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Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles PDF Free
Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles PDF Free
CHILD
and
Adolescent
Learners
And
Learning
Principles
Human Development
the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues
through the life span
includes growth and decline
can be positive or negative
Prenatal Development
Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major structures of the body are
forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition,
teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and labor and
delivery are primary concerns.
Three Phases:
The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A
newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a
walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers are also
transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly
moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child.
• Extreme dependents on adult
• Beginning psychological activities
• Language of newborn is cry
• Usually eats every two to three hours
• Uncoordinated movements
• Toothless
• Poor vision
• Usually doubles weight by 9 months
• Responds to human voice and touches
• Responds to human voice and touch
1 year old
• Change from plump baby to a learner
• Begins to walk and talk
• Ability for passive language
• Tentative sense of independence
• Determined explorer
2 years old
• Begins to communicate verbally
• Can usually speak in 3 to 4 word sentences
• Famous for negative behavior ―NO‖ to everything!
• Will play side by side other children, but does not actively play with them
• Great imitators
Early Childhood
3 years old
• Wants to be just like parents
• Vocabulary and pronunciation continue to expand
• Climbs stairs with alternating feet
• Can briefly stand on one foot
4 years old
• Sentences are more complex; speaks well enough for strangers to understand
• Imagination is vivid; line between what is real and imaginary is often indistinct
• Develops fears (common fears: fear of dark, fear of animals, and fear of death)
Years old
• Can hop on one foot and skip
• Can accurately copy figures
• May begin to read
• Socialize with other children their age
school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and by
assessing one‘s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self
and others. Schools compare students and make these comparisons public through
team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. Growth rates slow down and
children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. And children begin to
learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and
fellow students.
• Both large and small muscles well-developed.
• Developed complex motor skills
• From independent activities to same sex group activities
• Acceptance by peers very important
• Parental approval still important
The twenties and thirties are often thought of as early adulthood. (Students who are in
their mid-30s tend to love to hear that they are a young adult!). It is a time when we are
at our physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and
substance abuse. It is a time of focusing on the future and putting a lot of energy into
making choices that will help one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of
others. Love and work are primary concerns at this stage of life.
• Physical development complete
• Emotional maturation continues to develop
• Usually learned to accept responsibity for for actions and accept responsibility for
actions and accept criticism
• Usually knows how to profit from errors
• Socially progree from age- trelated peer groups to people with similar interests.
The late thirties through the mid-sixties is referred to as middle adulthood. This is a
period in which aging, that began earlier, becomes more noticeable and a period at
Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma
OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 6
PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
which many people are at their peak of productivity in love and work. It may be a period
of gaining expertise in certain fields and being able to understand problems and find
solutions with greater efficiency than before. It can also be a time of becoming more
realistic about possibilities in life previously considered; of recognizing the difference
between what is possible and what is likely. This is also the age group hardest hit by the
AIDS epidemic in Africa resulting in a substantial decrease in the number of workers in
those economies (Weitz, 2007).
• Physical changes begin to occur:
Hair begins to begin to thin and gray
Wrinkles appear
Hearing and vision decrease
Muscles lose tone
• Main concerns: children, health, job security, aging, parents and fear of aging
• Love and acceptance still take a major role
This period of the life span has increased in the last 100 years, particularly in
industrialized countries. Late adulthood is sometimes subdivided into two or three
categories such as the ―young old‖ and ―old old‖ or the ―young old‖, ―old old‖, and ―oldest
old‖. We will follow the former categorization and make the distinction between the
―young old‖ who are people between 65 and 79 and the ―old old‖ or those who are 80
and older. One of the primary differences between these groups is that the young old
are very similar to midlife adults; still working, still relatively healthy, and still interested
in being productive and active. The ―old old‖ remain productive and active and the
majority continues to live independently, but risks of the diseases of old age such as
arteriosclerosis, cancer, and cerebral vascular disease increases substantially for this
age group. Issues of housing, healthcare, and extending active life expectancy are only
a few of the topics of concern for this age group. A better way to appreciate the
diversity of people in late adulthood is to go beyond chronological age and examine
whether a person is experiencing optimal aging (like the gentleman pictured above who
is in very good health for his age and continues to have an active, stimulating
life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of those of the same age),
or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical challenge and disease
than others of the same age).
• Fastest growing age bracket of society
• Physical deterioration (brittle bones, poor coordination
• Some memory problems
• Coping with retirement and forms of entertainment
• Very concerned with health and finances
• Significant number become depressed; suicide rate is high
There are a number of important issues that have been debated throughout the history
of developmental psychology. The major questions include the following:
Here are some of the basic questions within the realm of developmental
psychology and what many psychologists today believe about these issues.
