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Guide For Consolidation of Concrete: ACI 309R-05
Guide For Consolidation of Concrete: ACI 309R-05
*
Deceased.
Consolidation is the process of removing entrapped air from freshly placed CONTENTS
concrete. Several methods and techniques are available, the choice Chapter 1—General, p. 309R-2
depending mainly on the workability of the mixture, placing conditions,
and degree of air removal desired. Some form of vibration is usually Chapter 2—Effect of mixture proportions on
employed. consolidation, p. 309R-3
This guide includes information on the mechanism of consolidation and 2.1—Mixture proportions
gives recommendations on equipment, characteristics, and procedures for
various classes of construction.
2.2—Workability and consistency
The paired values stated in inch-pound units and hard SI units are usually 2.3—Workability requirements
not exact equivalents. Therefore, each system is to be used independently of
the other. Combining values from the two systems may result in nonconfor- Chapter 3—Methods of consolidation, p. 309R-4
mance with this guide. 3.1—Manual methods
3.2—Mechanical methods
Keywords: box out; compaction; consistency; consolidation; placing, 3.3—Methods used in combination
rheology; rodding; segregation; spading; tamping; vibration; vibrator;
workability.
Chapter 4—Consolidation of concrete by vibration,
p. 309R-5
4.1—Vibratory motion
4.2—Process of consolidation
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and
Commentaries are intended for guidance in planning, Chapter 5—Equipment for vibration, p. 309R-6
designing, executing, and inspecting construction. This 5.1—Internal vibrators
document is intended for the use of individuals who are
competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of its 5.2—Form vibrators
content and recommendations and who will accept 5.3—Vibrating tables
responsibility for the application of the material it contains. 5.4—Surface vibrators
The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and all
responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall not 5.5—Vibrator maintenance
be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract ACI 309R-05 became effective August 5, 2005 and supersedes ACI 309R-96.
documents. If items found in this document are desired by the Copyright © 2005, American Concrete Institute.
Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents, they All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation by means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or
mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction
the Architect/Engineer. or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing
is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
309R-1
309R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
2.3—Workability requirements
The concrete should be sufficiently workable so that consoli-
dation equipment, when properly used, will give adequate
consolidation. A high degree of ability to flow may be undesir-
able because it may increase the cost of the mixture and reduce
the quality of the hardened concrete. Where such a high
degree of ability to flow is the result of too much water in the
mixture, the mixture will generally be unstable and will
probably segregate during the consolidation process.
Fig. 2.1—Parameters of rheology of fresh concrete. In mixtures that are highly plastic to flowing (Table 2.1),
small nominal maximum-size aggregate and high content of
fine aggregate are frequently used because the high degree of
Table 2.1—Consistencies used in construction* ability to flow means less work in placing. Mixtures such as
Consistency Slump, Compacting Thaulow drop these may have undesirable characteristics such as high
description in. (mm) Vebe time, s factor average table revolutions shrinkage, cracking, and stickiness. At the other extreme, it
Extremely dry — 32 to 18 — 112 to 56 is inadvisable to use mixtures that are too stiff for the
Very stiff — 18 to 10 0.70 56 to 28 intended conditions of consolidation. They will require great
Stiff
0 to 1
10 to 5 0.75 28 to 14 consolidation effort and even then may not be adequately
(0 to 25)
consolidated. Direction, guidance, and trail mixtures are
1 to 3
Stiff plastic
(25 to 75)
5 to 3 0.85 14 to 7 often required to achieve the use of mixtures of lower slump
3 to 5 or fine aggregate content, or a larger nominal maximum-size
Plastic (75 to 125) 3 to 0* 0.90 <7
aggregate, so as to give a more efficient use of the cement.
5 to 7-1/2
Highly plastic (125 — — — Concrete containing certain chemical admixtures may be
to 190)
placed in forms with less consolidation effort. Refer to
Flowing 7-1/2 plus — 0.95 —
(190 plus) reports of ACI Committee 212 for additional information.
