DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURES Akenori Shibata Professor Emeritus, Tohoku University Professor, Graduate School, Tohoku Bunka Gakuen University Tohoku University Press, SendaiPublished by Tohoku University Press, Sendai 2-1-1, Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8577 Japan Phone: +81-22-214-2777 Fax: +81-22-214-2778 URL: _http://www.tups.jp E-mail: info@tups.jp DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURES Akenori Shibata Copyright©2010 by Akenori Shibata All rights reserved. ISBN978-4-86163-114-6 C3052 Printed in Japan 2010 by ‘TOHOKU UNIVERSITY CO-OPPreface to the English edition ‘The first edition of “Dynamic Analysis of Earthquake Resistant Structures” (in Japanese) was published in 1981 from Morikita Shuppan Co. Ltd. The second edition was published in 2003 with some revisions and change from the Gravity system to the SI unit system. This book has been widely used by Japanese students and engineers in the field of carthquake engineering and earthquake resistant design. An English translation of the book had been privately used for the teaching of earthquake resistant design to foreign students in the Graduate School of Tohoku University. Publication of the English version was intended to help students and engineers in the broader world learn the elements of earthquake resistant design of structures based on structural dynamics and earthquake engineering. ‘The author wishes to thank Professor Masato Motosaka, Tohoku University, for his king help in the process of publication, and Dr, lan G. Gleadall, Tohoku University, for ad- vice on English expressions. The collaboration of Mr. Francisco Arrecis in preparing the English manuscript is greatly acknowledged. ‘The author thanks Mr. Ryosuke Kanomata, ‘Tohoku University Press, for kind arrangement in preparing the English edition, and the ‘Morikita Shuppan Co. Ltd. for allowing the use of figures and tables in the original edition. Akenori Shibataii Preface to the second edition According to the official adoption of the SI unit system in Japan, this textbook was revised using SI units instead of the Gravity system used in the first edition. Also, descrip- tions of recent earthquake damage as well as the new seismic intensity scale adopted by the Japan Meteorological Agency since 2000 have been included. The author wishes that this book will help students and engineers to study the elements of dynamics of structures and earthquake resistant design. May, 2003 Akenori Shibataiti Preface to the first edition Rational earthquake resistant design of structures should be based on a proper under- standing of the dynamic behavior of structures under earthquake motions. This book describes the fundamentals of the dynamics of structures and the basic elements of ear- thquake response analysis of structures. The contents of the book are based on lectures given in the Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Tohoku University. The elementary parts of the main chapters can be covered by lectures given once every week tions marked with an asterisk (*) are rather for advanced readers and can be skipped by beginners. ‘The author hopes that the processes of modeling structures and evaluating the response of structures to earthquake motions are clearly presented and easy to understand. For this purpose, as many examples as possible are provided to help understanding. Stress is also laid on grasping the characteristics of the response of structures to actual earthquake mo- tions. for a semester. Chapters or The dynamic analysis of earthquake resistant structures includes so many related topics of structural dynamics. Furthermore, in pursuing earthquake analysis of structures, a wide knowledge of the mechanical properties of frames, structural elements and soil properties is required, and various methods of structural analyses are requied as well. Ap- propriate engineering judgment is also indispensable. In this book, I tried to cover every important topic of structural