The debate over the relative contributions of inheritance and the environment
usually referred to as the nature versus nurture debate is one of the oldest issues
in both philosophy and psychology.
Philosophers such as Plato and Descartes supported the idea that some ideas
are inborn. On the other hand, thinkers such as John Locke argued for the
concept of tabula rasa—a belief that the mind is a blank slate at birth, with
experience determining our knowledge.
Some aspects of development are distinctly biological, such as puberty.
However, the onset of puberty can be affected by environmental factors such as
diet and nutrition.
Early Experience vs. Later Experience
A second important consideration in developmental psychology involves the
relative importance of early experiences versus those that occur later in life. Are
we more affected by events that occur in early childhood, or do later events play
an equally important role?
Psychoanalytic theorists tend to focus on events that occur in early childhood.
According to Freud, much of a child's personality is completely established by the
age of five. If this is indeed the case, those who have experienced deprived or
abusive childhoods might never adjust or develop normally.
In contrast to this view, researchers have found that the influence of childhood
events does not necessarily have a dominating effect over behavior throughout
life. Many people with less-than-perfect childhoods go on to develop normally
into well-adjusted adults.
Continuity vs. Discontinuity
A third major issue in developmental psychology is that of continuity. Does
change occur smoothly over time, or through a series of predetermined steps?
Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma
OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 8
PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
SIGMUND FREUD
• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who
came to believe that the way parents dealt with children's
basic sexual and aggressive desires would determine how
their personalities developed and whether or not they would
end up well-adjusted as adults.
• Freud described children as going through multiple stages
of sexual development, which he labeled Oral, Anal,
Phallic, Latency, and Genital.
Not as daft as it sounds. The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal
toilet-training regime during the anal stage.
In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you. They
like giving things away. In essence, they are 'sharing their s**t'!' An anal-expulsive
personality is also messy, disorganized and rebellious.
The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for
a penis with the wish for a baby. The girl blames her mother for her 'castrated state,'
and this creates great tension.
The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the
mother to take on the female gender role.
This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and
begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful
resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another
person in our 20's.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during
the phallic stage.
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual
intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual
perversions may develop.
For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure
primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.
PSYCHOANALYSIS
Overview of Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis emphasizes unconscious
,motivation- main cause of behavior lies buried in the
unconscious mind. It is both an approach to therapy
and a theory of personality.
3.) Superego
The ego develops in order to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real
world (like a referee). It is the decision-making component of personality
The ego operates according to the reality principle, working our realistic ways of
satisfying the id‘s demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid
negative consequences of society. The ego considers social realities and norms,
etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave.
The superego incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from
one's parents and others. It is similar to a conscience, which can punish the ego through
causing feelings of guilt.
between individuals. It is presumed that individuals differ in their traits due to genetic
differences. These theories are sometimes referred to psychometric theories, because
of their emphasis on measuring personality by using psychometric tests. Trait scores
are continuous (quantitative) variables. A person is given numeric score to indicate how
much of a trait they possess.
Chapter 5 : Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Schema- Piaget used the term ―schema‖ to refer to the cognitive structure by which
individuals intellectually adapt too and organize environment. It is an individual‘s way to
understand or create meaning about a thing experience.
Cognitive Development
Object permanence
This is the ability of the child to know that and object still exists even when out of sight.
This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage.
Symbolic Function
This is the ability to represent object and events. Symbolic function gradually develops
the period between 2 to 7 years. Reil, a two-year old may pretend that she is deinking
from a glass which is really empty. Though she already pretend the presence of water,
the glass remain to be a glass at around for years of age, Nico, may, after pretending to
drink from an empty glass, turn the glass into a rocket ship or a telephone.
Egocentrism/Self centered
This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that
everyone also has his same point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of
others. You see this in five year-old boy who buys a toy truck for his mother‘s birthday.
Or a three years old girl who cannot understand why her cousins call her daddy ―uncle‖
and not daddy
Centration
This refers to the Tendency of the child only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and
include other aspects. For example, when a child is presented with two identical glasses
with the same amount of water, the child will say they have the same amount of water.
However, once water from one of the glasses s transferred to an obviously taller buy
narrow glass, the child might say that there is more water in the taller glass. The child
only focused or ―centered‖ only one aspect for the new glass, that it is a taller glass.
Irreversibility
Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking. They can understand
that 2 + 3 is 5, but cannot understand 5-3 is 2.
Animism
This is the tendency of children to attribute human lie traits or characteristics to inanimate
object. When at night, the child is asked, where the sun is, show will reply, ―Mr. Sun is asleep.‖
This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in term of
concrete objects. This covers approximately the ages between 8 - 11 years or the
elementary school years. The concrete operational stage is marked by the following:
Decentering
This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and
situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This
allows the child to e more logical when dealing with concrete objects and situations
Reversibility
During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow that certain operation
cannot be reversed
Conservation
This is the ability to know that certain properties of object like number, mas, volume, or
area do not change even if there is a change in appearance. The concrete operational
child can now judge rightly that the amount of water in a taller but narrower container is
still the same as when the water was in the shorter but wider glass.
