WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION

In meteorology wind direction is defined as the direction from which wind blows, and it is measured in degrees
clockwise from true north. When information on the variability of the wind is required, the peak gust and the
standard deviations of wind speed and direction are considered
Wind Speed and Wind Direction Measurement
Wind measurements are of primary importance inthe diffusion and transport of atmospheric pollutants. These
measurements include wind speed, wind direction, and turbulence or gustiness.There are many wind-measuring
systems commercially available. Some are ruggedly constructed, designed for a wide range of applications, and
require minimum attention. The more delicate instruments, such as those used for measuring small-scale
turbulence, can only be used during periods of favorable weather.Almost any anemometer or wind vane will
provide some information on wind characteristics. However, the quality of wind data depends directly upon how
well the sensor is maintained and how the measuring equipment functions as a system. Not only must the dynamic
characteristics of the sensor match program data requirements, but the sensor also interface without degradation of
important performance characteristics with the total data acquisition system, which may include the transducer,
signal conditioner, telemetry, data processor, and readout device.
Types of Sensors/Instrumentation
1. Anemometers - A number of wind speed sensors operating on a variety of physical principles are available
commercially. The rotational cup and propeller anemometers are the most commonly employed wind speed
sensors. Some sensors, called sonic anemometers, use ultrasound to determine horizontal wind speed and direction.
This type of sensor’s measurement is based on transit time, the time it takes for the ultrasound to travel from one
transducer to another. Sensors with other designs are generally used in specialized studies.
2. Wind Vanes - Wind-direction-measuring sensors are operated by wind exerting pressure on a surface that rotates
about a fulcrum. The standard wind vane measures only the horizontal wind direction, but a bi-directional vane is
free to move through 360 degrees horizontally as well as ±50 degrees or more from the horizontal. The shape and
design of the vane surface may vary with the manufacturer. As with the wind speed, the ultrasound sensor will also
measure wind direction.
3. Combination Wind Sensors - Two types of sensors incorporate direction and speed measuring capability in a
single mechanical device. The propeller vane sensor measures two-dimensional wind (horizontal) and the propeller
bi-vane sensor measures three-dimensional wind (horizontal and vertical).
4. Wind Component Anemometers - These can beused to determine the wind speed and direction(s), using simple
trigonometry. These instruments include the x, y, z prop (often called u, v, w), the sonic, the vortex shedding, and
the ion flow anemometers.
5. Transducers - Transducers convert the parameter being measured by a sensor into an electrical signal. This
chapter will discuss transducers used in rotation-type wind speed sensors and vane type direction sensors only.The
rotary motion of wind speed cups and propellers is most often converted to a voltage or a frequency. Both
alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) generators are used, but thelatter is used more often. Frequency-
type devices, sometimes calledlight choppers, have advantages in that they are almost frictionless,operate at lower
wind speeds, and produce signals that can be transmitted without loss over long dist. Typically, this type of
transducer is made to interrupt the light of a Light-Emitting Diode (LED) at a rate of 1 to 132 times for each
rotation of the sensor. Units that interrupt the light once per revolution of the anemometer shaft are usually used to
measure wind run (the distance orlength of flow of the air past a point during a given interval of time), thus
producing longer time averages. A single sealed glass switch, used in combination with a magnet on the shaft of the
anemometer, is also a frequency-type transducer for wind speed or wind run. Another frequency-type device now
used in anemometers is the Hall-effect generator. This works using electrical polarization of a conducting plate
moving through a magnetic field. Mechanical anemometers with wiper-type contacts, still in use for climatological
studies, are attractive alternatives because of their simplicity but are of limited use in pollution studies.Wind
direction transducers are of sveral basic types: wiper or sealed contact switches, single or double potentiometers,
and DC or AC synchronousmotors. Some of the more sophisticated transducers operate on the principal of
capacitance with outputs in frequency form. Wire-wound and carbon-deposited potentiometersare used most
frequently.
6. Signal Conditioners - In mostelectronic systems, the signal from the meteorologicalparameter being measured is
transmitted from the transducer to a signal conditioner or readout device, with power applied at some or all of these
steps. The signal conditioner converts the transducer output into an electrical quantity suitable for the proper
operation of the readout equipment whether it is a chart recorder or a data acquisition system. The signal
conditioner may vary from a simple resistance network or impedance-matching device to an amplifier, an analog-
to-digital converter, or, as in the case of the photoelectric speed transducer, a frequency-to-voltage converter.
Signal conditioners are devices that convert from 360 to 540 degrees of wind direction and provide "average" wind
or wind with "time weighted" average. Scalars that compress, expand, or change the transducer signal from
electrical to engineering-equivalent units are also signal conditioners.
7. Readout Devices - Digital displays are popularfor logging and displaying wind data. Theycome in a wide range
of designs and are usually elaborate systems that include analog-to-digital conversion, integration over specified
intervals, and memory or storage capability. The output format of these systems should be compatible with the
computer used for data processing. The data generated provide the user withbetter accuracy compared to data
reduction from strip chart recorders.Direct writing (D'Arsonval movement) galvanometric recorders with strip
charts are used frequently for wind measurements. They are used because of their reliability and their speed of
response. The chart drive mechanisms are available as hand-wound, spring-driven, battery-powered, or AC
powered. It is important to select a recorder in which the damping characteristics of the galvanometer do not
degrade the response of the sensor and are in compliance with the frequency response required in the study. Most
galvanometric recorders used for wind measurements are continuous curve-tracing recorders. The chopper-bar type,
designed to make an imprint on pressure-sensitive paper each time the meter pointer is clamped against a sharp-
edged platen, produces a recordthat is non-continuous. Imprints are usually made every 2 seconds, so in rapidly
varying winds the record appears scattered. Some manufacturers of meteorological instruments supply a recorder
with a built-in signal conditioner that reduces the scatter through the use of eitherunspecified or selective time
constants on the response of the galvanometer. This conditioner must be closely evaluated if calculation of the
standard deviation of the measurement isan objective in analyzing the record.Potentiometric recorders, used
frequently for wind measurement, may not have the rapid response characteristics of galvanometric recorders.
However,as a null-device, the input impedance is high when the stylus is at equilibrium; therefore, errors due to
electrical loading of the sensor output and errors due to voltage drops in long signal leads are minimized.
Multi-point potentiometric recorders, which sequence through a series of inputs of scheduled cycles, must not be
used for recording wind. Instantaneous samples of wind direction or wind speed once every few minutes are of
little use for most air pollution investigations. Curve-tracing potentiometric recorders are useful and are available
with charts that require ink or with inkless charts that operate with a heated stylus.
Wind Sensor Characteristics
1. Cup Anemometers - These anemometers have complex-shaped cups. The net torque (lift greater than drag)
causes a rate of rotation roughly proportional to wind speed. The cupsrespond to any horizontal wind direction,
which is an advantage, but they are also responsive to the vertical component of the wind. In turbulent flow, the
output (average speed) may be closer to the total speed than to the presumed horizontal component (MacCready,
1966). The design of the anemometer cup assembly and the material from which it is constructed are important in
determining the starting threshold, dynamic response, linearity, and durability of the instrument. The ratio between
cup diameter andcup wheel diameter influences the calibration curve (Gill, 1973). Starting threshold is defined as
the lowest wind speed at which the rotating cups meet the accuracy specifications (Lockhart, 1970). In order to
definethe smallest eddy size to which cups will be responsive, a dynamic characteristic known as the “distance
constant” must be known. This is determined in a wind tunnel by measuring the time for the cups to reach 63
percent of the tunnel speed after being releasedfrom a non-rotating condition. The distance constant in meters may
be expressed as a time constant in seconds at a given wind speed by dividing by that wind speed in meters per
second. USEPA does notspecify a distance constant for anemometers. USEPA does suggest a distance constant of
<5 meters at 1.2 kg/m. The reason why the distance constant is included is to urge users to buy high quality
responsive sensors. Heavy sensors with long distance constants are more likely to produce over-speed errors, which
overstate the average wind speed. If they are used to measure turbulence, they will underestimate sigma theta
(standard deviation of the wind direction) because of a failure to respond properly to eddy sizes smaller than twice
the distance constant.
2. Propeller Anemometers - Propeller anemometers, especially helicoids types, are sensors withrotation rates
linearly proportional to the wind speed over a wind speed range (Gill, 1973). Propeller anemometers must be
oriented into the wind. The error from the failure of the vane to perfectly orient the propeller is small since
propellers have a nearly cosine response,i.e., the propeller turns at a rate almost directly proportional to the wind
component parallel to its axis. Like the cup anemometer, thepropeller anemometer is a first-order, non-oscillatory
system whose dynamic characteristics can be described by the distance constant referenced above. Fixed axis
propeller anemometers are designed to measure two or three components of wind simultaneously at a point inspace.
They represent a special type of propeller anemometer for the direct measurement of turbulence (Fill, 1975). Three
helicoids anemometers in an orthogonal array measure the wind for the axes u-v-w. Each propeller turns at a rate
almost proportional to the wind component parallel to its axis. Cosine response, although not yet perfected, is
critical in this equipment. However, this device does not have the static balance (atwo axis wind vane), which is
also used for the turbulence measurements. Under conditions of rain, snow, and heavy dew, the bi-vane imbalance
may produce unacceptable errors.
3. Wind Vanes - Wind vanes havea damped, oscillatory motion. This characteristic secondorder response is the
result of such factors as weight of materials, shape and size of vane, and location and weight of counter-balance.
One indication of the performance of the vane is the starting threshold. As described by Finkelstein (1981), this is
the lowest speed at which a vane released from a position 10 degrees off the centerline in a wind tunnel moves to
within 5 degrees of center. There are several dynamic characteristics, identifiable as constants, which can be used to
define the performance of a wind vane (MacCready, 1965, and Wieringa, 1967) in response to a step function.
These include damping ratio, damped wavelength, undamped wavelength, and delay distance. Undamped
wavelength is used in determining the dynamic response of a wind vaneto sinusoidal wind direction fluctuations
(varies to a sine curve).
4. Damping Ratio - The damping ratio is a constant that is dimensionless and independent ofwind speed. It is
calculated from the relative amount of overshoot on each of two successive half cycles of a decaying oscillation.
The overshoot,H and damping ratio S is calculated from the equations:
S = ln(1/ε)
{ π2+[ln(1/ε)]2}1/2 ε=2(n+1) 2n
Where 2(n+1) and 2n are the amplitudes of the n and n+1deflections respectively.