dynamics, though some topics are not discussed in full detail. Therefore, related references and textbooks are list- ed as far as possible in each chapter for more advanced study. I am afraid there may be many misunderstandings and errors in the descriptions and readers are kindly requested to point them out. Thave referred to many previous research results on earthquake resistant structures by a number of researchers. Sources are indicated in references or mentioned in the descrip- tions as clearly as possible. I owe them very much and want to pay them my deepest respects In particalar, I would like to thank Professor Toshio Shiga, Tohoku University, for his valuable suggestions, Junichi Shibuya and Junichi Takahashi at Tohoku University, Hideki Kimura and Eiji Ohara, graduate students, for their help in preparing the book. ‘Also, I owe much to the many students of Tohoku University who attended the course of structural vibration every year. T would like to thank Dr. Kiyoshi Muto, Dr. Hajime Umemura and Dr. Yutaka Osawa for their constant guidance since I started the study of earthquake resistant design. Mr, Saburo Ohta, Morikita Shuppan, was so kind to heip in preparing the book and gave many useful suggestion: I thank my wife, Kishiko, for her support and encouragement. June, 1981 Akenori ShibataContents Preface Chapter 1 Linear Response of Single-Degree-of-Freedom Syntems 1.1 Modeling of Structures : 1.2 Undamped Free Vibration +-+--- 1.3. Damped Free Vibration 1.4 Response to Harmonic Exc 1.5 Response to Various Trans 1.6 Earthquake Response Spectra SoS 1.7. Vibration and Energy : 1.8 Equivalent Viscous Damping - 1.9 Structural Damping* Chapter 2. Linear Response of MultiDegree-of-Freedom Systems 2.1. Equations of Motion : 2.2 Undamped Free Vibration of MDOF Systems 2.3. Damped Free Vibration of MDOF Systems 24 Forced Vibration of MDOF Systems 2.5 Modal Analysis -+-+-+0-seeeeee 2.6 Nonproportional Damping* 2.7 Calculation of Eigenvalues Chapter 3. Numerical Analysis of Dynamic Response 3.1 Numerical Integration Methods 7 7 3.2 Acceleration Method 3.3 Runge-Kutta Method 3.4 Nigam-Jennings Method -- Chapter 4 Inelastic Earthquake Response 4.1 Inelastic Restoring Force Char: 4,2 Inelastic Response to Impulse Excitation 4.3. Steady State Response of Inelastic Systems 4.4 Inelastic Response to Earthquakes +++ 4.5 Equivalent Linear Analysis of Inelastic Earthquake Response Chapter 5 Fourier Analys 5.1. Kinds of Fourier Analysis 5.2. Fourier Series . 5.3. Fourier Transform --- 5.4 Generalized Harmonic Analysis iiivi Contents 5.5. Finite Fourier Transform :s---rssesssssesseessstesnsseessetes secesseeeeeed 4 Chapter 6 Random Vibration” ee ee 6.1 Probabilistic Analysis of Earthquake Response ~~ seven 81 6.2 Random Variables 181 6.3 Random Processes --- . 184 6.4 Power Spectral Density Function and Autocorrelation Function 188 6.5 Stationary Random Response of Linear Systems e191 6.6 Nonstationary Random Response of Linear Systems 194, 6.7 Amplitude Distribution Chapter 7 Characteristics of Earthquake ¢ Ground Motions ---- 7.1 Earthquake Activity ” _ 7.2 Earthqkuakes Magnitude and Ground Motion Intensity ---- 7.3 Recurrence of Earthquake Motion Intensity and Earthquake Magnitude 7.4 Characteristics of Strong Ground Motions 7.5 Simulated Earthquake Motions -- Chapter 8 Vibration of the Ground 8.1 Role of the Ground in Barthqualce Engineering 8.2 Vibration of a Shear Beam ve 8.3 Response Properties of Layered Ground 8.4 Vibration of Foundations on Elastic Ground Chapter 9 Earthquake Response Analysis of Buildings - 9.1. Vibration Model of Buildings ==.» se 9.2 Multi-Mass Shear System 9.3 Frame Model ~~ 9.4 Torsional Vibration 9.5. Interaction Between Ground and Building Chapter 10 Earthquake Resistance of Buildings 10.1 Earthquake Damage of Buildings 10.2 Barthquake Resistant Calculation of Buildings 10.3. Strength and Ductility of Buildings «+--+ 10.4 Earthquake Damage and Amount of Walls 10.5 Earthquake Resistant Regulations in Japan Appendix: (1) rrr Appendix: (2) é