*
Test method is of limited value in this range. The use of pozzolans or GGBFS may also affect the consolida-
tion effort required to properly consolidate concrete. Refer to
ACI 232.2R, 233R, and 234R for more information
consolidated, and finished. Workability is a function of the regarding these materials. The amount of consolidation
rheological properties of the concrete. effort required with or without the use of chemical admix-
As shown in Fig. 2.1, workability may be divided into tures and pozzolans or GGBFS should be determined by trial
three main aspects: mixtures under field conditions.
1. Stability (resistance to bleeding and segregation);
The workability of the mixture in the form determines the
2. Ease of consolidation; and
consolidation requirements. This workability may be consid-
3. Consistency, affected by the viscosity and cohesion of
erably less than at the mixer because of slump loss due to high
the concrete and angle of internal friction.
temperature, premature stiffening, delays, or other causes.
Workability is affected by grading, particle shape, surface
texture, proportions of aggregate and cement, use of
pozzolan or ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS), CHAPTER 3—METHODS OF CONSOLIDATION
chemical admixtures, air content, and water content of the The consolidation method should be compatible with the
mixture. Consistency is the relative mobility or ability of concrete mixture, placing conditions, form intricacy, and
freshly mixed concrete to flow. It also largely determines the amount of reinforcement. Many manual and mechanical
ease with which concrete can be consolidated. Once the methods are available.
materials and proportions are selected, the primary control
over workability is through variations in the water content or 3.1—Manual methods
by adding a chemical admixture. The slump test (ASTM C Plastic, highly plastic, and flowing consistency (Table 2.1)
143) is widely used to indicate consistency of mixtures used mixtures may be consolidated by rodding. Spading is some-
in normal construction. The Vebe test (ASTM C 1170) is times used at formed surfaces—a flat tool is repeatedly inserted
recommended for stiffer mixtures. Values of slump, and withdrawn adjacent to the form. Coarse particles are
compacting factor, drop table spread, and Vebe time for the shoved away from the form and movement of air voids
entire range of consistencies used in construction are given toward the top surface is facilitated, thereby reducing the
in Table 2.1. number and size of bugholes in the formed concrete surface.
Other measures of consistency, such as the Powers’ Hand tamping may be used to consolidate stiff mixtures.
remolding test and the concrete rheometers recently developed, The concrete is placed in thin layers, and each layer is carefully
GUIDE FOR CONSOLIDATION OF CONCRETE 309R-5
5.1—Internal vibrators
Internal vibrators, often called spud or poker vibrators, have
a vibrating casing or head, and may have a flexible shaft. The
head is immersed in and acts directly against the concrete. In
most cases, internal vibrators depend on the cooling effect of
the surrounding concrete to prevent overheating. Fig. 5.1(a)—Flexible shaft vibrators; electric motor-driven
All internal vibrators presently in use are the rotary type type (top); gasoline engine-driven type (middle); and cross
(Section 4.1). The vibratory impulses emanate at right angles section through head (bottom).
to the head.
5.1.1 Flexible-shaft type—This type of vibrator is prob- For the electric motor-driven type, a flexible drive shaft
ably the most widely used. The eccentric mass is usually leads from the electric motor into the vibrator head where it
driven by an electric or pneumatic motor, or by a portable turns the eccentric mass. The motor generally has universal,
internal combustion engine (Fig. 5.1(a)). 120 V (occasionally 240), single-phase, 60 Hz alternating-
GUIDE FOR CONSOLIDATION OF CONCRETE 309R-7
current characteristics. Fifty Hz AC current is used in some For the engine-driven types, both gasoline and diesel, the
countries. The frequency of this type of vibrator is quite high engine speed is usually approximately 3600 rpm (60 Hz). A V-
when operating in air—generally in the range of 12,000 to belt drive or gear transmission is used to step up this speed to
17,000 vibrations per min (200 to 283 Hz) (the higher values an acceptable frequency level. Another type of unit uses a
being for the smaller head sizes). When operating in two-cycle gasoline engine operating at a no-load speed of
concrete, however, the frequency is usually reduced by 12,000 rpm (Fig. 5.1(b)), so the need for a step-up trans-
approximately 1/5. In this report, frequency is expressed in mission is eliminated. This unit is portable and is usually
vibrations per min to conform to current industry practice in carried on a backpack. Again, a flexible shaft leads into the
the United States; however, frequency is given in hertz in the vibrator head. While larger and more cumbersome than elec-
Appendix to agree with textbook formulas. tric motor-driven vibrators, engine-driven vibrators are
attractive where commercial power is not readily available.