5. Damped Wavelength - The damped wavelength is easily determined by multiplying the time for one complete
oscillation by the wind speed in the wind tunnel.
6. Delay Distance - Delay distance is another observed measure of the response of a vane to a step change. Delay
distance is based on the time required for a vane to reach 50 percent of the distance from an initial displacement, to
10 degrees toward the centerline on the first swing. This is multiplied by the tunnel speed to obtain the delay
distance.
7. Sonic Anemometers - Sonic anemometer systems are based on the principle that wind changes the transit time of
a sound pulse across a fixed distance. Sonic systems can be designed in two dimensions for horizontal wind speed
and direction as a replacement for the cup and vane or propeller units, or inthree dimensions for both horizontal and
vertical wind measurements. For those applications where the contribution of small eddies is important, sonic
systems are an excellent choice.
Wind Data Requirements
Any data requirement should be expressed in the context of all applications for which the data may be used. Wind
data are used in environmental monitoring for source location, transport and dilution modeling, and as a diffusivity
indicator. The principal specifications are dynamic range (most important is the threshold) and dynamic
performance (distance constant for speed and damping ratio and delay distance for direction). It is also important to
specify the averaging time and method in order to judge the adequacy of the measuring and recording system. For
most atmospheric dispersion studies, a starting speed (thespeed required to start motion of the sensor) of 0.5 m/s or
less is appropriate for both vanes and anemometers. Wind vanes should have a damping ratio of 0.4 or greater and a
delay distance of 5 m or less. Anemometers should have a distance constant of 5 m or less. For climatological
studies, less sensitive instruments may be used.Averaging for wind speed may be done by scalar methods (dilution)
or vector methods (transport) and should represent one hour. Wind direction should be averaged by obtaining
theresultant vector direction for the hour. Sigma theta should represent 3 to 10 minutes if stability categories are to
be selected, but should represent the hour when the preferable direct calculations are made for diffusion (Strimaitis,
1981).
Procurement
For research projects it might be possible to purchase instruments with better specifications or of more recent
design. But in operational programs, only field-tested and time-proven instruments with known performance
records should be purchased.Caution should be used in purchasing components asopposed to total systems. It is
important to match the dynamic characteristics of the wind sensors and the electrical characteristics of the
transducers with the readout device. For digital systems, special attention should be given to sampling and
averaging times as well as instantaneous, as opposed to integrated, data acquisition.
Acceptance Testing
The supplier should provide all calibration certification data for the equipment, including curves and specifications.
A table or formula should be provided which relates the rate of rotation of the anemometer shaft (or frequency for
light-chopper sensors if the number ofpulses per revolution is also given) to wind speed (or output voltage given to
a voltage to speed range relationship).
This formula or table will usually relate to a nominal propeller or cup. The specific propeller or cup assembly
should have a permanent identification code (serial number). In those cases when wind tunnel calibration data are
provided, this identification is required.The acceptance test for the direction vane should include a measure of how
well the sensor represents the relative position of the vane to the sensor housing. Four points 90 degrees apart can
be easily bench-tested by drawing perpendicular lines crossing at the vane rotation axis and holding the vane shaft
parallel to the lines. The manufacturer's method of coping with the discontinuity between 360 degrees and 1 degree
should be checked to ensure that the method meets specifications.
Calibration
Calibration for wind speed and wind direction may be performed using several methods. However, specific
dynamic response characteristics such as threshold speeds, damping ratios, delay distances, and distance constants
can only bechecked in a wind tunnel. Instruments should be returned to the manufacturer or a properly equipped
wind tunnel facility for this type of calibration check. Sonic anemometers should be returned to the manufacturer
for calibrations. In addition, prior to any calibration adjustments,the operational period must be verified.
1. Wind Speed - Calibration of wind speed sensors will normally be performed using a certified synchronous motor
or a certified selectable speed anemometer drive. Other methods for calibration may include using a photo
tachometer, number of turns per minute, or by using a calibrated collocated sensor. These other methods introduce
more error and may not be as convenient as using the synchronous motor or selectable speed anemometer drive.
Therefore, it is recommended that a synchronous motor or selectable speed anemometer drive be used. This
synchronous motor/selectable speedanemometer drive must be certified against the Quality Assurance Section's
photo tachometer annually to ensure the revolutions per minute (rpm) are accurate. The calibration can be
performed when the sensor is on top of the tower or the sensor may be removed from the tower and thecalibration
performed at ground level. The calibration must include a zero check and at least 2 different speeds. One speed
should represent low wind speed (e.g., within 10 mph) and one at high wind speed (e.g., at least 20 mph). In order
to use the synchronous motor or selectable speed anemometer drive, the cups or propeller will need to be removed.
The cups or propeller must be inspected for any type of damage that could alter the wind speed. If any damage is
apparent, the data collected will be suspect and the sensor should not be used until repairs are made. The
conversion of rpm to mph will depend on the type of sensor. The formula for this conversion should be available in
the sensor's maintenance book. A torque test is recommended to determine the wind speed needed for the sensor to
respond.
2. Wind Direction - The calibration of wind vanes will consist of aiming the vane at a knowndirection, performing
a bench linearity check, and a torque test. A telephone pole or any other distant object that will remain stationary
could be used as the reference point once the degrees from the vane to this reference pointare determined. The
degrees to and from the object can be determined by several methods. An acceptable method of establishing true
north is by the location of the sun at truesolar noon. Another acceptable procedure for determining true north
involves shooting the North Star with a first-order. Another method for determining true north involves using a
magnetic compass. However, caution should be used so that the magnetic compass is not influenced by the strong
permanent magnet in the wind recorder, iron metal objects, or theelectromagnetic field. Do not forget to allow for
magnetic declination from true north. In addition, alignment in the vertical is equally important. Studies have
indicated that vertical misalignment of 1 degree may yield data errorsof 10 percent or greater in measurement of
turbulent parameters (Pond, 1968; Deacon, 1968;and Kraus, 1968). Vertical alignment should be established with a
good carpenter's level or torpedo level at two points that are 90 degrees apart in the horizontal. Factory calibrated
sonic anemometers should be attached securely and aligned 180 degrees from true north, using any of the methods
described above.The bench linearity check involves moving the vane in known degree increments, such as
advancing the vane exactly 90 degrees for every point and waiting for the response to stabilize, and recording the
degree output. Enough increments should be used to include the full scale of the sensor (this will allow all
potentiometers to be evaluated). A torque test is recommended to determine the wind speed needed for the vane
torespond. There will be a bias to the direction recorded due to the wind vane not pointing in the correct direction at
the recorded time (seeForm 7) if the torque test fails.
Frequency Calibrations must be performed at least annually for State/Local Air Monitoring Station(SLAMS) sites,
semi-annually for National Core multi-pollutant monitoring stations(NCORE)and Photochemical
AssessmentMonitoring Stations(PAMS) sites, and quarterly for PSD sites.In addition, calibrations must be
performed if the sensor fails an audit or if the sensor is damaged and repaired. Sonic anemometers should be sent to
the manufactureron an annual basis or if the unit is damaged or fails an audit.
Limits
1. Wind Speed - Calibration limits for wind speed are ±0.50 mph up to 10.0 mph and ±5% if the speed is >10.0
mph. If these limits are not met, the sensor will require maintenance and another calibration until these limits are
met. In addition, the sensor must respond within the torque limit. The torque limit will depend on the type of
sensorand should be found in the sensor's maintenance manual. The data collected from an out-of-calibration sensor
areinvalid back to the previous audit or calibration, or if it can be determined by analyzing the data when the unit
malfunctioned.
2. Wind Direction - Calibration limits for wind direction are ±5.0 degrees when the vane ispointing to a standard
reference point. In addition, a bench linearity check must be made with no more than a 10.0 degree spread between
the highest negative and highest positive difference between the response and the known degrees. If either one or
both of these calibration checks fail, maintenance is required and both checks must be repeated. In addition, a
torque test is recommended. The data collected from an out-of-calibration sensor are invalid back to the previous
audit or calibration, or if it can be determined by analyzing the data when the unit malfunctioned.