ReferenciChapter 1 Linear Response of Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems 1,1 Modeling of Structures When analyzing the vibration of structures, it is necessary to convert the structures into mechanical models to which mathematical methods of analysis can be applied. Because real structures are very complex, we have to idealize and simplify the structure when con- structing the mechanical model so that the vibration phenomena in question can be represented with sufficient accuracy from the engineering point of view. Consider a one-story frame vibrating in the horizontal direction as shown in Fig. 1.1(a) Assuming that the displacement is small and the frame remains elastic, let us construct a mechanical model for vibration analysis. ) © Fig. 11 ‘The inertia force is exerted on all the vibrating mass elements of the frame according to Newton's second law. The distributed mass of the beam and the loads are considered to be subjected to the same horizontal motion, therefore they can be treated as a concentrated mass point on the beam. Part of the distributed mass (for example, a half of the column’s mass) can be added to the beam mass considering that the upper portion of the column is also subjected to a similar motion as that of the beam. Thus, the frame in Fig. 1.1 in horizontal vibration is modeled by a system consisting of a mass point, m, and a frame without mass as shown in Fig. 1.1(b). ‘The displacement 6 of the mass, when the horizontal static force Pis applied to the mass point, can be obtained using frame analysis. The force required to give a unit displacement to the mass, P/6, is called the stiffness or spring constant, k. The force exerted on the dis- placed mass by the frame is called the restoring force, Q, which is expressed as the product of the displacement, y, and the stiffness, (Q= — ky’). When the restoring force is propor- tional to the displacement, the mechanical model shows linear vibration. The motion of the mass point in Fig. 1.1(b) is represented by a simple mechanical model with mass m and spring constant kas shown in Fig. 1.1(c). The mechanical models in which the distributed masses in structural members are concentrated to representative mass points, according to certain engineering decisions, are called the lumped mass sys- tems. In Fig. 1.1, the motion of the mass point is described only by the horizontal displace- ment, y. Systems of which dynamic conditions can be described by one variable are called2 Chapter 1 Linear Response of Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems single-degree-of-freedom systems or SDOF systems, The necessary and sufficient number of variables to define the motion of the system is called the degrees of freedom. The system in Fig. 1.1(c) is a one-mass system with one degree of freedom. In general, a mass point in three-dimensional (3D) space has three degrees of freedom (x,y,z). Next, let us consider the case in Fig. 1.2, in which the same frame as in Fig. 1.1 carries a machine placed on the beam generating vertical exciting force. It is assumed that lateral movements are restricted. 0) ’ QD fo | WE ni 2 “ (b) (e) Fig. 12 Now, consider the vibration shape shown in Fig. 1.2 (a). The mass point m’ at the cen- ter of the beam is assumed to consist of the mass of the machine and the mass of the por- tion of the beam which is considered to move together with the machine. The stiffness of the structure in the vertical direction is determined by the ratio of vertical force and the corresponding vertical displacement, P/d’. Thus, the frame in Fig. 1.2(a) in vertical vibration can be modeled by the single-degree-of-freedom, single-mass system as shown in Fig. 1.2(b) or (c). The single-degree-of-freedom system in Fig. 1.2 has different dynamic properties from that in Fig. 1.1. We notice that the appropriate way of modeling a struc- ture will be different according to the vibration condition in question. Multi-story buildings in horizontal vibration are usually modeled by mutlti-mass systems