For most flexible-shaft vibrators, the frequency is the
same as the speed of the shaft. However, the roll-gear
(conical-pendulum) type is able to achieve high vibrator
frequency with a modest electric motor and flexible shaft
speeds. The end of the pendulum strikes the inner housing
in a star-shaped pattern, giving the vibrator head a
frequency higher than the shaft driving it. Motor speeds are
usually approximately 3600 rpm with a 60 Hz current
(approximately 3000 rpm with a 50 Hz current). A single
induction or three-phase squirrel cage motor is generally
used. The low speed of the flexible shaft is favorable from
the standpoint of maintenance.
5.1.2 Electric motor-in-head type—Electric motor-in-
head vibrators have increased in popularity in recent years
(Fig. 5.2). Because the motor is in the vibrator head, there is
Fig. 5.1(b)—Backpack two-cycle gasoline engine-driven no separate motor and flexible drive to handle. A substantial
vibrator. electrical cable, which also acts as a handle, leads into the
Fig. 5.2—Electric motor-in-head vibrator; external appearance (top) and internal construction of
head (bottom).
309R-8 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Table 5.1—Range of characteristics, performance, and applications of internal* vibrators, flexible shaft,
and motor-in-head vibrators
Suggested values Approximate values
Recommended
Diameter of frequency, † Eccentric Average Centrifugal Radius of Rate of concrete
**††
head, in. vibrations per moment,‡ amplitude,§ force, || lb influence,#** placement,
Group (mm) min (Hz) in.-lb (mm-kg) in. (mm) (kN) in. (mm) yd3/h (m3/h) Application
Plastic and flowing concrete in very thin
members and confined places. May be used
1 3/4 to 1-1/2 9000 to 15,000 0.03 to 0.10 0.015 to 0.03 100 to 400 3 to 6 1 to 5 to supplement larger vibrators, especially
(20 to 40) (150 to 250) (0.4 to 1.2) (0.4 to 0.8) (0.4 to 1.8) (75 to 150) (1 to 4) in prestressed work where cables and ducts
cause congestion in forms. Also used for
fabricating laboratory test specimens.
Plastic concrete in thin walls, columns,
2 1-1/4 to 2-1/2 8500 to 12,500 0.08 to 0.25 0.02 to 0.04 300 to 900 5 to 10 3 to 10 beams, precast piles, thin slabs, and along
(30 to 65) (140 to 210) (0.9 to 2.9) (0.5 to 1.0) (1.3 to 4.0) (125 to 250) (2 to 8) construction joints. May be used to supple-
ment larger vibrators in confined areas.
Stiff plastic concrete 3 in. (less than 75 mm)
slump in general construction such as walls,
2 to 3-1/2 8000 to 12,000 0.20 to 0.70 0.025 to 0.05 700 to 2000 7 to 14 6 to 20 columns, beams, prestressed piles, and
3 (50 to 90) (130 to 200) (2.3 to 8.1) (0.6 to 1.3) (3.1 to 8.9) (175 to 350) (5 to 15) heavy slabs. Auxiliary vibration adjacent to
forms of mass concrete and pavements.
May be gang-mounted to provide full-width
internal vibration of pavement slabs.
Mass and structural concrete of 2 in.