RAIN AGRO METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS

Definition Of Meteorology :
Meteorology is the scientific study of the earth’s atmosphere and its changes, used especially in forecasting the
weather.
Definition of Agro meteorology :
Agro meteorology puts the science of meteorology to the service of agriculture, in its various forms and facts, to
help the sensible use of land, accelerated production of food and to avoid the irreversible abuse of land resources.
Practical Utility of Agro meteorological Study:
The science of agro meteorology has great practical utility in protection against, or avoidance of adverse climate
risks (crop losses due to drought or floods). Weather elements which influence agricultural operations and crop
production can be forecast for different time spans; hail, tornados, and flash flood can be forecast up to 12 hours in
advance. Based on the forecasts of these elements, decisions can be made in advance in agricultural operations and
planning so as to make the best use of favorable weather conditions. However, agro-meteorological information can
be used in efficient land use planning; determining suitable crops for a region; risk analysis of climate hazards and
profit calculations in farming; production and harvest forecasts; and in adoption of farming methods and choice of
farm machinery.
A. Maximum and Minimum Thermometer:

It is an instrument which shows the maximum and minimum temperature of air of the day. It consists of two
horizontally placed thermometers. One is maximum thermometer, placed in above and another is minimum
thermometer placed in below. The maximum thermometer is a mercury thermometer with a constriction in the bore
near the bulb. The constriction allows the expanding mercury to pass as the temperature rises, but when cooing
occurs the column of mercury breaks at the constriction leaving a part in the bore to register the highest has a larger
bore and its fluid is colorless alcohol. A tiny dark index in the shape of a long dumbell is placed in the bore below
the top of alcohol column. As the alcohol contracts with the decreasing temperature the meniscus (concave surface)
of the alcohol pulls the index down. When the meniscus moves up the bore, however, it leaves the index behind to
register the lowest temperature.
Function :It is used to measure the maximum and minimum temperature of air of a day.
Thermograph :
They are automatic self recording thermometers which mark the prevailing temperature continuously on graph
paper wound round a drum operated by clockwork mechanism. The drum makes one revolution in a day and the
automatically marked chart gives the temperature variations taking place during the day.
Unit of Measurement:
Three different scales (Namely Fahrenheit, Centigrade, and Kelvin scale) are commonly used in meteorological
stations for recording the temperature.
B. Rain Gauge:
Rain gauge is a device used for measuring the amount of rainfall. It comprises a funnel with five inches diameter in
the mouth, a container to which the funnel is shouldered and finally a metallic cylinder that holds both funnel and
container. A measuring flask is used for the measurement of amount of rain water received by container through the
funnel. Now-a-days self recording rain gage is used where amount of rainfall is recorded automatically on graph
paper.
Unit of measurement :
Rainfall is usually measurement in inches, millimeters or centimeters.
C. Dry and wet Bulb Hydrometer :
This instrument is simply two thermometers mounted on the same backing. One is mounted a little lower than the
other and has its bulb covered with a piece of muslin or wicking can be wetted for observation. It is known as wet
bulb thermometer. When the instrument is swung freely in the air or is aerated by a fan, the loss of heat required to
evaporate water from the wet-bulb will cause it to show a lower temperature reading. The difference between the
reading is called the wet-bulb depression. When the dry-bulb temperature, the wet bulb depression, and the
atmospheric pressure are known, any of the standard expressions of humidity can be determined from a series of
hygrometric tables.

Calculation :
The temperature of dry-bulb thermometer = X 0C
The temperature of wet-bulb thermometer = X0C
Wet – bulb depression = (X-Y)0C
By interpreting the dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb depression against the hygrometric table, the relative
humidity of air might be obtained.
Function :
It is used to measure the relative humidity of atmosphere.
D. Barometer :
Barometer is a device that indicates the pressure of atmosphere. It consists of a glass tube filled with mercury and a
brass scale. The glass tube is kept in a metallic tube. The commonly used barometer in meteorological
observatories is fotin’s barometer. The readings taken are corrected for-
- temperature
- attitude
- latitude
Barograph :
Continuous recording of pressure is made with this instrument.
Unit of measurement :

Atmospheric pressure is expressed commonly by the height of the column of mercury in the barometer, either in
inches, or millimeters.
E. Wind Vane :

Wind vane is an instrument that indicates the direction of wind. It consists essentially of a broad arrow head placed
in ball bearings to enable the arrow to move freely in the horizontal plane. The arrow indicates the direction of
wind.
F. Anemometer :
Anemometers are instruments used for the measurement of wind speed. The most common type anemometer is the
Robinson Cup Anemometer. Either three or four metal hemispheres are mounted on arms which rotate freely about
a vertical axis. A system of gears similar to an automobile speed meter translates the rotation generated by the wind
to an indicator or recorder for the speed of wind that has passed the instrument. Now-a-days digital anemometers
are also used for the measurement of wind speed. Digital anemometer gives more precise and accurate reading.
G. Sunshine Recorder :
Continuous record of bright sun shine bour is obtained by sun-shine recorder. It consists of a spherical glass
mounted on a stand. When the sun rays fall on the glass, a strip of prepared paper held in a grove at the focus length
starts burning. When the sun does not shine, the burn point of the paper the sun light hours (duration) of the sun
shine can be recorded.
H. Flux meter :
Flux meter is an instrument used for the measurement of intensity of sun-shine / solar radiation.I. Evaporation
Pan:
Evaporation pan is a device which measures the amount of water evaporated in certain time from a surface. It
consists of a round reservoir with a diameter of four inches and depth of ten inches. The tank is filled with water up
to two and half inches from the top. The decrease by noting the level of water with the help of a vernier scale.
ANEMOMETER
An anemometer is a device for measuring wind speed, and is acommon weather station instrument. The term is
derived from the Greek word anemos meaning wind. The first known description of ananemometer was given by
Leon Battista Alberti
around 1450.
Anemometers can be divided into two classes: those that measure thewind's speed, and those that measure the
wind's pressure; but as thereis a close connection between the pressure and the speed, ananemometer designed for
one will give information about both.
Principle:
A tachometer is an electromechanical device which converts mechanical energy into electrical pulses to give a
digital readout of the speed of a motor. A digital anemometer works on the same principle. Spinning cups turn a
paddle wheel inside a metal canister under a digital anemometer. Each time the paddle wheel rotates it breaks a
light beam and generates a pulse of current. An electronic circuit times the pulses and uses them to calculate the
wind speed.
Velocity anemometers
Cup anemometers
A simple type of anemometer was invented in 1845 by Dr. John Thomas Romney Robinson, of Armagh
Observatory. It consisted of four hemispherical cups mounted on horizontal arms, which were mounted on a
vertical shaft. The air flow past the cups in any horizontal direction turned the shaft at a rate that was roughly
proportional to the wind speed. Therefore, counting the turns of the shaft over a set time interval produced a value
proportional to the average wind speed for a wide range of speeds. It is also called a rotational anemometer.
On an anemometer with four cups, it is easy to see that since the cups are arranged symmetrically on the end of the
arms, the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented to it and is blowing on the back of the cup on the
opposite end of the cross. Since a hollow hemisphere has a drag coefficient of .38 on the spherical side and 1.42 on
the hollow side,[2] more force is generated on the cup that is presenting its hollow side to the wind. Because of this
asymmetrical force, torque is generated on the axis of the anemometer, causing it to spin.
Theoretically, the speed of rotation of the anemometer should be proportional to the wind speed, because the force
produced on an object is proportional to the speed of the fluid flowing past it, but other factors influence the
rotational speed, including turbulence produced by the apparatus, increasing drag in opposition to the torque that is
produced by the cups and support arms, and friction of the mount point. When Robinson first designed his
anemometer, he asserted that the cups moved one-third of the speed of the wind, unaffected by the cup size or arm
length. This was apparently confirmed by some early independent experiments, but it was incorrect. Instead, the
ratio of the speed of the wind and that of the cups, the anemometer factor, depends on the dimensions of the cups
and arms, and may have a value between two and a little over three. Every previous experiment involving an
anemometer had to be repeated after the error was discovered.
The three-cup anemometer developed by the Canadian John Patterson in 1926 and subsequent cup improvements
by Brevoort & Joiner of the United States in 1935 led to a cup wheel design with a nearly linear response and had
an error of less than 3% up to 60 mph (97 km/h). Patterson found that each cup produced maximum torque when it
was at 45° to the wind flow. The three-cup anemometer also had a more constant torque and responded more
quickly to gusts than the four-cup anemometer.
The three-cup anemometer was further modified by the Australian Dr. Derek Weston in 1991 to measure both wind
direction and wind speed. Weston added a tag to one cup, which causes the cup wheel speed to increase and
decrease as the tag moves alternately with and against the wind. Wind direction is calculated from these cyclical
changes in cup wheel speed, while wind speed is determined from the average cup wheel speed.
Three-cup anemometers are currently used as the industry standard for wind resource assessment studies &
practice.
Vane anemometers
One of the other forms of mechanical velocity anemometer is the vane anemometer. It may be described as a
windmill or a propeller anemometer. Unlike the Robinson anemometer, whose axis of rotation is vertical, the vane
anemometer must have its axis parallel to wind the direction of the and therefore horizontal. Furthermore, since the
wind varies in direction and the axis has to follow its changes, a wind vane or some other contrivance to fulfill the
same purpose must be employed.
A vane anemometer thus combines a propeller and a tail on the same axis to obtain accurate and precise wind speed
and direction measurements from the same instrument. [3] The speed of the fan is measured by a rev counter and
converted to a wind speed by an electronic chip. Hence, volumetric flow rate may be calculated if the cross-
sectional area is known.
In cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as in ventilating shafts of mines and buildings,
wind vanes known as air meters are employed, and give satisfactory results.