ox multi-degrees-of freedom lumped mass systems, by concentrating the mass at each floor as shown in Fig. 1.3. However, if we are interested in one principal mode of vibration as (b) (c) Fig. L31.2 Undamped Free Vibration a shown in Fig. 1.3(c), we can represent the vibration behavior quite well by a single- degree-of-freedom model. ‘The vibration models in which the mass is assumed to be distributed in structural ele- ments are called continuous systems or distributed parameter systents. While the equation of motion of lumped mass systems is expressed by ordinary differential equations, the equa~ tion of motion of continuous systems is governed by partial differential equations. In vibra tion analysis of frame structures, modeling by lumped mass systems is generally adopted because modeling structural members as distributed mass elements makes the analysis very complicated. On the other hand, the vibration of soil layers, concrete slabs, long beams, etc., are conveniently analyzed by idealized continuous systems, In the engineering analysis of vibration, it is very important to construct vibration models under an appropriate judgment, representing the main features of the real behav- jor with sufficient accuracy and as simple as possible, A pertinent simplification lessens the analytical effort and serves to promote a clear understanding of the essential points of the vibration phenomena. PI Py hardening PI force stiffness softening é é é displacement linear nonlinear-elastic inelastic Fig. 14 While vibrations in small amplitudes are linear, vibrations in large amplitudes become nonlinear, when the relation of force and displacement is no longer proportional. The prin- ciple of superposition holds in linear vibrations and is very conveniently utilized in analyses, whereas it does not hold in nonlinear vibrations. In Fig. 1.4, the case in which the relation of restoring force and displacement is a nonlinear one-valued function is called nonlinear elastic, and the case in which the force-displacement relation is a hysteretic nonlinear func tion exhibiting hysteresis loops is called inelastic. In the case of earthquake response problems, we often analyze the yielding of structures by strong earthquakes and hence in- elastic vibration is of great importance. In the vibration of real structures, the effect of damping to decrease the vibration by the loss of vibration energy due to various causes, is also very important and should be duly taken into consideration in the analyses. 1.2 Undamped Free Vibration ‘The equations of motion governing vibration phenomena are derived from Newton’s se- cond law or d’Alembert’s Principle which is a different expression of Newton’s second4 Chapter 1 Linear Response of Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems law. ‘The Newton's second law is expressed as, DF=ma aa where = Fis the sum of the forces exerted on the mass point in a 3-D space, and ais the acceleration of the mass point. The forces and accelerations are 3-D vectors, as shown be- low. Zh x BF=\ER}, a=\5 (1.2) LF z ‘The d'Alembert principle is expressed as follows. EP+(-ma)=0 (3) Eq. (1.3) shows that if the inertia force (—ma) is considered, the sum of all forces ex- erted on the mass in motion is zero and the mass is in a state of dynamic equilibrium. positive direction of force and displacement bh + —o— (~ky) ~my) restoring force inertia force (b) Fig. 1.5 Now, let us consider the dynamic equilibrium of a one-mass system without damping as shown in Fig. 1.5. From d’Alembert’s Principle, the equilibrium of forces on the mass, which undergoes the displacement y, is expressed by Eq. (1.3) by taking the direction of oth displacement and force as indicated in the figure. Note that the dots denote the time derivative. alos mp) =0 1.3) ‘The negative sign in the restoring force (—hy) indicates that the force exerted on the mass by the spring is opposite to the displacement. Vibration without any external driving forces, as shown in Fig. 1.5, is called the free