(50 mm) slump deposited in quantities up
to 4 yd3 (3 m3) in relatively open forms of
4 3 to 6 7000 to 10,500 0.70 to 2.5 0.03 to 0.06 1500 to 4000 12 to 20 15 to 40 heavy construction (powerhouses, heavy
(75 to 150) (120 to 180) (8.1 to 29) (0.8 to 1.5) (6.7 to 18) (300 to 500) (11 to 31) bridge piers, and foundations). Also,
auxiliary vibration in dam construction
near forms and around embedded items and
reinforcing steel.
Mass concrete in gravity dams, large piers,
and massive walls. Two or more vibrators
5 to 7 5500 to 8500 2.25 to 3.50 0.04 to 0.08 2500 to 6000 16 to 24 25 to 50 will be required to operate simultaneously
5 (125 to 175) (90 to 140) (26 to 40) (1.0 to 2.0) (11 to 27) (400 to 600) (19 to 38) to mix and consolidate quantities of
concrete of 4 yd3 (3 m3) or more deposited
at one time in the form.
*Generally, extremely dry or very stiff concrete (Table 2.1) does not respond well to internal vibrators.
†While vibrator is operating in concrete.
‡Computed by formula in Fig. A.2 in Appendix.
§
Computed or measured as described in Section 16.3.2. This is peak amplitude (half the peak-to-peak value), operating in air.
||
Computed by formula in Fig. A.2 in Appendix, using frequency of vibrator while operating in concrete.
#
Distance over which concrete is fully consolidated.
**
These ranges reflect not only the capability of the vibrator but also differences in workability of the mixture, degree of de-aeration desired, or other conditions experienced in construction.
††
Assumes the insertion spacing is 1-1/2 times the radius of influence, and that vibrator operates two-thirds of time concrete is being placed.
CF = 0.5(MF + 0.2MC)
Fig. 6.2—Mounting of vibrators: wood wall form and pipe form (inset).
progresses. This method should be used with extreme 7.2—Procedure for internal vibration
caution and only with units having low amplitude and Concrete should be deposited in layers compatible with
high frequency. the work being done. In large mats and heavy pedestals, the
maximum layer depth should be limited to 20 in. (0.5 m).
The depth should be nearly equal to the vibrator head length.
CHAPTER 7—RECOMMENDED VIBRATION
In walls and columns, the layer depths should generally not
PRACTICES FOR GENERAL CONSTRUCTION
exceed 20 in. (0.5 m). The layers should be as level as
7.1—General
possible so that the vibrator is not used to move the concrete
After proper vibration equipment has been selected
laterally, as this could cause segregation. Fairly level
(Chapter 5), conscientious, well-trained operators should
surfaces can be obtained by depositing the concrete in the
operate the vibrator. The vibrator operator should have the form at close intervals; the use of elephant trunks is
ability to determine the time necessary for the vibrator to frequently helpful.
remain in the concrete to ensure proper consolidation. By a Even though the concrete has been carefully deposited in
systematic review of the operator’s previous work, the operator the form, there are likely to be some small mounds or high
and supervisor should be able to determine the vibrator spots. Some minor leveling can be accomplished by
spacing and the vibration time needed to produce dense inserting the vibrator into the center of these spots to flatten
concrete without segregation. them. Excessive movement should be avoided, particularly
Internal vibration is generally best suited for normal through reinforced structural elements.
construction, provided the section is large enough for the After the surface is leveled, the vibrator should be systemati-
cally inserted vertically at a uniform spacing over the entire
vibrator to be effectively used. External vibration or consol-
placement area. The distance between insertions should be
idation aids, however, may be needed to supplement internal approximately 1-1/2 times the radius of influence, and
vibration in areas congested with reinforcement or otherwise should be such that the area visibly affected by the vibrator
inaccessible (Chapter 18). In many thin sections, especially overlaps the adjacent just-vibrated area. In slabs, a standard-
in precast work and slabs, external vibration should be the length vibrator should be sloped towards the vertical, or a short
primary method of consolidation. stubby 5 in. (125 mm) long vibrator should be held vertically.