Vane style of anemometer


Helicoid propeller anemometer incorporating a wind vane for orientation


Hand-held low-speed vane anemometer


Hand-held digital anemometer
Hot-wire anemometers

Hot-wire sensor
Hot wire anemometers use a very fine wire (on the order of several micrometres) electrically heated to some
temperature above the ambient. Air flowing past the wire cools the wire. As the electrical resistance of most metals
is dependent upon the temperature of the metal (tungsten is a popular choice for hot-wires), a relationship can be
obtained between the resistance of the wire and the flow speed. [4]
Several ways of implementing this exist, and hot-wire devices can be further classified as CCA ( constant current
anemometer), CVA (constant voltage anemometer) and CTA (constant-temperature anemometer). The voltage
output from these anemometers is thus the result of some sort of circuit within the device trying to maintain the
specific variable (current, voltage or temperature) constant, following Ohm's law.
Additionally, PWM (pulse-width modulation) anemometers are also used, wherein the velocity is inferred by the
time length of a repeating pulse of current that brings the wire up to a specified resistance and then stops until a
threshold "floor" is reached, at which time the pulse is sent again.
Hot-wire anemometers, while extremely delicate, have extremely high frequency-response and fine spatial
resolution compared to other measurement methods, and as such are almost universally employed for the detailed
study of turbulent flows, or any flow in which rapid velocity fluctuations are of interest.
An industrial version of the fine-wire anemometer is the thermal flow meter, which follows the same concept, but
uses two pins or strings to monitor the variation in temperature. The strings contain fine wires, but encasing the
wires makes them much more durable and capable of accurately measuring air, gas, and emissions flow in pipes,
ducts, and stacks. Industrial applications often contain dirt that will damage the classic hot-wire anemometer.

Laser Doppler anemometers

Drawing of a laser anemometer. The laser light is emitted (1) through the front lens (6) of the anemometer and is
backscattered off the air molecules (7). The backscattered radiation (dots) re-enters the device and is reflected and
directed into a detector (12).
In laser Doppler velocimetry, laser Doppler anemometers use a beam of light from a laser that is divided into two
beams, with one propagated out of the anemometer. Particulates (or deliberately introduced seed material) flowing
along with air molecules near where the beam exits reflect, or backscatter, the light back into a detector, where it is
measured relative to the original laser beam. When the particles are in great motion, they produce a Doppler shift
for measuring wind speed in the laser light, which is used to calculate the speed of the particles, and therefore the
air around the anemometer.

Ultrasonic anemometers

2D ultrasonic anemometer with 3 paths 3D ultrasonic anemometer

Ultrasonic anemometers, first developed in the 1950s, use ultrasonic sound waves to measure wind velocity. They
measure wind speed based on the time of flight of sonic pulses between pairs of transducers. Measurements from
pairs of transducers can be combined to yield a measurement of velocity in 1-, 2-, or 3-dimensional flow. The
spatial resolution is given by the path length between transducers, which is typically 10 to 20 cm. Ultrasonic
anemometers can take measurements with very fine temporal resolution, 20 Hz or better, which makes them well
suited for turbulence measurements. The lack of moving parts makes them appropriate for long-term use in exposed
automated weather stations and weather buoys where the accuracy and reliability of traditional cup-and-vane
anemometers are adversely affected by salty air or dust. Their main disadvantage is the distortion of the air flow by
the structure supporting the transducers, which requires a correction based upon wind tunnel measurements to
minimize the effect.
The speed of sound varies with temperature, and is virtually stable with pressure change, ultrasonic anemometers
are also used as thermometers.
Two-dimensional (wind speed and wind direction) sonic anemometers are used in applications such as weather
stations, ship navigation, aviation, weather buoys and wind turbines. Monitoring wind turbines usually requires a
refresh rate of wind speed measurements of 3 Hz,[6] easily achieved by sonic anemometers. Three-dimensional
sonic anemometers are widely used to measure gas emissions and ecosystem fluxes using the eddy covariance
method when used with fast-response infrared gas analyzers or laser-based analyzers.
Two-dimensional wind sensors are of two types:
 Two ultrasounds paths: These sensors have four arms. The disadvantage of this type of sensor is that when the
wind comes in the direction of an ultrasound path, the arms disturb the airflow, reducing the accuracy of the
resulting measurement.
 Three ultrasounds paths: These sensors have three arms. They give one path redundancy of the measurement
which improves the sensor accuracy and reduces aerodynamic turbulence.
Acoustic resonance anemometers

Acoustic resonance anemometer

Acoustic resonance anemometers are a more recent variant of sonic anemometer. The technology was invented by
DrSavvasKapartis and patented in 2000. [7] Whereas conventional sonic anemometers rely on time of flight
measurement, acoustic resonance sensors use resonating acoustic (ultrasonic) waves within a small purpose-built
cavity in order to perform their measurement.

Acoustic resonance principle

Built into the cavity is an array of ultrasonic transducers, which are used to create the separate standing-wave
patterns at ultrasonic frequencies. As wind passes through the cavity, a change in the wave's property occurs (phase
shift). By measuring the amount of phase shift in the received signals by each transducer, and then by
mathematically processing the data, the sensor is able to provide an accurate horizontal measurement of wind speed
and direction.
Acoustic resonance technology enables measurement within a small cavity, the sensors therefore tend to be
typically smaller in size than other ultrasonic sensors. The small size of acoustic resonance anemometers makes
them physically strong and easy to heat and therefore resistant to icing. This combination of features means that
they achieve high levels of data availability and are well suited to wind turbine control and to other uses that
require small robust sensors such as battlefield meteorology. One issue with this sensor type is measurement
accuracy when compared to a calibrated mechanical sensor. For many end uses, this weakness is compensated for
by the sensor's longevity and the fact that it does not require re-calibrating once installed.
Ping-pong ball anemometers
A common anemometer for basic use is constructed from a ping-pong ball attached to a string. When the wind
blows horizontally, it presses on and moves the ball; because ping-pong balls are very lightweight, they move
easily in light winds. Measuring the angle between the string-ball apparatus and the vertical gives an estimate of the
wind speed.
This type of anemometer is mostly used for middle-school level instruction, which most students make on their
own, but a similar device was also flown on Phoenix Mars Lander.[8]
Pressure anemometers

Britannia Yacht Club clubhouse tour, burgee, and wind gauge on roof
The first designs of anemometers that measure the pressure were divided into plate and tube classes.
Plate anemometers
These are the first modern anemometers. They consist of a flat plate suspended from the top so that the wind
deflects the plate. In 1450, the Italian art architect Leon Battista Alberti invented the first mechanical anemometer;
in 1664 it was re-invented by Robert Hooke (who is often mistakenly considered the inventor of the first
anemometer). Later versions of this form consisted of a flat plate, either square or circular, which is kept normal to
the wind by a wind vane. The pressure of the wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The compression of the
spring determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate, and this is either read off on a suitable
gauge, or on a recorder. Instruments of this kind do not respond to light winds, are inaccurate for high wind
readings, and are slow at responding to variable winds. Plate anemometers have been used to trigger high wind
alarms on bridges.
Tube anemometers

Tube anemometer invented by William Henry Dines. The movable part (right) is mounted on the fixed part (left).
Instruments at Mount Washington Observatory. The pitot tube static anemometer is on the right.

The pointed head is the pitot port. The small holes are connected to the static port.
James Lind's anemometer of 1775 consisted of a glass U tube containing a liquid manometer (pressure gauge), with
one end bent in a horizontal direction to face the wind and the other vertical end remains parallel to the wind flow.
Though the Lind was not the first it was the most practical and best known anemometer of this type. If the wind
blows into the mouth of a tube it causes an increase of pressure on one side of the manometer. The wind over the
open end of a vertical tube causes little change in pressure on the other side of the manometer. The resulting
elevation difference in the two legs of the U tube is an indication of the wind speed. However, an accurate
measurement requires that the wind speed be directly into the open end of the tube; small departures from the true
direction of the wind causes large variations in the reading.
The successful metal pressure tube anemometer of William Henry Dines in 1892 utilized the same pressure
difference between the open mouth of a straight tube facing the wind and a ring of small holes in a vertical tube
which is closed at the upper end. Both are mounted at the same height. The pressure differences on which the
action depends are very small, and special means are required to register them. The recorder consists of a float in a
sealed chamber partially filled with water. The pipe from the straight tube is connected to the top of the sealed
chamber and the pipe from the small tubes is directed into the bottom inside the float. Since the pressure difference
determines the vertical position of the float this is a measure of the wind speed. [9]
The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the exposed part can be mounted on a high pole,
and requires no oiling or attention for years; and the registering part can be placed in any convenient position. Two
connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first sight as though one connection would serve, but the
differences in pressure on which these instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of the air in the room
where the recording part is placed has to be considered. Thus if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction
effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the air pressure in an ordinary room, in which the
doors and windows are carefully closed and a newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an effect may be produced
equal to a wind of 10 mi/h (16 km/h); and the opening of a window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may
entirely alter the registration.
While the Dines anemometer had an error of only 1% at 10 mph (16 km/h), it did not respond very well to low
winds due to the poor response of the flat plate vane required to turn the head into the wind. In 1918 an
aerodynamic vane with eight times the torque of the flat plate overcame this problem.
Pitot tube static anemometers
Modern tube anemometers use the same principle as in the Dines anemometer but using a different design. The
implementation uses a pitot-static tube which is a pitot tube with two ports, pitot and static, that is normally used in
measuring the airspeed of aircraft. The pitot port measures the dynamic pressure of the open mouth of a tube with
pointed head facing wind, and the static port measures the static pressure from small holes along the side on that
tube. The pitot tube is connected to a tail so that it always makes the tube's head to face the wind. Additionally, the
tube is heated to prevent rime ice formation on the tube.[10] There are two lines from the tube down to the devices to
measure the difference in pressure of the two lines. The measurement devices can be manometers, pressure
transducers, or analog chart recorders.[11]
Effect of density on measurements
In the tube anemometer the dynamic pressure is actually being measured, although the scale is usually graduated as
a velocity scale. If the actual air density differs from the calibration value, due to differing temperature, elevation or
barometric pressure, a correction is required to obtain the actual wind speed. Approximately 1.5% (1.6% above
6,000 feet) should be added to the velocity recorded by a tube anemometer for each 1000 ft (5% for each kilometer)
above sea-level.