Seriation
This refer to the ability to order or arrange thins in a series based on one , dimension
such as weigh, volume or size.
Hypothetical Reasoning
This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh
data in order to make a final devision or judgment. This can be done in the absence of concrete
objects, The individuals can now deal with ―What if‖ questions.
Analogical reasoning
Ability to perceive the relationship one instance and then use that relationship to narrow
down possible answer in another similar situation or problem.
The individual in the formal operation stage can make an analogy. If United Kingdom is
to Europe, then Philippines is to Asia. The individual will reason that since the UK is
found in the continent of Europe then the Philippines is found what continent?. Then
Asia is his answer. Through reflective thought and even in the absence of concrete
object the individual can now understand relationship and do analogical reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
This is the ability to think logically by applying general rule to a particular instance or situation.
For example, all countries near the north pole have cold temperatures Greenland is near he
north pole. Therefore, Greenland has cold temperature
Elements
Ego Identity- Ego identity is developed by human interaction and how an individual
becomes more conscious of themselves and their surroundings.
Ego Strength- Ego strength deals with an individual becoming competent in different
areas life, by becoming competent in life they feel more important.
Conflict- Conflict is a turning point during which an individual struggles to attain some
psychological quality. Sometimes referred to as a psychosocial crisis, this can be a time
of both vulnerability and strength, as the individual works toward success or failure.
Personality- consists of all the relatively stable and distinctive styles of thought,
behavior and emotional responses that characterize a person‘s adaptations to
surrounding situations.
Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently. These are
particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child‘s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a
―time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive."
Teachers begin to take an important role in the child‘s life as they teach the child
specific skills.
Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson‘s stage theory
of psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at
death. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop
integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.
Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma
OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 20
PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Lawrence Kohlberg
• Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory; proposed that
moral development is a continual process that occurs
throughout the lifespan.
• Used Piaget‘s story-telling technique to tell people
stories involving moral dilemmas.
• He based his theory upon research and interviews
with groups of young children.
• A series of moral dilemmas were presented to these
participants and they were also interviewed to determine the
reasoning behind their judgments of each scenario.
• One of the best known stories of Kohlberg‘s (1958)
concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe.
Language
• Language can be viewed as a verbal expression of culture.
• Every culture has the words it needs for its lifestyle.
• It opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have.
• It is use to know and understand the world and solve problems.
• It serves a social function but it also has an important individual function. It helps
the learner to regulate and reflect on his own thinking.
Which the child may perform certain level of competency she/ he may not immediately
be at it.
Scaffolding
Refers to the support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he/she
cannot accomplish independently.
It is not about doing the task for the child while he/she watches.
It is not about doing short cuts for the child
It should involve the judicious assistance given by the adult or peer so that the
child can move from the zone of actual to the zone of proximal development.
The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the microsystem is the smallest and most
immediate environment in which children live. As such, the microsystem comprises the
daily home, school or daycare, peer group and community environment of the children.
Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family
members, classmates, teachers and caregivers. How these groups or individuals
interact with the children will affect how they grow.
Similarly, how children react to people in their microsystem will also influence how they
treat the children in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions and
relationships will understandably foster they children‘s improved development.
One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his study of
ecological systems is that it is possible for siblings who find themselves in the same
ecological system to experience very different environments.
Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not impossible
for the development of them to progress in different manners. Each child‘s particular
personality traits, such as temperament, which is influenced by unique genetic and
biological factors, ultimately have a hand in how he/she is treated by others.
However, if the child‘s parents dislike their child‘s peers and openly criticize them, then
the child experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, which will likely lead to
negative development.
The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings,
one of which may not contain the developing children but affect them indirectly
nonetheless.
Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may not
directly interact with may still have an impact on their lives. Such places and people
may include the parents‘ workplaces, extended family members, and the neighborhood
the children live in.
For example, a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an indifferent boss
at the workplace may take it out on his children and mistreat them at home.
The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the
children that still have significant influences on them. This ecological system is
composed of the children‘s cultural patterns and values, specifically their dominant
beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic systems.
For example, children in war-torn areas will experience a different kind of development
than children in peaceful environments.
The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful dimension
of time, which demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy in the
children‘s environments. The chronosystem may include a change in family structure,
address, parents‘ employment status, as well as immense society changes such as
economic cycles and wars.
DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS
As noted earlier, actual chronological age is only a relative indicator of someone‘s
physical, cognitive, and psychosocial stage of development. Unique as each individual
is, however, some typical developmental trends have been identified as milestones of
normal progression through the life cycle. When dealing with the teaching-learning
process, it is imperative to examine the developmental phases as individuals progress
from infancy to senescence so as to fully appreciate the behavioral changes that occur
in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.
As influential as age can be to learning readiness, it should never be examined in
isolation. Growth and development interact with experiential background, physical and
emotional health status, and personal motivation, as well as numerous environmental
factors such as stress, the surrounding conditions, and the available support systems,
to affect a person‘s ability and readiness to learn.
Musinski (1999) describes three phases of learning: dependence, independence, and
interdependence. These passages of learning ability from childhood to adulthood,
labeled by Covey (1990) as the ―maturity continuum,‖ are identified as follows:
Dependence is characteristic of the infant and young child, who are totally dependent
on others for direction, support, and nurturance from a physical, emotional, and
Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma
OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 28
PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Characteristics Strategies
INFANCY-TODDLERHOOD
Cognitive Trust vs. Needs security Use repetition and Encourage physical closeness
stage: mistrust (Birth- Explores self and imitation of Provide detailed information
stage: Autonomy vs. Natural curiosity Stimulate all senses Ask for information on child‘s
security
manipulation of
objects
EARLY CHILDHOOD
Approximate 3-5 years Egocentric Use warm, calm Welcome active involvement
Cognitive Initiative vs. concrete, literal Build trust Encourage physical closeness
stage: guilt Believes illness self- Use repetition of Provide detailed information
stage: Limited sense of time Allow manipulation Ask for information on child‘s
perceptions/feelings
and stories
puppets
Stimulate senses:
visual, auditory,
tactile, motor
Approximate 6-11 years More realistic and Encourage Welcome active involvement
stage: Industry vs. and effect Be honest, allay Provide detailed information
Understands models
consequences of children‘s
actions experiences;
Provide group
activities
Use drawings,
models, dolls,
videotapes
ADOLESCENCE
Approximate 12-19 years Abstract, hypothetical Establish trust, Explore emotional and financial support
Cognitive operations Can build on past Know their agenda Assess stress levels
Psychosocial role confusion Reasons by logic and fears/concerns Determine role responsibilities and
preoccupation, influence
invincible/immune to Ensure
fable) privacy
Arrange group
sessions
Use audiovisuals,
reading materials
Provide for
experimentation and
flexibility
YOUNG ADULTHOOD
Approximate 20-40 years Autonomous Use problem- Explore emotional, financial, and
Cognitive operations Uses personal Draw on meaningful Assess motivational level for
Psychosocial isolation enhance or interfere Focus on immediacy Identify potential obstacles and
Competency-based role
knowledge through
hands-on practice
MIDDLE-AGED ADULTHOOD
Approximate 41-64 years Sense of self well- Focus on Explore emotional, financial, and
Cognitive operations Concerned with independence and Assess motivational level for
Psychosocial vs. self- At peak in career normal life patterns Identify potential obstacles and
abilities problems
Desires to modify
unsatisfactory aspects
of life
OLDER ADULTHOOD
Approximate 65 years and Cognitive changes Use concrete Involve principal caregivers
Cognitive Formal think abstractly, Build on past life Provide resources for support (respite
Psychosocial Ego integrity Decreased short-term Make information Assess coping mechanisms
stage: vs. despair memory relevant and Provide written instructions for
(afterimage) processing/response
reinforcement of
information
Use verbal
exchange and
coaching
Establish retrieval
several clues)
Encourage active
involvement
Keep explanations
brief
Use analogies to
illustrate abstract
information
deficits distinctly
Visual changes
Farsighted (needs
glasses to read)
Lenses become
opaque (glare
problem)
darkness) light
Fatigue/decreased yellows
Pathophysiology precautions/provide
Ensure accessibility
(i.e., glasses,
hearing aid)
rest periods
to perform
Establish realistic
short-term goals
changes reminisce
Demonstrate
relevance of
information to daily
life
Assess resources
Make learning
positive
experiences
Integrate new
behaviors with
formerly established
ones
Choosing quality care that is in a healthy and safe environment should be your number
one priority. Look for child care that stimulates and encourages your child‘s physical,
intellectual, and social growth. Keep your child‘s age and personality in mind when
looking for the program that best meets his needs. Understanding what makes your
child feel secure and knowing the activities he enjoys and will learn from will make a
difference in your final child care decision.
Personality
Each child has his own personality and responds to caregivers or experiences
differently. Just like adults, children may have outgoing, shy, or even-tempered natures.
Your caregiver should be in tune with your child‘s special personality and treat your
child in a positive and caring manner that agrees with his special personality. This is
crucial to nurturing his healthy emotional growth. By understanding your child‘s
Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma
OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 37
PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
personality, you and your caregiver can help him succeed by offering care, activities,
and discipline that best fit his needs.