vibration. The equation of motion for free vibration is obtained from Eq. (1.3) as, my+hy=0 (a4) ‘The above equation is a second order homogeneous linear differential equation. By putting a=k/m (1.5)1.2 Undamped Free Vibration 5 Eq. (1.5) becomes j+o%y=0 (6) The solution of Eq. (1.6) is given by Eq. (1.7), including two undetermined coefficients aand b. y=a cos wl +b sin wl (1.7) ‘The values of a and b are determined from the initial conditions. Let the initial displace- ment at time /=0 be dy and the initial velocity be v9. y(t=0) =a=dy (1.8) S(t=0) =bw=t% (1.9) “Then, the solution is expressed as vd cos aot +-~2 sin ot (1.10) or y=A cos(wt-6) (1.11) where Ade? + eofeay? (1.12) 4=tan™(ue/erdy) (1.13) Eq. (1.10), or Eq. (1.11), expresses the simple harmonic motion shown in Fig. 1.6. In Eq. (1.11), A is the amplitude and (cot—@) is the phase angle. The value « is called the natural circular frequency and is related to the natural period T ox natural frequency f, as fol- lows. (1.14) ‘The natural period can be expressed as follows using the mass m and the spring con- stant &, and it is the most fundamental quantity in considering the vibration of structures.6 Chapter 1 Linear Response of Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems T=2n fe 2.15) Transforming Eq. (1.15), we have 2x fa ig V (2.16) where g=980 cm/s? : gravity acceleration n=mg/k=w/k : deflection (in cm) when the system's own weight is applied to the direction of vibration or when a 1g acceleration is, exerted in that direction Eq. (1.16) is called Geiger’s gravity formula and shows the relation between natural period and deflection of structures. This is a useful formula to be memorized. In the following, system are shown. everal examples on the natural period of single-degree-of-freedom Example 1.1 Let us consider the natural period of a steel cantilever structure having a weight on the top as shown in Fig. 1.7(a). The weight of the column is assumed to be negligible. Then, the system is represented by the one-mass system shown in Fig. 1.7(b) W=98kN, m=10*ke E=2.06%10*KN/cm* 500en 1=10em* (a) (b) Fig. 17 As for the units, we use the SI units (International System) throughout this book in- stead of the Gravity unit system used in the first edition, The unit of mass is kg (kilogram), and the unit of force is N (Newton) or KN (=10°N, kilo-Newton). LN is equal to the force that generates the acceleration of 1 m/s* to the mass of 1 kg (1 N=1 kg x 1 m/s?=1 kg-m/s*). (Cf. In the Gravity units system, the gravity force exerted on the mass of 1 kg is denot- ed by kgf (kilogram force). The gravity force (=weight) for the mass of 1 kg, ie.1 ket, is equal to 9.8N, where the gravity acceleration is 9.8 m/s?.) ‘We assume the mass point in Fig. 1.7 has a weight of 98 KN. The value of mass is caleu- lated to be 10 kg as follows.1.2 Undamped Free Vibration 7 m=98 kN/980 cm/s*= (98,000 kg-m/s*) / (9.8 m/s*) = 104 kg (1.17) ‘The stiffness f is obtained from the formula of cantilever deflection as follows. Assum- ing the Young’s modulus of steel as ,~2.06 x 104 kN/cm® and the moment of inertia of the section as /= 10° em‘, 8ET_3X2.06 x 104(kN/cm?) x 105(cm*) _ ee sp05(ems)— 98 kN/cm 9.4.x 108 N/m (1.18) Hence, the natural period in sec Iculated as follows by expressing the unit of the mass by kg, the force by N and the length by meter. (Attention to the units!) _o, [m. 10g) kg: Toen I 28% Ia peaRONTR OB kg: (m/s*)) Geiger’s expression gives the same result. 