HANGARS, OR CONTAINERS HOI rill
LAMMABLE MATER1

d. Momentarily select WX mode; then reselect TST.

Press the WX HOLD switch before completion of
the test pattern. Note that the test pattern
"freezes" on the display. The words HOLD and
TEST should alternately appear at top right of
screen. By turning off the weather hold function,
the display should return to normal updating.

5 Position controls on the IND-200A Indicator as follows:

MODE switch to WX.

WX HOLD switch to off (not in HOLD mode).

INT control as desired for best display.

6. Verify that 30-10 is displayed at top left of screen and WX

i 5 displayed at top right of screen.

7. Position RANGE switch to 5 or 10. Verify that there are

five range marks present. Adjust the TILT control
between +I5 and -5 degrees. Observe that close-in
ground clutter appears at the lower settings, and any
local detectable weather appears at the higher settings.

8. Position RANGE switch to STBY.

This completes the preflight test.

12
 L

contouring
test plttern

.
a
nonconrouring
&it pattern

13
Section 4
Operation
The primary function of the WXR-200A Weather Radar
System is to aid the pilot in the detection and avoidance of
thunderstorms and the turbulence that is generally
associated with these storms. Normal rainfall, hail,
moderate-to-heavy wet snow, and, in some instances,
possible icing conditions can also be detected by the
system. By tilting the antenna downward, the radar
provides a terrain mapping function.

‘Each operator normally develops specific techniques and

procedures for using weather radar. It should be noted that
the basic operational techniques for the WXR-2OOA system
are no different from the techniques used with earlier
generation radars.

OOA system be used

pr MAP mode is

departure and enroute

After takeoff, scan the terminal area using the 5-, IO-, or 15-
mile range and the WX mode and plan the departure accor-
dingly. As altitude is gained and speed increases, use the
30- or 60-mile range and the WX mode. Adjust the TILT
control for minimum ground return. (INT control can be
adjusted for desired brightness.)

. .

Proper use of the TILT control allows the experienced

“pperator to achieve the best knowledge of storm cell size,,
nd . re1 ent.
. . . . ..
.7 ,’

While enroute, systematically reevaluate the displayed

weather conditions both in the immediate area and, using a
longer range, in the distant region of planned flight. with
the aircraft in level flight, a slight amount of antenna uptilt
may be necessary to minimize ground clutter. The proper
amount of tilt will depend on the aircraft attitude and
altitude and the operating range selected.
 weather recognition and avoidance

Experience soon enables the pilot to properly analyze

various types of storm displays. Illustrations showing typical
storm displays are included in the Weather Radar Inter-
pretation section of this pilot's guide. The key to avoiding
detected weather is to first determine the heading change
needed to bypass a storm safely. Establish the aircraft on the
appropriate heading and then recheck the display to see if
further heading changes are required. The direction and
rate of movement of the storm, itself, can be determined,
using the weather hold function as discussed in the follow-
ing paragraph.

use of weather hold

The weather hold function allows the pilot to evaluate

storm direction and rate of movement relative to the air-
craft's present heading. The hold function will provide the
greatest assistance when used on the longer ranges. O n the
shorter ranges, the weather situation can change too rapid-
ly to justify using the hold function.

Assume the 120-mile range is selected and the display

shows a storm approximately 90 miles dead ahead. Press the
push-on/push-off WX HOLD switch and maintain the ex-
isting aircraft heading. Note that the words HOLD and WX
are alternately displayed at top right of display.

After a few minutes, turn off the weather hold function.

The display now shows the storm to be approximately 80
miles away and s t i l l dead ahead.

Movement of a storm along any straight line leading to the

apex of the display tells the pilot that the aircraft and storm
drift rates are nearly equal, and continuation of present
heading will result in penetrating the storm. Action should
be taken now to alter the flight path.

If, after a couple of minutes in weather hold, the display

shows the storm to be at approximately an 80-mile range
but positioned slightly to the right of the line from the
previous position of the storm to the apex of the display,
the storm is apparently moving across the track of the air-
craft. The storm system can probably be safely bypassed
with only a minor heading change to the left.
Any change in aircraft heading changes the location of
storms on the display. Thus, a constant heading must be
maintained during use of weather hold if changes in the
display are to be interpreted as changes in relative positions
of storms.