Developmental stages
As your child grows, you may find yourself searching for clues to her behavior. As a
parent, you may hear the words ―developmental stages.‖ This is just another way of
saying your child is moving through a certain time period in the growing-up process. At
times, she may be fascinated with her hands, her feet, and her mouth. As she grows,
she may get into everything. Lock your doors and cabinets, and take a deep breath
during those exploration years! Then there will be an age when independence is all she
wants. At every stage, what she needs is your love, understanding, and time.
Parent Tip
Recent brain research indicates that birth to age three are the most important years in a
child‘s development. Here are some tips to consider during your child‘s early years:
Learning styles
Children learn in many different ways. Each child has his own way of learning—some
learn visually, others through touch, taste, and sound. Watch a group of children and
you‘ll understand at once what this means. One child will sit and listen patiently, another
cannot wait to move and count beads. Another wants you to show her the answer over
and over. Children also learn in different ways depending on their developmental stage.
One thing we know is all children love to learn new things by exploring and discovering.
Children love to solve problems during play and in daily activities.
Look for a child care provider who understands children‘s learning styles and includes
reading, learning numbers, art activities, rhyming, and problem solving in your child‘s
daily activities. Also, find out how your provider encourages your child to understand
and benefit from daily activities and experiences.
Tips for looking for a child care provider during the first eighteen months of life
Look for a provider who:
One month
What I’m Like: I can‘t support my own head and I‘m awake about one hour
in every ten (though it may seem more).
Three months
What I’m Like: My hands and feet fascinate me. I‘ll laugh and coo at them
and you. I‘m alert for 15 minutes, maybe longer, at a time. I love to listen to
you talk and read to me.
What I Need: Talk to me, feed me, and sing to me. My favorite songs are
lullabies. Cuddle me. I need fresh air, a ride in a stroller. Give me things to
pull and teethe on.
Five months
What I’m Like: I may be able to roll over and sit with support. I can hold my
own toys. I babble and am alert for two hours at a time. I can eat most baby
food. Put toys just out of my reach and I will try to reach them. I like to see
what I look like and what I am doing.
What I Need: Make sure I‘m safe as I‘m learning to crawl. I need happy
sounds, and I like to be near you. Dance with me, tickle me, and tell me
about the world you see.
Nine months
What I’m Like: I‘m busy! I like to explore everything! I crawl, sit, pull on
furniture, grasp objects, and understand simple commands. I like to be with
other babies and I react to their happiness and sadness.
Twelve months
What I’m Like: I may be able to pull myself up and sidestep around
furniture. I may begin walking. I make lots of sounds and say ―Mama‖ and
―Dada.‖ I‘m curious about flowers, ants, grass, stones, bugs, and dirt. I like
to get messy, ‘cause that‘s how I learn. My fingers want to touch everything.
I like to play near others close to my age but not always with them. If I‘m
walking, please walk at my pace.
What I’m Like: I like to eat with a spoon, even if I spill. And I will spill, spill,
spill. I will explore everything high and low, so please keep me safe. I may
have temper tantrums because I have no other way of expressing my
feelings or frustrations. Sometimes I‘m fearful and cling to you. I like to have
evening routines: music, story, and bath time. I like balls, blocks, pull toys,
push toys, take apart toys, put together toys, and cuddles. Sometimes I say
―No‖ and mean it. By eighteen months I can walk well by myself, although I
fall a lot. I may jump. I say lots of words, especially the word ―mine‖—
because everything is mine! I like it when we play outside or go to a park. I
like being with other children. I try to take off my shoes and socks. I like to
build with blocks.
What I Need: Let me touch things. Let me try new things with your help, if I
need it. I need firm limits and consistency. Please give me praise. The more
you talk with me, the earlier I will tell you how I feel and what I need. I need
you to observe me and to understand why I‘m upset or mad. I need your
understanding and patience. I want a routine. I need you to not mind the
mess I sometimes make. I need you to say I‘m sorry if you made a mistake.
And please read to me over and over again!
Is the child care setting safe and does it provide small group sizes and adult-to-
child ratios?
Are there enough toys and activities so sharing isn‘t a problem?
Are there a lot of toys for building which can be put together?
Is there a dress-up area?
Do art activities allow the children the freedom to make their own art or do all
crafts look the same?
And last, what are the toilet training and discipline practices of the provider?
Two years
What I Need: I need to continue exploring the world, down the block, the
parks, library, and stores, etc. I like my routines. If you have to change them,
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do so slowly. I need you to notice what I do well and PRAISE me. Give me
two OK choices to distract me when I begin to say ―No.‖ I need you to be in
control and make decisions when I‘m unable to do so. I do better when you
plan ahead. Be FIRM with me about the rules, but CALM when I forget or
disagree. And please be patient because I am doing my best to please you,
even though I may not act that way.