98 (KN) 49.4 (kN/cm) T=0.2% {1.98=0.28 s =1.98cm Example 1.2 Let us consider a one-story frame consisting of two reinforced concrete columns (50 cm x50 cm) and a rigid beam, The lateral stiffness of a column with both ends fixed is given as follows as shown in Fig. 1.8. ke “a (4.19) Hence, the lateral stiffness of the two concrete columns in deflections of small ampli- tude, is calculated as follows, assuming the Young’s modulus of concrete E,=2.06 x 10° KN/cm?, SO 5 em4 Tay 7 5.21% 108 cmt ( 3 a 2X UB 2O6 AO XS.2 IO) | ry =4,02 «10° N/ The weight is assumed as 294 kN and the mas 294KN _ 294x103 N 9.8 m/s? 9.8 m/s? of the beam is calculated as =3 10! kg8 Chapter 1 Linear Response of Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems W=24KN, m=3x10's 6EKR I2EK y 400em Fig. 1.8 Hence, the natural period is obtained as follows. Example 1.3 Let us consider the natural period of a one-story reinforced concrete frame in small lateral vibrations, as shown in Fig. 1.9(a). The lateral stiffness of the frame is calculated by Cross's Moment Distribution Method, as illustrated in Fig. 1.9(c). The moment dia~ gram for a unit lateral displacement is obtained as shown in Fig. 1.9(@), from which the lateral stiffness at the column top is obtained as k=305.4 kN/cm =3.05 x 107 N/m, by cal- culating the column shear corresponding to the top displacement of 1 cm. The natural period is calculated as follows using the units of kg, m, N., x10 ™ 9) 3.05% 10" 2 20s By comparing the above result with the one in Example 1.2 having the same column size, we notice that the period is lengthened because the total frame stiffness is decreased due to the flexibility of beam. Example 1.4 ‘The stiffness of parallel springs is equivalent to the sum of each spring, and the stiffness of springs in series is the inverse of the sum of the inverse of each spring. For example, the total stiffhiess of the spring system shown in Fig. 1.10 is given as follows. (1.20)tems | ete frame in sti frame is calcula . The moment ( d), from which 5x 107 N/m, by« em. The nati g the same colu, iffness is decreal ng, and the stiff 1.2 Undamped Free Vibration 9 W=294kN, m=3x10'kg : 3060" 7 ToD 54x 10%ent 5 beam 3060 TT to=-$9=5.2% 105 om! $ column 50x50 [] Ka=5.4%108/600=0.9X 10% em? o Ke=5.2%105/400=1.3 108 cn? gl 600m (a) 9X2=1.8 Ky=10%em? ( slab effect 2.0) Kk Ko ke=1.3 ko= 13 UE VE ) ky =1.5k5 é=lem DF Wi "EM =6EKol Rees FEM =6EKokR 1 Dy [128s] 373. =6X (2,060) X1.3X 10° Fo5 2 mal ae =40,170KN-cm FEMI ars =401.7kN-m G 64 z =a (©) 2732kNem ( for B= 10m ) —~ 305.4kN 152.7KN 152.7kN «a Fig. 19 g. For example, Now, let us consider the case in which the single-degree-of-freedom system in Example lows. is supported by a rotational spring representing the ground stiffness for rocking mo- 2. The displacement d of the mass point caused by the lateral force P is obtained as fol- (1.208. (1.21)10 Chapter 1 Linear Response of Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems ke W=98KN, m=10'kg & k / 2 7 i 5 ly B ff k=49.4kN/em £ Ke=9.8X10°KN + om/rad WD Z. Fig. 1.10 Fig. 111 Hence, the total lateral stiffness K is obtained by considering the system containing an upper stiffness spring # in series with a lower spring stiffness Kg/h®. The natural period is obtained as follows. 21.7 KN/cm=21.7 x 105 N/m 43's Example 1.5 Let us consider the mass-spring system shown in Fig. 1.12(a). The mass is supported bya rigid mass-less bar with a pin end at the bottom. The gravity force mg is exerted verti- cally on the mass, and the reaction force from the rigid bar mg/cos @ is exerted along the bar. As the resultant of these two forces, the horizontal component force mg -tan 0 arises in the direction of displacement. Assuming y= 6h, and tan 0% 0 considering small displacements, the equation of motion of the mass point is given as follows. mj hy—TEy=0 (1.22) (1.24) In case of k/m=g/h, the apparent stiffness becomes zero and the period is infinite. This fact is closely related to the buckling phenomenon. Considering the horizontal stiffness of1.2 Undamped Free Vibration uw Fig. 1.12 a cantilever column 3EI/h* as the stiffness & in Eq, (1.24), the weight corresponding to T = 0 is obtained as w=mg = 3EI/h*. This value is the approximation to the Euler buckling load of a cantilever column (n?/4) - EI/h?