.... .

16
 terrain mapping

d i n e

lake
Terrain mapping operation should be done with the MODE
switch positioned to MAP or one of the four lower GAIN
positions to inhibit the automatic cyclic contour circuits
and to reduce the signal level if necessary. One of the lower
ranges (5, 10, 15, or 30) should be selected. The selected
range and the word MAP will appear at the top of the
screen when MAP is selected. MAP and GAIN are alter-
nately displayed when one of the four GAIN positions is
selected.

Use the TILT control to adjust the antenna downward until

the desired amount of terrain is displayed. Antenna beam
width, aircraft altitude, aircraft attitude, and the amount of
downward tilt all affect the area of terrain that can be
detected and displayed. The greater the amount of
downward tilt, the closerthe detected terrain will be to the
aircraft and the smaller the area that will be covered.

As experience is gained, the pilot should be able to inter-

pret disp4ays that indicate lakes, rivers, coastlines, moun-
tains, and cities. The illustrations show typical terrain map-
ping displays of a coastline and a large inland lake. The
bright areas on the display indicate land, while the water,
reflecting little back to the receiver, is indicated by the dark
areas. The small bright areas to the left of the coastline are
sea clutter caused by swells or waves.

17
Section 5
Weather Radar
Interpretation
Flight hazards due to weather conditions are primarily the
result of turbulence and hail. Wet hail can be detected by
radar, but turbulent air by itself will not provide a radar
echo. (Examples are clear-air turbulence and aircraft vor-
tices.) Areas having high rainfall rates are ordinarily
associated with turbulence, and it is ftom this rainfall that
radar echoes are reflected and the accompanying tur-
bulence associated with the rainfall is implied. In some in-
stances the radar echoes may be severely attenuated in
passing through large areas of moderate rainfall rate or
small areas of high rainfall rate. This may mask or cause
strong targets at a farther range to appear much less intense
than they actually are. The WXR-ZOOA displays a cross-
section of a storm as shown in the following illustrations.
The 4-intensity-level display provided by the WXR-2OOA
greatly aids the operator in interpreting displayed targets. A
typical storm cell can show three levels of brightness: the
lightest level of shading indicates areas of light rainfall rate;
the intermediate level of shading indicates areas of
moderate rainfall rate; and, when in WX mode, a con-
touring area will be the brightest level of shading for one
sweep, then dark for one sweep. A contouring area is the
core of a storm cell and indicates the area of heaviest rain-
fall rate and, generally, the area of greatest turbulence. The
fourth level of intensity is the dark screen around the
perimeter of a storm cell. This indicates that no detectable
rainfall is present in those areas and flight hazards in those
areas due to weather conditions should be minimal.

Some clouds, often of the cumulus and stratus types, do not

contain sufficient moisture to reflect a detectable echo;
however, these clouds are usually not a hazard to flight. Ex-
cept for freezing rain, precipitation from clouds not
associated with severe turbulence does not present a flight
hazard.

A nonhazardous phenomenon occasionally encountered is

ducting of radar signals. This occurs with certain
temperature and humidity conditions and causes targets to
be detected a t distances farther than normal. A duct, or
broad tunnel that guides radar signals in a curving path, can
be formed when temperature increases and humidity
decreases with altitude. These gradients occur in inversion
conditions and may not remain for a long period of time.

Radar signals must be located in or close to the duct to be

trapped in it. Signals at an angle of 1 or 2 degrees, or more,
to the duct will not be trapped. Elevating the antenna a few
degrees will get the beam out of the duct. This technique
can be used to differentiate between distant thunderstorms
and ducted ground echoes which may be mistaken for
cloud targets.

19
thunderstorms
Updrafts and downdrafts in thunderstorms carry water
throughout the cloud. The more severe the drafts, the
greater the amount of water contained in the cloud. From
the intensity of radar echoes from this moisture, assump-
tions can be made about the turbulence involved. In the
WXR-2OOA system, when the displayed target intensity is
the brightest level of shading, due to large amounts of
water, the turbulence is more severe. The steeper the in-
tensity gradient of a target (as seen in contouring WX
mode), the stronger the turbulence. Areas that show a con-
toured display should be avoided by a wide margin.