Are there other children the same age or close in age to your child?
Is there space for climbing, running, and jumping?
Are there books and learning activities to prepare your child for school?
Is television and movie watching selective?
Are learning materials and teaching styles age-appropriate and respectful of
children‘s cultural and ethnic heritage?
Are caregivers experienced and trained in early childhood development?
Are children given choices to do and learn things for themselves?
Are children rushed to complete activities or tasks?
Or are they given enough time to work at their own pace?
Three years
What I’m Like: Watch out! I am charged with physical energy. I do things on
my own terms. My mind is a sponge. Reading and socializing are essential
in getting me ready for school. I like to pretend a lot and enjoy scribbling on
everything. I am full of questions, many of which are ―Why?‖ I become fairly
reliable about using the potty. I may stay dry at night and may not. Playing
and trying new things out are how I learn. Sometimes I like to share. I begin
to listen more and begin to understand how to solve problems for myself.
What I Need: I want to know about everything and understand words, and
when encouraged, I will use words instead of grabbing, crying, or pushing.
Play with me, sing to me, and let‘s pretend!
Four years
What I’m Like: I‘m in an active stage, running, hopping, jumping, and
climbing. I love to question ―Why?‖ and ―How?‖ I‘m interested in numbers
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and the world around me. I enjoy playing with my friends. I like to be creative
with my drawings, and I may like my pictures to be different from everyone
else‘s. I‘m curious about ―sleepovers‖ but am not sure if I‘m ready yet. I may
want to be just like my older sister or brother. I am proud that I am so BIG
now!
What I Need: I need to explore, to try out, and to test limits. Giving me room
to grow doesn‘t mean letting me do everything. I need reasonable limits set
for my own protection and for others. Let me know clearly what is or isn‘t to
be expected. I need to learn to give and take and play well with others. I
need to be read to, talked to, and listened to. I need to be given choices and
to learn things in my own way. Label objects and describe what‘s happening
to me so I can learn new words and things.
Five years
What I’m Like: I‘m slowing a little in growth. I have good motor control, but
my small muscles aren‘t as developed as my large muscles for jumping. My
activity level is high and my play has direction. I like writing my name,
drawing pictures, making projects, and going to the library. I‘m more
interested now in doing group activities, sharing things and my feelings. I
like quiet time away from the other kids from time to time. I may be anxious
to begin kindergarten.
What I Need: I need the opportunity for plenty of active play. I need to do
things for myself. I like to have choices in how I learn new things. But most
of all, I need your love and assurance that I‘m important. I need time,
patience, understanding, and genuine attention. I am learning about who I
am and how I fit in with others. I need to know how I am doing in a positive
way. I understand more about things and how they work, so you can give
me a more detailed answer. I have a big imagination and pretend a lot.
Although I‘m becoming taller, your lap is still one of my favorite places.
When looking for quality care for your school-age child, consider:
Is transportation available?
Six years
What I’m Like: Affectionate and excited over school, I go eagerly most of
the time. I am self-centered and can be quite demanding. I think of myself as
a big kid now. I can be impatient, wanting my demands to be met NOW. Yet
I may take forever to do ordinary things. I like to be with older children more
than with younger ones. I often have one close friend, and sometimes we
will exclude a third child.
What I Need: This might be my first year in real school. Although it‘s fun, it‘s
also scary. I need you to provide a safe place for me. Routines and
consistency are important. Don‘t accept my behavior one day and correct
me for the same behavior tomorrow. Set up and explain rules about daily
routines like playtime and bedtime. I need your praise for what I am doing
well. Since I may go to before-and after-school care, help me get organized
the night before. Make sure I have everything ready for school.
Seven years
What I’m Like: I am often more quiet and sensitive to others than I was at
six. Sometimes I can be mean to others my age and younger. I may hurt
their feelings, but I really don‘t mean to. I tend to be more polite and
agreeable to adult suggestions. By now I am conscious of my schoolwork
and am beginning to compare my work and myself with others. I want my
schoolwork to look ―right.‖ If I make mistakes, I can easily become
frustrated.
What I Need: I need to tell you about my experiences, and I need the
attention of other adult listeners. I really want you to listen to me and
understand my feelings. Please don‘t put me down or tell me I can‘t do it—
help me to learn in a positive way. Please check my homework and reading
assignments. Let me go over to my friends and play when possible. I still
need hugs, kisses, and a bedtime story.
Eight years
What I’m Like: My curiosity and eagerness to explore new things continues
to grow. Friends are more important. I enjoy playing and being with peers.