USES OF PLD:
A programmable logic device (PLD) is an electronic component used to build reconfigurabledigital circuits.
Unlike a logic gate, which has a fixed function, a PLD has an undefined function at the time of manufacture. Before
the PLD can be used in a circuit it must be programmed, that is, reconfigured. The modern agricultural management
system uses the wireless networks to collect the information from different physical variables. The data which is
collected by the wireless networks it is then given to the main server which in turn helps to monitor the system. For
every system to be implemented cost must be low and real time monitoring are needed. Thus implementation all the
agricultural systems can be done by programmable Logic devices because it allows fast development of device and
the design of systems using
FPGAs and CPLDs (Complex Programmable Logic Devices).This modern agricultural management system uses
FPGA element which facilitates the system for re-configurability and re-programmability according to different
environmental conditions.

2.SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
When any of the climatic parameters like temperature, humidity, water level, soil moisture and dew point etc. is
above the safe value which is used for protecting the crops the values are given as input to the ADC input ports.
After this process, the data is analyzed, displayed in LCD screen and the data is transmitted by using different
coding techniques.

Figure 1 System architecture of agricultural management system

The Xilinx virtex-7 series (XC7VX415T) FPGA is used for implementing the system. The SDI is a standard
interface developed by SMPTE and is extensively used in specialized transmit video apparatus. The features of this
FPGA are

 It consists of up to 2M logic cells with 6.8 billion transistors at 12.5 GB/s serial transceivers.
 With 6-input LUT technology.
 It has the capability of data buffering with 36Kb RAM with built-in FIFO logic.
 It consists of inbuilt XADC which is 12-bit 1MSPS ADC with thermal and supply sensors as on chip.
Intended for a range of electronics applications to put on view the LCD used in this system is HD44780LCD
display. A finite state machine is implemented in FPGA to control and communicate with HD44780. There are two
types of LCD modules one with built-in controller and driver chips and the other with only driver chips. The built-
in controllers are again divided into two types, character and graphic LCD modules, in this paper we concerned
with character module that is Hitachi Hd44780 with built-in controller.

The Xilinx LogicCORE IP SMPTE SD/HD/3G-SDI core implements for the SDI family of standards. They are
SD/HD/3G-SDI standards.3. IMPLEMENTATION

Two modes of data transfer can be done,4-bit mode and 8-bit mode. In this paper the LCD module is used in 8-bit
mode. The following figure 2(A) (B) shows the flowchart of Data transfer

(A)

Figure 2(A), (B) flow chart for sending the character and initialization

Following this, a finite state machine is devised to ensure the process flow as above in figure
 Figure 3 for interfacing State machine FPGA to LCD

The following figure 4 shows the state machine diagram used for designing the full SMPTE SD/HD/3G-SDI core is
which is used for data transmission.

Figure 4 FSM state diagram of SMPTE SD/HD/3G-SDI.

The overall implementation of the SDI module is done using the state diagram shown in fig 4.The decode address
state is the default one, it checks whether the valid channel is enable or not, and depending on the mode of
operation of the SDI module the operation takes place. Every time during loading the data we must check the FIFO
state, if it is full we must wait till it becomes empty and finally we must load the parity bit, at last checking for the
parity error by using CRC. Finally, after checking the parity error the state changes to the default state decode
address with next clock edge.

(FOR Microprocessor refer your fifth unit microprocessor based system and
Microprocessor based grain moisture/ safe grain storage/ soil nutrient estimation)
MICRO CONTROLLERS
Automizing the agricultural system is very useful for old people and normal persons who lives far away from the
agricultural field. If installed and programmed properly, automatic agricultural systems can even save us money
and help in water conservation. Here LCD and GSM receive the information about temperature, humidity and
conditions of the soil and motor. The paper “Modernization of Indian agricultural system using micro controller”
using 8051 and GSM‟ is focused on atomizing the irrigation system for social welfare of Indian agricultural system
and also to provide perfect irrigation in particular area. Soil moisture sensor sense the condition of the soil whether
it is dry or wet and sends the information to microcontroller. Water level sensor senses the water level in the water
source and sends the information to the microcontroller. Microcontroller sends the information to the relay then
on/off of the motor is done. Temperature and humidity sensor also sense the condition of the weather and sends the
information to microcontroller. There is a serial communication between microcontroller and GSM. So the
information from the microcontroller is sent as SMS through GSM .LCD displays & GSM receives the information
about temperature, humidity and conditions of the soil and motor our project aims to implement the basic
application of Modernization the irrigation field by programming the components and building the necessary
hardware.

I.INTRODUCTION

8051 micro controller is the contemporary general purpose microcontroller in the embedded market used in
industrial level applications yield. In the field of soil environmental monitoring, real-time monitoring the
temperature and humidity of soil can correctly guide agricultural production and improve crop. Automatic
agricultural systems are convenient, especially for those who travel. If installed and programmed properly,
automatic agricultural systems can even save us money and help in water conservation. Dead lawn grass and plants
need to be replaced, and that can be expensive. But the savings from automatic agricultural systems can go beyond
that. Watering with a hose or with oscillator water. Neither method targets plant roots with any significant degree
of precision. Automatic agricultural systems can be programmed to discharge more precise amounts of water in the
field, which promotes water conservation. At present, labor-saving and water-saving technology is a key issue in
agriculture. There have not been any significant technological advancements being made in agricultural sector as
compared to other sectors. Agricultural system needs to be monitored on a regular basis. The use of this project is
to reduce the wastage by automating the entire agricultural system.

The water or moisture sensor is placed in the field which continuously senses the moisture content in the field. If
the field is dry, then the microcontroller unit automatically turns on the motor. If the field is wet, the
microcontroller automatically turns off the motor. Temperature and Humidity sensor senses the weather conditions
and sends the values to the mobile.

II. WORKING PRINCIPAL

To continuously monitor soil moisture

In case of monitoring the soil moisture, we know that each crop requires different moisture level. we are using a
soil moisture sensor which is based of the principle of parallel capacitor. As we know that the voltage across the
isinversely proportional to the dielectric medium. This principle is used to determine the soil moisture by
measuring the dielectric constant of soil. This is then informed the centralized unit. The centralized unit will send
the message to the device of that particular subscriber. The device waits for a certain amount of default time for
which it is programmed. When the user does not respond to the centralized unit in default period the device
continues monitoring the field parameters and keep on sending automatically to the centralized unit. Using the
database stored in EEPROM of ARM, the corresponding moisture can be known by comparing the stored values
and received information from the sensor which ensures faithful irrigation for particular crop.

To continuously monitor the water level of the well

It Is one of the significant operation. It might happen that the water level reaches to critical level and the motor is
still running. In order to avoid such situation arrangement should be there to monitor the water level. If the
subscriber wants to enquire about the water level status at a particular time, he can send a message to the
centralized unit. Centralized unit checks the water level and reply the subscriber with the current status. The
receiver uses a standard form of message decoding called NMEA protocol. In our project, we do not display the
message on LCD although we have the facility.

Water level sensor

This sensor is implemented with the help of electromagnetic reed switch and a floating magnet. The reed switch is
based on the principle that when it will come in contact of any magnetic field it provides conductivity.

Phase sensor:

It is based on the principle that whenever it will encounter 3 phases it will trigger a secondary relay circuit which in
turn triggers the port pins indicating presence of all the three phases.

III. BLOCK DIAGRAM

 IV. FLOW CHART

For your clear view

Start

8051Microcontroller

GSM&LCTE

MPERATURE&HUMITIY

WATERLEVEL

SOILMOISTURESENSOR

Relay, Motor ON/OFF, Water source, Soil

V. SOFTWARE REQURIEMENTS

Keil an ARM Company makes C compilers, macro

assemblers, real-time kernels, debuggers, simulators,
integrated environments, evaluation boards, and emulators
for ARM7/ARM9/Cortex-M3, XC16x/C16x/ST10, 251, and
8051 MCU families.