Along squall lines, individual cells are in different stages of

development. Areas between closely spaced, intense
echoes may contain developing clouds not having enough
moisture to produce an echo. The lightest level of shading
may or may not be displayed, which would indicate light
rainfall rates or no rainfall; yet these areas could have
strong updrafts or downdrafts. In penetrating a squall line,
fly as far from building cells as possible. Avoid contoured
areas of the display (areasof intense turbulence) by at least
ten miles or more whenever possible. Targets with wide
areas of uniform lightest level of shading are generally
precipitation without severe turbulence.

Thunderstorm development is rapid. A course that appears

clear may contain cetls a short time later. When viewing the
shorter ranges, periodically switch to longer ranges to
observe distant conditions. This permits early planning of
necessary avoidance maneuvers.

Studies have shown that thunderstorms tend to travel in the

direction of the winds around the 10,000-foot level. New
cells generally form on the side of a cloud in the direction
toward which it is moving, usually an easterly direction.
Newly developing cells often do not contain sufficient
water to reflect an echo; yet they can cause severe tur-
bulence. In general, detour to the diminishing side of
thunderstorms, especially if passing at close range.

The following illustrations show a typical return from a

thunderstorm and explain the use of the WX ID (weather
identification) function.

20
 /

The dark area represents a contoured storm cell. O n alter-

nating sweeps, this area will be the brightest level of
shading displayed. This is the core of the thunderstorm. Ex-
treme to severe turbulence in this and adjacent areas will
almost always be present. This turbulence is capable of
structurally damaging an aircraft and must be avoided.

Note the sharply defined contouring area adjacent to the

very narrow outer ring of lighter precipitation as shown by
the light to intermediate level of shading. This indicates a
maximum change in the rate of rainfall laterally within the
storm. (This is called a "steep rainfall gradient.") The sharp
line of change from lighter (or moderate) to heavy rainfall
most always indicates a sharp vertical shear zone. Severe,
closely spaced updrafts and downdrafts are normally pre-
sent in this area. This meanssevere turbulence and this area
must be avoided.

The area with the intermediate level of shading indicates

that the amount of rainfall would be moderate. Although
lower in rainfall level than the contouring area, moderate
to severe turbulence may still be expected in this area.
Flight through this area should be avoided.
D

The wide area with the lightest level of shading indicates

that the amount of rainfall would be light. Depending o n
the directian of storm movement, the upwind outer edge of
this area would generally contain little or no turbulence.
Moderate turbulence would still be expected on the
downwind side of the storm.

Momentarily press the WX ID button. The contoured area

of the storm cell assumes the brightest level of shading a5
shown in the preceding illustration. Returns not contouring
will be erased from the display. This gives the pilot a
method of quickly identifying the location of only the con-
toured areas. The weather identification timer in the in-
dicator allows the system to return to normal operation
within approximately 10 seconds or after the weather iden-
tification button is released, if held more than 10 seconds.

tornadoes
The extreme case of severe turbulence is a tornado.
Cumulonimbus-mamatus clouds producing tornadoes
have, in a few instances, been related to a characteristic
target display. The display is not usually different from that
of a regular thunderstorm.

Radar displays of clouds from which tornadoes were con-

firmed have, on occasion, shown the formation of a hook
pattern in connection with the tornado. A narrow,
fingerlike portion extends from the cloud display and, in a
short time, curls into a hook and closes on itself. Other

22
echoes associated with tornadoes are V-shaped notches
and doughnut shapes. These shapes do not always indicate
tornadoes, nor are tornado echoes limited to these
characteristic patterns. Of the confirmed radar observation
of tornadoes from target thunderstorms, most displays have
not shown shapes different from those of a normal
thunderstorm display.