Recess may be my favorite ―subject‖ in school. I may follow you around the
house just to find out how you feel and think, especially about me. I am also
beginning to be aware of adults as individuals and am curious about what
they do at work. Around the house or at child care, I can be quite helpful.
What I’m Like: I have lots of energy, and physical activities are important to
me. I like to take part in sports and group activities. I like clothes, music, and
my friends. I‘m invited to sleepovers and to friends‘ houses often. I want my
hair cut a certain way. I‘m not as sure about school as I am about my social
life. Those of us who are girls are often taller and heavier than the boys.
Some girls may be beginning to show signs of puberty, and we may be self-
conscious about that. I feel powerful and independent, as though I know
what to do and how to do it. I can think for myself and want to be
independent. I may be eager to become an adult.
What I Need: I need you to keep communication lines open by setting rules
and giving reasons for them, by being a good listener, and by planning
ahead for changes in the schedule. Remember, I am still a child so don‘t
expect me to act like an adult. Know that I like to be an active member of my
household, to help plan activities, and to be a part of the decision-making.
Once I am eleven or older, I may be ready to take care of myself from time
to time rather than go to child care. I still need adult help and
encouragement in doing my homework.
As children enter adolescence, they want their independence. Yet they still want to be
children and need your guidance. As your child grows, it‘s easier to leave him at home
for longer periods of time and also ask him to care for younger children. Trust your
instincts and watch your child to make sure you are not placing too much responsibility
on him at one time. Talk to him. Keep the door open. Make sure he is comfortable with
a new role of caregiver and is still able to finish his school work and other projects.
What I’m Like: I‘m more independent than I used to be, but I‘m quite self-
conscious. I think more like an adult, but there‘s no simple answer. I like to
talk about issues in the adult world. I like to think for myself, and though I
often feel confused, my opinions are important to me, and I want others to
respect them. I seem to be moving away from my family. Friends are more
important than ever. To have them like me, I sometimes act in ways that
adults disapprove of. But I still need reasonable rules set by adults.
However, I‘m more understanding and cooperative. I want nothing to do with
babysitters—in fact, if I‘m mature enough I can often be by myself or watch
others.
What is child development and what skills do children develop at different ages.
1. Cognitive Development
This is the child's ability to learn and solve problems. For example, this includes a
two-month-old baby learning to explore the environment with hands or eyes or a
five-year-old learning how to do simple math problems.
Milestones develop in a sequential fashion. This means that a child will need to develop
some skills before he or she can develop new skills. For example, children must first
learn to crawl and to pull up to a standing position before they are able to walk. Each
milestone that a child acquires builds on the last milestone developed.
The brain grows very rapidly during the first several years of life. During this time, your
child is learning all sorts of new skills.
However, there are definitely blocks of time when most children will meet a milestone.
For example, children learn to walk anytime between 9 and 15 months of age. So, if
your child is 13 months of age and not yet walking, there is no need to worry if he is
crawling and pulling to a stand. He has acquired the skills he needs to learn to walk and
may begin walking soon. However, if you have a child 15 months of age who is not yet
walking, it would be a good idea to talk with your child's pediatrician to make sure there
aren't any medical or developmental problems since age 15 months is outside of the
normal "window" or time frame in which children learn to walk.
In this website, we will provide you with some information about these "windows" or
blocks of time when children usually develop a skill. We also will share with you
some warning signs or "red flags" to watch for that may mean your child is not meeting
developmental milestones. We will also give you the names of some
books and websites about child development that you may find helpful.
However, whenever you have questions, do not hesitate to ask a professional like your
child's doctor, nurse practitioner, or a trained child development or behavioral specialist.
There are also several clinical specialists who are specifically trained in various areas of
development who can be consulted. These include speech pathologists, occupational
and physical therapists, developmental psychologists and audiologists.
One of the factors that influence our child's development is their genetic makeup or
"genes." Some people refer to this as "nature." Genes are the genetic material we pass
onto our children. Children are born with their "genes" in place. These genes act like a
blueprint for what characteristics a child may have. For example, genes determine if a
child will have blue eyes or brown eyes; they also determine if he will be left- or right-
handed.
The other factor that influences child development is the environment. This includes
experiences children have in their home, school and community environments. Some
people refer to this as "nurture." The environment can either improve or harm a child's
genetic blueprint. For example, malnourished children who live in third world countries
may not reach their IQ potential because of the impact of their environment on their
brain development.
We often think we need to run out and buy special toys, music and games to stimulate
our child's development, but we have to remind ourselves that it is more important to
provide the following, every-day activities you can do with your child to encourage brain
development.
Give your child lots of love and attention. No matter what a child's age, holding,
hugging, and listening are important ways to show your child they matter.
Interact with your child by talking, singing, playing, eating, and reading with your
child. Your child will grow up feeling special and important to you. You will also
learn a lot about your child's interests and skills.