Keil development tools for the 8051 Microcontroller

Architecture support every level of software developer from the professional applications engineer to the student
just learning about embedded software development. When starting a new project, simply select the microcontroller
you use from the Device Database and the μ Vision IDE sets all compiler, assembler, linker, and memory options
for you.

Keil is a cross compiler. So first we have to understand the concept of compilers and cross compilers. After then we
shall learn how to work with keil.

EMBEDDED C:
Use of embedded processors in passenger cars, mobile phones, medical equipment, aerospace systems and defense
systems is widespread, and even everyday domestic appliances such as dish washers, televisions, washing machines
and video recorders now include at least one such device.

DATA CONVERTERS
Data converter for changing information from one code to another.Digital-to-analog converter -
device for converting digital signals into analogue signals, Analog to digital converter- digitizer, digitizer- device
for converting analogue signals into digital signal.
ADC & DAC:

In electronics, an analog-to-digital converter (ADC, A/D, or A-to-D) is a system that converts an analog signal,
such as a sound picked up by a microphone or light entering a digital camera, into a digital signal. An ADC may
also provide an isolated measurement such as an electronic device that converts an input analog voltage or current
to a digital number representing the magnitude of the voltage or current. Typically the digital output is a two's
complement binary number that is proportional to the input, but there are other possibilities.

There are several ADC architectures. Due to the complexity and the need for precisely matched components, all but
the most specialized ADCs are implemented as integrated circuits (ICs).

A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) performs the reverse function; it converts a digital signal into an analog signal.

Refer your microcontrollers based adc and dac block diagrams

DISPLAY DEVICES
In order to automatically monitor farmers’ activities, we propose a farm operation monitoring system using “Field
Servers” and a wearable device equipped with an RFID reader and motion sensors. Our proposed system helps in
recognizing farming operations by analyzing the data from the sensors and detected RFID tags that are attached to
various objects such as farming materials, facilities, and machinery. This method can be applied to various
situations without changing the conventional system. Moreover, this system provides useful information in real-
time and controls specific machines in a coordinated manner on the basis of recognized operation.

It is important to monitor crop growth, field environment, and farming operations in order to increase the
agricultural productivity and to promote efficient management. However, it is difficult to realize these monitoring
operations automatically in the agricultural field because it requires the deployment of specialized equipment and
the improvement of facilities that require considerable effort, space, and cost. A key technology to assist in field
monitoring is a sensor network with each sensor equipped with a radio link. We have developed a Field Server as a
sensor network for agricultural use. A Field Server enables crop and environmental monitoring by using various
sensors and cameras, but it is insufficient for obtaining detailed information about farming operations. The data for
farming operations, especially manual tasks, can be recorded using several approaches such as writing them
manually, inputting them by using an assistant software, and monitoring them with IT tools. In order to apply data-
input systems on an agricultural field, some systems using Internet cell-phones and PDAs have been developed .
These methods cannot be easily applied for practical purposes because operating these computers are a troublesome
task for farmers, especially the elderly, and the implementation of these methods requires farmers to interrupt their
field operations to input data. Other systems equipped with GPS or voice entry have also been developed to solve
this problem . These methods handle only general items such as pesticide spraying and it is difficult to allow
flexible use; however, monitoring farmers’ activities in detail including what they observe, which pesticide they
choose, in what area they operate, and how much they spray, is desirable in order to realize a more useful and
effective support system.

In this study, we propose an innovative farm operation monitoring system to solve these problems by using the
Field Server system and a wearable device that we developed; this device is equipped with a radio frequency
identification (RFID) reader and motion sensors (Figure 1). In this system, we recognize a farmer’s operation
automatically under various situations by analyzing the data from the sensors and the RFID tags, which are
attached to all relevant objects such as farming materials, facilities, and machinery. Our proposed system is
developed on the basis of the Field Server system that provides not only various monitoring operations and
peripheral controlling but also network infrastructure, effective management system and extensible architecture to
develop service applications. In this paper, we explain the concept and feature of the system and then evaluate its
effectiveness and potential through several experiments using a prototype system.
Figure 1.

Concept of farm operation monitoring system.

Farm Operation Monitoring System

2.1. Field Server System

A Field Server, a web-based sensor node of an advanced sensor network system, has a wireless LAN, an Internet
camera, and a monitoring unit with a Web server (Figure 2). By controlling and measuring various sensors
including the camera, we can monitor not only the field environment but also crop growth, insect infestation, and
simple field operations . A wireless LAN provides high-speed transmission and long-distance communication at
low cost. Therefore, a Field Server is effective in collecting high-resolution image data. It also provides network
infrastructure and a hotspot area in the agricultural field in order to overcome the digital divide.

Figure 2.System architecture of Field Server.

Each module of the Field Server can be accessed through a Web page using a Web browser such as Internet
Explorer. It performs remote operations and monitoring with a management program called Agent System . An
Agent System manages all types of Web-based modules via the Internet, and so the Field Server can be developed
with a simple firmware on the inside. An Agent System can choose its operations flexibly and autonomously
according to users’ requests and changing situations with a rule-based function. It can also analyze the monitored
data in real-time in collaboration with useful Web applications such as image analysis and signal processing . This
 architecture provides versatile and easily expandable functions without changing or rebooting the main program
and makes it possible to distribute calculation tasks.

By developing the farm operation monitoring system based on the Field Server system, we can exploit some of its
advantages. Network infrastructure in the agricultural field is available to the monitoring system, and so a simple
and compact wearable device fit for farmers can be developed by separating some functions via the network. This
proposed system can be easily managed and can be applied to the complicated recognition method with an Agent
System by using a wearable device consisting of Web-based modules. Some support applications in response to
farming operations are also provided easily by using the distributed Web processing function and peripheral control
units embedded in Field Servers.

OPTO-ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Optoelectronics is the communication between optics and electronics which includes the study, design and
manufacture of a hardware device that converts electrical energy into light and light into energy through
semiconductors. This device is made from solid crystalline materials which are lighter than metals and heavier than
insulators. Optoelectronics device is basically an electronic device involving light. This device can be found in
many optoelectronics applications like military services, telecommunications, automatic access control systems and
medical equipments.

Optoelectronics Devices

This academic field covers a wide range of devices including LEDs and elements, image pick up devices,
information displays, optical communication systems, optical storages and remote sensing systems, etc. Examples
of optoelectronic devices include telecommunication laser, blue laser, optical fiber, LED traffic lights, photo diodes
and solar cells. Majority of the optoelectronic devices (direct conversion between electrons and photons) are LEDs,
laser diodes, photo diodes and solar cells.

Types of Optoelectronics Devices

Optoelectronics are classified into different types such as

 Photodiode
 Solar Cells
 Light Emitting Diodes
 Optical Fiber
 Laser Diodes

Photo Diode
A photo diode is a semiconductor light sensor that generates a voltage or current when light falls on the junction. It
consists of an active P-N junction, which is operated in reverse bias. When a photon with plenty of energy strikes
the semiconductor, an electron or hole pair is created. The electrons diffuse to the junction to form an electric field.
This electric field across the depletion zone is equal to a negative voltage across the unbiased diode. This method is
also known as the inner photoelectric effect. This device can be used in three modes: photovoltaic as a solar cell,
forward biased as an LED and reverse biased as a photo detector. Photodiodes are used in many types of circuits
and different applications such as cameras, medical instruments, safety equipments, industries, communication
devices and industrial equipments.

Solar Cells
A solar cell or photo-voltaic cell is an electronic device that directly converts sun’s energy into electricity. When
sunlight falls on a solar cell, it produces both a current and a voltage to produce electric power. Sunlight, which is
composed of photons, radiates from the sun. When photons hit the silicon atoms of the solar cell, they transfer their
energy to lose electrons; and then, these high-energy electron flow to an external circuit.

The solar cell is composed of two layers which are struck together. The first layer is loaded with electrons, so these
electrons are ready to jump from the first layer to the second layer. The second layer has some electrons taken
away, and therefore, it is ready to take more electrons. The advantages of solar cells are that, there is no fuel supply
and cost problem. These are very dependable and require little maintenance.

The solar cells are applicable in rural electrification, telecommunication systems, ocean navigation aids, electric
power generation system in space and remote monitoring and control systems.

Light-Emitting Diodes
Light-emitting diode is a P-N semiconductor diode in which the recombination of electrons and holes yields a
photon. When the diode is electrically biased in the forward direction, it emits incoherent narrow spectrum light.
When a voltage is applied to the leads of the LED, the electrons recombine with the holes within the device and
release energy in the form of photons. This effect is called as electroluminescence. It is the conversion of electrical
energy into light. The color of the light is decided by the energy band gap of the material.

The usage of LED is advantageous as it consumes less power and produces less heat. LEDs last longer than
incandescent lamps. LEDs could become the next generation of lighting and used anywhere like in indication
lights, computer components, medical devices, watches, instrument panels, switches, fiber-optic communication,
consumer electronics, household appliances, etc.

The New Trend of LED Application in Agriculture and Horticultural

IndustryAs we know, LED is a popular light source with eco- friendlyfeatures. And with the rapid
development of the agriculture and horticultural industry, the demand to improve the crop output is
soaring. People begin to think of securing steady agricultural harvests with plant factories, and LED is
gradually to be available in the horticultural sector.
Generally, the sunlight has played a key role in promoting plants growth under the photosynthesis.And LED grow l
ight has created huge business opportunities. Research has shown that thewavelength of LED grow light is good for 
plants growth. Without enough sunshine, crops will getweaker and weaker. And as lighting supplement, LED grow 
light can effectively overcome thisproblem with the ability to prolong the crop’s lifetime and improve the quality.