Conditions conducive to tornado formation produce

severe updrafts and downdrafts that carry large amounts of
water to great heights. Clouds that give a bright display with
steep rainfall gradients and produce an echo at high
altitudes (TILT control up more than usual) are indicative of
tornado-forming conditions. In no case should these
clouds be penetrated. Avoid them by a margin of at least 20
miles since turbulence extends outward from the echo-
producing area for large distances.

hail
Hail results from updrafts carrying water high enough to
freeze. Consequently, the greater the height of a
thunderstorm echo, the greater the probability that it con-
tains hail. An estimate of the height can be made by the
amount of antenna uptilt required to view the upper part of
the target echo. In the upper regions of a cloud where ice
particles are "dry" (no liquid coating on the particle),
echoes will be less intense. Liquid water reflects about five
times more radar energy than solid ice particles of the same
mass. Since hailstones are considerably larger than water
drops and are usually coated with a thin layer of liquid
water, the echo intensity from "wet" hail is greater than that
from rainfall. Thunderstorm targets having an intensity
greater than that associated with maximum rainfall will
most likely contain hail.

It is not always possible to determine from the display

whether the echo is from hail or from rain. Instances have
been reported of hail targets producing fingerlike
protrusions up to five miles long and blunt protuberances
up to three miles from the edge of thunderstorm echoes. In
parts of the country where hail occurs often, bright exten-
sions from thunderstorms generally indicate the presence
of hail. This same type of display is also associated with new
convective cells that may not yet contain hail.

A5 with tornadoes, there are no uniquely distinctive dis-

plays that are, in all cases, associated with hail. Protruding
fingers, hooks, scalloped edges, and U-shapes are display
shapes that have been associated with hail, yet hail echoes

13
are not limited to these shapes. These displays, however, do
indicate areas of severe turbulence and must be avoided by
a wide margin.

Echoes from hail can appear quickly and along any edge of
a storm cell. These echoes can also change in shape and in-
tensity in a very short period of time. For this reason,
close and careful monitoring of the display is required.

The fallowing illustrations $how typical displays that may be

associated with haiI.

scallopededge

I! U-shaped

24
finger 1

hook

25
 AC NO: * u s *

DEPARTMENT OF TRAMSPORTATION
FEDERAL AVIATION AOMINISTRATIDW

1. PVRRISE. This c i r c u l a r sets f o r t h recarmended r a d i a t i o n s a f e t y p-ecautions

for ground operation of airborne weather r a d a r . These g e n e r a l recarmenda-
t i o n s a r e , in sane instances, based on past experience, but are not intended
t o be used in l i e u of s p e c i f i c a n a l y s i s by q u a l i f i e d personnel i n each
situation.

2. CANCUTION. Advisory C i r c u l a r 2&8, dated March 11, 1970, i s cancelled.

3. RWEREWES. Barnes and Taylor: 'Ttadiation Hazards and P r o t e c t i o n , " George

Newnes Limited, London, 1963, page 211. Rwlt-onmental Health S e r i e s :
"Standards and Guides for Hicrowaves," U.S. h b l i c H e a l t h Service, Health,
= c a t i o n and Welfare hgency, Consumer P r o t e c t i o n FslvLromental Service.
pages 56-57. Munford, W.W.: "Sane Technical Aspecta of Microwave
Radiation Hazards," Proceedings of t h e IRE, February 1961, pages l . 2 7 4 7 .

4. WI[GIIoUND. Dangers from p o u n d operation of a i r b o r n e weather radar include

t h e p s s i b i l i t y of hman body w e and i g n i t i o n of c u n b u s t i b l e m a t e r i a l s
by r a d i a t e d energy. I o w t o l e r a n c e parts of t h e body include t h e eyes and
t h e t e s t e s . Since this p o s s i b i l i t y e x i s t s it i s advisable t o proride
recarmended p a c t i c e s .

5. IWCAUTIONS.

a. General.

(1) Installed O b o r n e weather radar should be operated on t h e ground

only by q u a l i f i e d , a u t h o r i z e d personnel.

(2) Installed sirborne radar should not be operated while t h e a i r c r a f t

is in a hangar or o t h e r enclosure u n l e s s t h e r a d a r t r a n s m i t t e r is
deactivated, ar t h e energy is d i r e c t e d toward M a b s o r p t i o n s h e i l d
which dissipates t h e r a d i o frequency (RF) energy.

1niiiot.d by: AACJlO/AFS-130

26
1c 2-r

Avionics and Mlsailr Qroup/Rockwolt Inlwn.tlonal

Ceder Rapids, towa 52408

52WI~OO1117 9-30-78 Prlnbd 4n USA

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Rockwell
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