309R-16 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Both should be kept 2 in. (50 mm) away from the bottom and the frequency usually drops off, then increases, and finally
sides if the slab is a tilt-up panel and when a tilt-up panel slab becomes constant when the concrete is free of entrapped air.
has an architectural bottom face. The vibration should be suffi- An experienced operator also learns the proper feel of a
cient to close the bottom edges of the placed concrete layers. vibrator when consolidation is complete.
An alternative method that has been successfully used Occasionally, inexperienced vibrator operators merely
when the vibrator penetrates rapidly to the bottom of the flatten the batch. Complete consolidation is ensured only
layer and at least 6 in. (150 mm) into the preceding layer. when the other items evidencing adequate vibration are
The vibrator should be manipulated in an up-and-down sought and attained.
motion, generally for 5 to 15 seconds, to knit the two layers
together. The vibrator should then be withdrawn gradually 7.4—Vibration of reinforcement
with a series of up-and-down motions. The down motion When the concrete cannot be reached by the vibrator, such
should be a rapid drop to apply a force to the concrete, as in congested reinforcement areas, it may be helpful to
which, in turn, increases internal pressure in the freshly vibrate exposed portions of reinforcing bars. The reinforcement
placed mixture. should not be vibrated after the concrete has transformed
Rapidly extract the vibrator from the concrete when the from a plastic to stiffened state. Normal slump concrete, in
head becomes only partially immersed in the concrete. The the plastic state, consolidated in this manner should not
concrete should move back into the space vacated by the experience a loss in concrete-to-steel bond strength (Chan,
vibrator. For dry mixtures where the hole does not close Chen, and Liu 2003). A form vibrator, attached to the rein-
during withdrawal, sometimes reinserting the vibrator within forcing steel with a suitable fitting, should be used for this
a one-half radius of influence will solve the problem; if this purpose. Binding an immersion vibrator to a reinforcing bar
is not effective, the mixture or vibrator should be changed. may damage the vibrator.
Thin slabs supported on integrally cast beams should be
vibrated in two stages: first, after the beam concrete has 7.5—Revibration
been placed, and again when the concrete is brought to Revibration is the process of vibrating concrete that was
finished grade. vibrated some time earlier. Actually, most concrete is revi-
The vibrator exerts forces outward from the shaft. Air brated unintentionally when, in placing successive layers of
pockets at the same level as or below the head tend to be concrete, the vibrator extends down into the underlying
trapped. Therefore, air pockets should be worked upward in layer, which was previously vibrated. The term revibration,
front of the vibrator. as used herein, refers to an intentional, systematic revibra-
When the placement consists of several layers, concrete tion some time after placing is completed (Vollick 1958).
delivery should be scheduled so that each layer is placed
Revibration can be accomplished any time the running
while the preceding one is still plastic to avoid cold joints. If
vibrator will sink under its own mass into the concrete and
the underlying layer has stiffened just beyond the point
liquefy it momentarily. This revibration is most effective
where it can be penetrated by the vibrator, bond can still be
when performed just before the time of initial setting of the
obtained by thoroughly and systematically vibrating the new
concrete for mixtures with slumps of 3 in. (75 mm) or more.
concrete into contact with the previously placed concrete;
however, an unavoidable layer line will show on the surface The effect of revibration on concrete-to-steel bond
when the form is removed. strength is not clear. Revibration appears to improve bond
strength for top reinforcing steels placed in high-slump
7.3—Adequacy of internal vibration concrete. Revibration may, however, severely damage bond
No quick and fully reliable indicator exists for determining strength for reinforcing steel in well-consolidated, low-slump
the adequacy of consolidation of the freshly placed concrete. concrete. Revibration is almost universally detrimental to the
Adequacy of internal vibration is judged mainly by the bond strength of bottom reinforcing steel. Overall, revibration
surface appearance of each layer. The principal indicators of tends to reduce the differences in bond strength caused by
well-consolidated concrete are: differences in slump and position (Altowaiji, Darwin, and
• Embedment of large aggregate—Except in architec- Donahey 1984).