In the past, the output of crops mainly relies on the weather. Nowadays, people can change thislimitation with LED 
lights. As lighting supplement, LEDs can be used in anytime and anywhere. Nomatter in daylight or night, crops ca
n bath in enough light emitted by LED. On one hand, people cannever consider about the taste of the fruit impacted 
by the shortage of sunlight. On the other hand,LEDs enable us to plant all kinds of crops throughout every season.

What’s more, LED products are recognized to be the green lighting lamps in the 21st century.Compared to tradition
al lighting which will generate a large amount of heat, LED can directly makeelectric energy into light energy, caus
ing less heat and no waste of the energy. Also, it does notcontain mercury or lead. So it does no harm to the environ
ment. And the life span for it is 10 timeslonger than that of traditional one. So there is no need to change the lamp f
or a long period of time,reducing the manpower and other costs. Therefore, LEDs embrace new future for lighting a
pplicationin greenhouse.

However, currently, there are still some problems to be settled. The first element customers come toconsider is the 
high cost. Additionally, manufacturers haven’t worked out related product standard ortechnical guidance. The good 
and bad products are intermingled. So it’s hard for customers tochoose. What’s more, due to the lack of the design r
egulation, some LED productions are notcapable of waterproof and 

corrosion resistance. So they can’t live for a long time to stand the harshenvironment. At the same time, customers 
are also concerned about the potential safety hazardcaused by the immature technology.
 Despite of the obstacles, many LED manufacturers have seen the potential market and dedicated indeveloping 
new lighting technology. And the price of LED product will decrease as the improvingtechnology. Then, LED 
application in the agriculture and horticultural industry is dawning near Agricultural LED Benefits
The following benefits are specific to farms and farmers.

1. Low Heat
LEDs emit far less heat than conventional incandescent or fluorescent bulbs. This is much healthier for your
animals and may alleviate the need to use fans in your barns and animal sheds.

2. Poultry – Increased Productivity

Poultry see incandescent bulbs as barcodes which is not very pleasant for them. With agricultural LED lamps,
the light is evenly distributed and dimmable. It is a more natural light for your poultry. This results in increased
productivity and reduced mortality.

3. Dairy – Increased Production

Studies by the Oklahoma State University on the use of LEDs in dairy sheds demonstrated that when
fluorescent lights were swapped for LEDs, dairy production actually increased by 6%!
4. Horticulture – Increased Plant Growth
LEDs can stimulate plant growth by up to 40%.
5. Temperature Tolerant
LEDs can operate as normal in very hot or cold temperatures.

6. Easy to Use & Maintain

Greengage’s clip on system reduces installation and maintenance time. They also provide controllers that offer
quick and easy lighting programmes.

Optical Fiber

An optical fiber or optic fiber is a plastic and transparent fiber made of plastic or glass. It is somewhat thicker than
a human hair. It can function as a light pipe or waveguide to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber.
Optical fibers usually include three concentric layers: a core, a cladding and a jacket. The core, a light transmitting
region of the fiber, is the central section of the fiber, which is made of silica. Cladding, the protective layer around
the core, is made of silica. This creates an optical waveguide that limits the light in the core by total reflection at the
interface of the core-cladding. Jacket, the non-optical layer around the cladding, typically consists of one or more
layers of a polymer that protect the silica from the physical or environmental damage. Along with the fiber-optic
cable, jackets are available in different colors. These colors allow the recognition of the fiber-optic cable and the
type of cable one is dealing with. For example, an orange-color cable clearly indicates a single-mode fiber, while a
yellow one indicates a multimode fiber. In the single-mode fiber, one mode propagates and the light rays travel
straight through the cable. In a multimode cable, the light rays travel through the cable following different modes.
These cables are used in telecommunications, sensors, fiber lasers, bio-medicals and in many other industries. The
advantages of using optical-fiber cable include their higher bandwidth, less signal degradation, weightlessness and
thinness than a copper wire, cost-effectiveness, flexibility, and hence they are used in medical and mechanical
imaging systems.

Laser Diodes

Laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) is a source of highly monochromatic, coherent and
directional light. It operates under stimulated emission condition. The function of a laser diode is to convert
electrical energy into light energy like infrared diodes or LEDs. The beam of a typical laser has 4×0.6mm
extending at a distance of 15 meters. The most common lasers used are injection lasers or semiconductor lasers.
The semiconductor laser changes from other lasers like solid, liquid and gas lasers.
When a voltage is applied across the P-N junction, the population inversion of the electrons is produced, and then
the laser beam is available from the semiconductor region. The ends of the P-N junction of the laser diode have
polished surface, and hence, the emitted photons reflect back to create more electron pairs. Thus, the photons
generated will be in phase with the previous photons.

Rice cultivation & leveling system

Rice cultivation is one of the most water-demanding types of cultivation since, in most cases, the fields are
permanently flooded while the rice is growing. A reduction in water wastage can be obtained by reducing the water
depth while warranting that no part of the field remain un-flooded. This can be obtained by preparing the fields so
that they are leveled to within a few millimeters. Specific agricultural tools have been designed to help farmers in
this preparation. Most solutions employ a rotating laser to materialize a horizontal plane to be used as the reference
in field preparation. A specially designed add-on with a laser receiver, which is mounted on the tractor, reads the
laser plane height and drives a blade that is used to move the soil from above-level sites to under-level sites.

Laser Controlled Land Leveling System

Laser controlled land leveling system is used in highway, railway, air port, mine, tunnel, bridge, building, water
conservancy, agriculture, stock raising and so on. This advanced technology in Agriculture is generally useful for
laser controlled land leveling System, farmland spaceflight photo management, remote sensing measure and data
analysis, agriculture and stock raising management.Fig1 shows a schematic laser controlled land leveling system
while Fig.2 depicts the operating of a similar system in actual field condition.

Elements in the fig 1. Control box, Receiver, laser beam,

Transmitter, hydraulic cylinder, tripod ,solenoid valve.

Fig.1 Schematic view of Laser controlled land leveling system Fig.2 Laser controlled land leveling system in actual
field The application and development of laser controlled land leveling System in Agriculture

Applications of Optoelectronics Devices

1. LEDs could become the next generation of lighting and used anywhere like in indication lights, computer
components, medical devices, watches, instrument panels, switches, fiber-optic communication, consumer
electronics, household appliances, traffic signals, automobile brake lights, 7 segment displays and inactive displays,
and also used in different electronic and electrical engineering projects such as
 Propeller Display of Message by Virtual LEDs
 LED Based Automatic Emergency Light
 Mains Operated LED Light
 Display of Dialed Telephone Numbers on Seven Segment Display
 Solar Powered Led Street Light with Auto Intensity Control

2. The solar cells are applicable in rural electrification, telecommunication systems, ocean navigation aids, and
electric power generation in space and remote monitoring and control systems and also used in different solar
energy based projects such as

 Solar Energy Measurement System

 Arduino based Solar Street Light
 Solar Powered Auto Irrigation System
 Solar Power Charge Controller
 Sun Tracking Solar Panel

3. Photodiodes are used in many types of circuits and different applications such as cameras, medical instruments,
safety equipments, industries, communication devices and industrial equipments.

4. Optical fibers are used in telecommunications, sensors, fiber lasers, bio-medicals and in many other industries.

5. The laserdiodes are used in fiber optic communication, optical memories, military applications, CD players,
surgical procedures, Local Area Networks, long distance communications, optical memories, fiber optic
communications and in electrical projects such as RF Controlled Robotic Vehicle with Laser Beam Arrangement
and so on.
AGRICULTURE EQUIPMENT AND AUTOMATION

Smart farming involve the integration of advanced technologies into existing farming practices in order to increase
production efficiency and the quality of agricultural products. As an added benefit, they also improve the quality of
life for farm workers by reducing heavy labor and tedious tasks. Just about every aspect of farming can benefit
from technological advancements—from planting and watering to crop health and harvesting. Most of the current
and impending agricultural technologies fall into three categories that are expected to become the pillars of the
smart farm: autonomous robots, drones or UAVs, and sensors and the Internet of Things (IoT).

Autonomous and Robotic Labour

Replacing human labor with automation is a growing trend across multiple industries, and agriculture is no
exception. Most aspects of farming are exceptionally labor-intensive, with much of that labor comprised of
repetitive and standardized tasks—an ideal niche for robotics and automation.
We’re already seeing agricultural robots—or AgBots—beginning to appear on farms and performing tasks ranging
from planting and watering, to harvesting and sorting.  Eventually, this new wave of smart equipment will make it
possible to produce more and higher quality food with less manpower.

Driverless Tractors
The tractor is the heart of a farm, used for many different tasks depending on the type of farm and the configuration
of its ancillary equipment.  As autonomous driving technologies advance, tractors are expected to become some of
the earliest machines to be converted. 
In the early stages, human effort will still be required to set up field and boundary maps, program the best field
paths using path planning software, and decide other operating conditions.  Humans will also still be required for
regular repair and maintenance.
Nevertheless, autonomous tractors will become more capable and self-sufficient over time, especially with the
inclusion of additional cameras and machine vision systems, GPS for navigation, IoT connectivity to enable remote
monitoring and operation and radar and LiDAR for object detection and avoidance. All of these technological
advancements will significantly diminish the need for humans to actively control these machines.