Read, read, read. Research has shown that children who are read to by their
parents have a larger vocabulary than other children. Reading also provides
children with new perspectives about the world we live in.
Learn some simple parenting skills for helping your child to learn how to behave.
The most important parenting skills are having consistent rules, rewarding
behaviors you want to see your child do more of, and having consequences
for behaviors you do not want your child to continue to do.
Limit TV time and video time to no more than 1-2 hours of educational viewing
per day.
Ask for help when you need it from your spouse, partner, family, friends, and
your child's doctor or nurse practitioner. Parenting is wonderful but it is not
always easy.
Play builds your child's creativity and imagination as well as other skills. Whether it is
simply rolling a ball back and forth with a sibling or putting on a costume and imagining
she's an astronaut—she's developing important social skills such as learning to take
turns, cooperating, and getting along with others.
Does all play look the same to you? Sociologist Mildred Parten describes six types of
play that a child will take part in, depending on their age, mood, and social setting.
Unoccupied Play
Unoccupied play refers to activity when a child actually isn't playing at all. He may be
engaged in seemingly random movements, with no objective. Despite appearances, this
definitely is play and sets the stage for future play exploration.
Solitary play is just what it sounds like—when your child plays alone. This type of play is
important because it teaches a child how to keep himself entertained, eventually setting
the path to being self-sufficient.1
Any child can play independently, but this type of play is the most common in younger
children around ages 2 or 3. At that age, they are still pretty self-centered and lack good
communication skills. If a child is on the shy side and doesn't know his playmates well,
he may prefer this type of play.
Onlooker Play
Onlooker play is when a child simply observes other children playing and doesn't
partake in the action. It's common for younger children who are working on
their developing vocabulary.
Don't worry if your little one is behaving this way. It could be that the child feels shy,
needs to learn the rules, or maybe is the youngest and wants just to take a step back for
a while.
Parallel Play
Put two 3-year-olds in a room together and this is what you are likely to see: the two
children having fun, playing side by side in their own little world. It doesn't mean that
they don't like one another, they are just engaging in parallel play.
Despite having little social contact between playmates, children who parallel play
actually learn quite a bit from one another like taking turns and other social
niceties.3 Even though it appears they aren't paying attention to each other, they truly
are and often mimic the other one's behavior. As such, this type of play is viewed as an
important bridge to the later stages of play.
Associative Play
Slightly different from parallel play, associative play also features children playing
separately from one another. But in this mode of play, they are involved with what the
others are doing—think children building a city with blocks. As they build their individual
buildings, they are talking to one another and engaging each other.
This is an important stage of play because it helps little ones develop a whole host of
skills—socialization (what should we build now?) and problem solving (how can we
make this city bigger?), cooperation (if we work together we can make our city even
better) and language development (learning what to say to get their messages across to
one another).4 Through associative play is how children begin to make real friendships.
Cooperative Play
Cooperative play is where all the stages come together and children truly start playing
together. It is common in older preschoolers or in younger preschoolers who have older
siblings or have been around a lot of children).
Cooperative play uses all of the social skills your child has been working on and puts
them into action.5 Whether they are building a puzzle together, playing a board game, or
enjoying an outdoor group game, cooperative play sets the stage for future interactions
as your child matures into an adult.
While these stages are important and necessary for a child's social development, there
are other types of play that also contribute to a child's maturity. These types of play
usually develop as a child begins to engage in cooperative play and include:
Dramatic/Fantasy Play: When your child who loves to play dress-up, doctor, or
restaurant, it's dramatic or fantasy play. Through this type of play, not only does
your child's imagination get a workout, but she learns how to take turns,
cooperate, share and work on language development. Through roleplay, kids are
also able to learn about functioning in the greater community.
Competitive Play: Whether she's beating her brother at Chutes and Ladders or
playing on a local soccer team, your child is engaging in competitive play. Rules
and turn-taking, and functioning as part of a team are the big lessons taken from
this type of play. You may have to give your child guidance about dealing with
both winning and losing.
Physical Play: Gross and fine motor skills really come into play here, whether
your child is throwing a ball or riding a bike. Physical play encourages kids to be
active.
Constructive Play: Forms of constructive play include building with blocks,
making a road for toy cars, or constructing a fort out of couch pillows.
Constructive play teaches kids about manipulation, building, and fitting things
together.6 Cognitive skills are used to figure out how to make something work
best, whether it is a block tower that won't stand up or a sandcastle that keeps
collapsing.
Symbolic Play: This type of play can be vocal (singing, jokes, rhymes), graphic
arts (drawing, coloring), counting, or making music. This type of play helps
children learn to develop skills in expressing themselves and exploring their
experiences, ideas, and emotions.