=2.47EI/h?, The decrease of restoring force due to the gravity effect is called P~A effect and some- times can not be ignored for tall or heavy structures. For structures having inelastic restoring force as shown in Fig. 1.12(b), a negative slope may arise in the restoring force- displacement relation due to the gravity effect, which is the cause of building collapse in severe earthquakes,12 Chapter 1 Linear Response of Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems 1.3 Damped Free Vibration Real structures always possess damping property, which reduces vibration. The damp- ing effect in structures is caused by various mechanisms, such as the consumption of vibration energy in structures in the form of heat or sound, or the dissipation of energy from vibrating structures to an outer field, like the ground. Though the actual damping mechanism is very complicated and difficult to determine, we usually classify the types of damping mechanism in structural vibrations as follows. 1) internal damping : damping caused by the molecular friction in the material. Usual- ly treated as the damping force proportional to the time derivative of strain (strain rate) or deflection. 2) external damping : damping caused by the vibration in the medium like air, water or oil. Usually treated as the damping force proportional to the velocity of the struc- ture in the medium. (For high velocity, the damping force is considered to be proportional to the square or a higher power of the velocity.) 3) frictional damping : damping caused by Coulomb friction in joints, supports or other interfaces. 4) hysteretic damping : damping caused by the energy consumption due to hysteretic properties accompanied by cracking, yielding and so on. 5) dissipative damping : damping caused by the dissipation of the vibration energy of the system to the outside of the system without return. An example is the damping effect of a structure on an elastic half space soil, due to the transmission of vibration energy to the half space in the form of a dissipative traveling wave. In the analysis of structural vibrations, the damping effect is expressed by various ideal- ized models capable of mathematical treatment. The damping model most frequently used is the viscous damping, represented by a dashpot ¢ in Fig. 1.18. The dashpot produces a damping force proportional to velocity and has a sign opposite to the velocity direction (— cj). The value c is called the coefficient of viscous damping. A system having a linear restoring force and viscous damping undergoes linear vibration. A single degree of freedom model with viscous damping is illustrated in Fig. 1.13 (a) or (b). The equation of motion for the free vibration is obtained from the d’Alembert princi- ple as follows: damon fee (omy) + (69) + (ky) =0 (1.25) int oe storing nce mit+o+ky=0 (1.26) By putting k m (1.27) po eho (1.28) m Eq. (1.25) is expressed as follows.1.3. Damped Free Vibration 13 spring k mass yg = 16 2 He» dashpot @ (a) positive direction of force and displacement + restoring foree (~ ky) @ —_s — (mi) inertia force damping force (— ¢y) (ec) Fig. 1.13 F+2hwj+ory=0 (1.29) ‘The value h is the damping factor or fraction of critical damping, and is a very important quantity expressing the degree of damping of a system. ‘The solution of Eq. (1.29) has the form y=Ae# (1.30) By substitution, 2+ Bhad+o®=0 (1.31) 2) he To shot {IR wi (1.32) e'! and e” are the independent fundamental solutions and the linear combination of the two becomes the general solution of Eq. (1.29). The characteristics of the solution differ according to the value of the damping factor 4. 1) The case when h>1 ‘The 2's are two negative real roots and the solution expresses the overdamped vibration exhibiting a non-oscillating motion. The general solution is written as follows, including the two real undetermined coeflicients. het A ef Tet + B @-AF=Tal) ~H'a cosh fh? —1 wt+b sinh {h?—1 wt) (1.33)u Chapter 1 Linear Response of Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems where ete ene cosh x=—5—,, sinh x= ; hyperbolic function (1.34) 2) The case when h<1 ‘The 1's are two complex roots having negative real parts. The solution expresses the damped vibration exhibiting oscillatory motion. The general solution is expressed as yae-hot(AciI=Fots Be-=F ot) (1.38) The two coefficients A, B are complex values and have to be complex conjugates be- cause the solution y has to be a real value. (Consider the fundamental solutions, eff!