Seeding and Planting

Sowing seeds was once a laborious manual process. Modern agriculture improved on that with seeding machines,
which can cover more ground much faster than a human. However, these often use a scatter method that can be
inaccurate and wasteful when seeds fall outside of the optimal location.  Effective seeding requires control over two
variables: planting seeds at the correct depth, and spacing plants at the appropriate distance apart to allow for
optimal growth.
Precision seeding equipment is designed to maximize these variables every time. Combining geomapping and
sensor data detailing soil quality, density, moisture and nutrient levels takes a lot of the guesswork out of the
seeding process. Seeds have the best chance to sprout and grow and the overall crop will have a greater harvest.
As farming moves into the future, existing precision seeders will come together with autonomous tractors and IoT-
enabled systems that feed information back to the farmer. An entire field could be planted this way, with only a
single human monitoring the process over a video feed or digital control dashboard on a computer or tablet, while
multiple machines roll across the field.
Automatic Watering and Irrigation
Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI) is already a prevalent irrigation method that allows farmers to control when and
how much water their crops receive.  By pairing these SDI systems with increasingly sophisticated IoT-enabled
sensors to continuously monitor moisture levels and plant health, farmers will be able to intervene only when
necessary, otherwise allowing the system to operate autonomously.

Example of an SDI system for agriculture. While current systems often require the farmer to manually check lines
and monitor the pumps, filters and gauges, future farms can connect all this equipment to sensors that stream
monitoring data directly to a computer or smartphone. (Image courtesy of Jain Irrigation.)

While SDI systems aren’t exactly robotic, they could operate completely autonomously in a smart farm context,
relying on data from sensors deployed around the fields to perform irrigation as needed.

Weed ing and Crop Maintenance

Weeding and pest control are both critical aspects of plant maintenance and tasks that are perfect for autonomous
robots.  A few prototypes are already being developed, including Bonirob from Deepfield Robotics, and an
automated cultivator that is part of the UC Davis Smart Farm research initiative.
The Bonirob robot is about the size of a car and can navigate autonomously through a field of crops using video,
LiDAR and satellite GPS. Its developers are using machine learning to teach the Bonirob to identify weeds before
removing them. With advanced machine learning, or even artificial intelligence (AI) being integrated in the future,
machines such as this could entirely replace the need for humans to manually weed or monitor crops.
[

The Bonirob farming robot.

The UC Davis prototype operates a bit differently.  Their cultivator is towed behind a tractor and is equipped with
imaging systems that can identify a fluorescent dye that the seeds are coated with when planted, and which
transfers to the young plants as they sprout and start to grow. The cultivator then cuts out the non-glowing weeds.
While these examples are robots designed for weeding, the same base machine can be equipped with sensors,
cameras and sprayers to identify pests and application of insecticides.
These robots, and others like them, will not be operating in isolation on farms of the future. They will be connected
to autonomous tractors and the IoT, enabling the whole operation to practically run itself.

AUTOMATIC DRIP IRRIGATION

These days, adopting an optimized irrigation system has become a necessity due to the deficiency of the
world water resources. Besides, many researchers have treated this issue to improve the irrigation system
by integrating the novel technologies from the information and communication field with the agricultural
practices. The Wireless Sensor and Actuators Networks (WSANs) present a best example of this fusion.
We are proposing architecture model for a drip irrigation system using the WSANs. Our system includes
the soil moisture, temperature to monitor the irrigation operations. Specifically, we consider the case
where a system detects water level and alerts to user and maintain system working anytime.

1. INTRODUCTION
In India agriculture is one of the main sources of living and it mostly depends on the rain. And it also has
a major effect on Indian economy. A large quantity of water is used for agricultural field and therefore
85% of available fresh water resources are used for yielding agricultural crops. This is due to the major
growth in population due to this tremendous growth in population there is large demand for food.
Agriculture is the main source for food production. Advancement in technology we need to implement a
technique by which there can be restricted consumption of water.
Drip irrigation is a form of irrigation that saves water and fertilizer by allowing water to drip slowly to the
roots of many of different plants, either onto the soil surface or directly onto the foundation zone, through
a network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters. Slender tubes delivers water directly to the base of the
plant which can helps to make efficient use of water.
In drip irrigation system the drips are placed close to the surface of the ground where the water reaches to
the root zone of the crop. The sensors are placed at the root foundation level of the plants which will
sense the moisture, temperature and pressure. Sensors will send data to the server and the data will be
compared with the predefined values which already stored in database and the analysis will be performed.
Consistent with that analysis the system will take the desired action automatically.
The main objective of the system is: a) Efficient and reliable use of water resources in agriculture. b)
Handles the irrigation system automatically.

1.1. Problem Statement

Irrigation of plants is overwhelming activity, to be done in within time, it needs many numbers of human
resources. Generally all the steps were performed by humans. These days some system use the technology
to reduce the number of workers or the time required to water the plant. With such a system, the control is
very limited and many resources will still waste. Water is one of these resources that are used excessively.
Mass irrigation is one of the method to water the plant but this method will represent the massive losses
since the amount of water given is in excess of plant’s needs. In some part of India the water consumption
is taxed.
In addition to excess cost of water, the lack of human power labor is becoming more and more expensive.
As a result if no efforts is is invested in optimizing there will be more money involved in same process,
Technology is probably a solution to reduce costs and prevent loss of resources.

After the deep research in the agricultural field, researchers found that the income of agriculture goes on
decreasing day by day. Use of advanced technology within the field of agriculture plays very important
role in increasing the agricultural production moreover as in reducing the additional human power efforts,
water demand and fertilizer demand. A number of the researchers tried for betterment of farmers and
provides the systems that use technologies that are useful for increasing the agricultural yield. Some of
such researches carried out in the field of agriculture are summarized below. author said, in present drip
irrigation system water is provided to root zone of plants drop by drop .It saves huge amount of water.
The objective of the system is to a) Save valuable water resources b) Handles the system manually and
automatically c) Detects the water level d) Builds such system which can improve crop productivity e)
Learns choice way of irrigation based on different parameter. Present irrigation system Surface irrigation
is also referred as flood irrigation.
It states that the water distribution is uncontrolled and because it is inherently inefficient as well as not
reliable. The disadvantage of fuzzy logic is that it gives same importance to all factors that are to be
combined. smart drip irrigation system proves to be a helpful system because it automates and regulates
the watering without any manual efforts. Sending the emails to the system can be automated but manual
sending of the emails has control over the system regarding whether or not to run the system depending
upon the weather conditions. In this system, solenoid valves and relay board is used.It can be controlled
remotely which opens the opportunities to control the flow of water as well as the electrical flow. The
limitation of this design model is that the failure of any particular part is not informed and must be tested
manually.
The benefits of using wireless sensors are having the reduced wiring and piping prices. Wireless system is
easy for installation and maintenance in massive areas.
Digital camera is interfaced to Raspberry Pi via Wi- Fi module. Here the raspberry Pi takes pictures
wirelessly using Mobile camera. Then image processing will be done by Raspberry Pi to identify soil
colour samples. According to soil samples the Pi will transmit the information to user on the android app
regarding the soil and seeds / crops which can be used on this kind of soil.
The developed system is simple and price effective than most alternate systems present in the market. It
measures totally different environmental conditions. It includes measurement of atmospheric temperature
and soil temperature etc. Data transmission is finished by wireless module for communication purpose.
Therefore it can be used in open fields as well as within greenhouse. The range of wireless module is up
to 25m with / without different obstacles like trees, wall, magnet, cupboard, benches, etc. Sensors can be
placed anywhere in the field. If there is need of relocation then it can be done simply. System is also
tested for different temperatures and it’s found that all the sensors work with minimum deviation in
output. The use of drip irrigation, water is provided directly to the roots of the crop. So wastage of water
is decreased and water resources are optimized to obtain higher quality of crops.

Fig-1: Architecture of Automatic Drip Irrigation

In this system moisture sensor, temperature sensor are used to measure soil moisture and temperature respectively
which are placed deployed in soil. In our system we will check soil moisture, temperature of soil then we will check
water tank level. Our propose system is to detect water level. If the water level of tank goes down then water is supplied
in the tank. According to this value system will decide how much amount of water is present in the tank if it less than
limit and it will automatically fills tank.
Then sensor collects soil moisture and send it to Raspberry Pi. Then Raspberry Pi will do processing and compare it
with predefined values. If the current sensed value does not matches with predefined value then it will turn on the
system and water will be drip to every root of plant. Pi will transmit the status to user on the regarding the soil
moisture and tank water level and system status whether it is on or off particular instance. Power supply is supplied to
the Raspberry Pi. This series of small, low powered computers provides a cheap and relatively simple base for
electronics projects everything from a tiny web server to an actual spaceship.
Advantages:

1. Saves time
2. Saves water
3. Low cost and easy to implement
4. Cover whole area of the field
5. Reliable easy to control
6. Impoved and better crop production
7. Decreased labor cost
8. No water deficiency in water
Disadvantages:
1. Difficult in case of GSM modem
2. Kit is to be protected from reaching water