-Fet and e~i#l-et, are complex conjugates of each other.) By putting A= (a—bi) /2, B= (a+ bi)) /2(a, b: real) and considering the following Eu- ler’s formula, et*=cosxtisinx (1.36) the general solution in the real form is obtained as follows. ho! (a. cos {1-H wt+b sin {1—h? wt) (1.37) 3) The case when h=1 The 4’s are negative double roots and the solution expresses the critically damped vibra- tion which is the boundary between oscillatory and non-oscillatory motions. The fun- damental solutions in this case are e~* and fe-', The general solution is given by y y= (atbtye-o (1.38) ‘The damping coefficient ¢,, in the case of critical damping, is equal to 2{#m. The damp- ing factor h defined in Eq. (1.28) corresponds to the ratio of viscous damping coefficient to the critical damping coefficient ¢ as shown below. ce 6 2am 2fkm cy Eqs. (1.33), (1.37) and (1.38) include two undetermined coefficients for each. They are determined by the initial conditions. The solutions for the initial displacement dy and initial velocity 1 are given as follows. (1.39) b> y=enbor (a cosh fP=1 on en i hyiP=1 a) (1.40) =Io hel y= nit dos T= ts ES in Fal) (1.41) = Ko h=1 yseet{dy+ (dow +vo)t} (1.42) Fig. 1.14 shows the waveforms of damped free vibration for different damping factors.1.3. Damped Free Vibration 15 Pig. 1.14 Now, let us examine the properties of the damped free vibration waveforms. From Eq. (1.37), the damped natural period 7” is expressed as 2.43) where w'=/1-Po (1.44) As the damping factor h for actual building structures generally is by far smaller than 1.0, we can assume that the undamped and damped natural periods are almost equal. 2, o (1.45) ‘The value of the damping factor for steel buildings is usually considered as 0.5-3% and the value for reinforced concrete buildings as 2-7%. Itis to be noted that the damping fac- tor tends to increase as the amplitude increases. Next, we will examine how the amplitude decays in the damped free vibration shown in Fig. 1.5. In case of viscous damping, the ratio of two adjacent amplitudes in free vibration, with time difference equal to the natural period, is always the same, The relation between the amplitude ratio and the damping factor is expressed as follows. M1 _Ye De Is ait yn’ yor ye! JotYe’ Ist ys’ a phaT = g2eh/ {=F (1.46)16 Chapter 1 Linear Response of Single-Degree-of- Freedom Systems Fig. 1.15 ‘The value In d is called the logarithmic decrement. (1.42) (1.48) When the damping factor is not large, he (nd) /2n (1.49) and when the damping factor is very small, h=(d-1)/2n (1.50) Fig. 1.16 shows the relation between d and h. If the damping factor is somewhat less than 0.5, Eq. (1.49) gives a very good approximation and in case the damping factor is less than 0.05, Eq. (1.50) is a good approximation. (1-50) 1.0 2.0 Ex 40 Fig. 1.161.3. Damped Free Vibration Ww When we calculate the damping factor from the record of free vibration assuming vis- cous damping, it is necessary to evaluate the average value of amplitude ratio by reading several successive amplitude values y;. Fig. 1.17 shows the methods of obtaining the average amplitude ratio by plotting the measured amplitudes on the graphs for the cases of (a) heavy damping and (b) light damping. Ay. =y~ Yes (a) Fig. 1.17 Example 1.6 Let us calculate the damped natural period and the damping factor of the single-degree- of-freedom system shown in Fig. 1.18. The value of damping coefficient c is assumed as 2.94 KN-s/cm (=0,01k=2.94 x 10° N-s/m). (Attention to the units in calculation!) o= {iim ee. 31.3 (1/s); natural circular frequency T=2n/w=0.2 s; undamped natural period c 2.94 x 108 . 2 fm B/E BAX TOTS TOE 0°16: damping factor T’ =T/ 1-H? =0.208 s; damped natural period 94KN, m=3%10'kg k =294kN/em =2.94KNes/em Fig. 1.18 Example 1.7 Let us determine the value of viscous damping coefficient c, so that the damping factor