tural concrete with exposed aggregate surfaces, Revibration is most beneficial in the top 1 to 3 ft (0.5 to 1 m)
embedment of large aggregate is signified by general of a placement where entrapped air voids are most prevalent.
batch leveling, blending of the batch perimeter with Revibration of the tops of walls normally results in a more
concrete previously placed, a thin film of mortar on uniform appearance of vertical surfaces.
the top surface, and cement paste showing at the junction Revibration can be very effective in minimizing cracks in
of the concrete and form; and areas such as at the top of doorways, arches, and major
• General cessation in escape of large entrapped air boxouts. The procedure is to delay additional concrete
bubbles at the top surface—Thicker layers require more placement for 1 to 2 h, depending upon temperature, after
vibration time than thin layers, because it takes longer reaching the springline of arches or headline of doors,
for deep-seated bubbles to make their way to the surface. boxouts, or joints between columns and floors. This permits
Sometimes the pitch or tone of the vibrator is a helpful settlement to occur before revibration of the materials in
guide. When an immersion vibrator is inserted in concrete, place and the resumption of placement.
GUIDE FOR CONSOLIDATION OF CONCRETE 309R-17
7.6—Form vibration
The size and spacing of form vibrators should be such that
the proper intensity of vibration is distributed over the desired
area of the form. The spacing is a function of the type and shape
of the form, depth, and thickness of the concrete, force output
per vibrator, workability of the mixture, and vibrating time.
The recommended approach is to start with spacing between
4 to 8 ft (1.2 to 2.4 m), based on the guidelines in Section 5.2.3
and previous experience. If this pattern does not produce
adequate and uniform vibration, the vibrators should be relo-
cated as necessary until proper results are obtained. Achieving
optimum spacing requires knowledge of the distribution of
frequency and amplitude over the form and an understanding
of the workability and consolidation of the mixture.
The frequency can readily be determined by a vibrating- Fig. 7.1(a)—Honeycomb.
reed tachometer (Section 16.3.1). The small amplitudes
associated with form vibration, however, have been difficult
to measure. Inadequate amplitudes cause poor consolidation,
while excessive local amplitudes not only waste vibrator
power but can also cause the concrete to roll and tumble so
that it does not consolidate properly.
Moving one’s hand over the form will locate areas of strong
or weak vibration (high or low-amplitude) or dead spots. The
vibrating-reed tachometer can provide slightly more reliable
information; the difference in oscillation of the reed at various
points gives a rough indication of the difference in amplitude.
The vibrograph makes it possible to get reliable values of the
amplitude at various locations on forms vibrated externally.
The frequency and waveform are also generally provided.
Concrete consolidated by form vibration should be deposited
in layers 10 to 15 in. (250 to 400 mm) thick. Each layer should
be vibrated separately. Vibration times are considerably Fig. 7.1(b)—Haphazard procedure may result in mortar
longer than for internal vibration, frequently as much as 2 accumulation at the surface and leave rock pockets below,
min and as much as 30 min or more in some deep sections. particularly at batch perimeters.
Another procedure that has given good results in precast
work involves continuously placing ribbons of concrete 2 to
4 in. (50 to 100 mm) thick, accompanied by continuous 7.7—Consequences of improper vibration
vibration. It can produce surfaces nearly free of bugholes. The most serious problems resulting from undervibration
It is desirable to be able to vary the frequency and amplitude are honeycomb, excessive entrapped air voids (bugholes),
of the vibrators. On electrically driven external vibrators, sand streaks, subsidence cracking, and placement lines.
amplitudes can be adjusted to different fixed values quite 7.7.1 Honeycomb—Honeycomb occurs (Fig. 7.1(a)) when
readily. The frequency of air-driven external vibrators can be the mortar does not fill the space between the coarse-aggregate
adjusted by varying the air pressure, while the amplitude can particles. Honeycomb indicates that the first stage of
be altered by changing the eccentric mass. consolidation (Section 4.2) was not completed. When it
Because most of the movement imparted by form vibrators shows on the surface, it is necessary to chip out the area and
is perpendicular to the plane of the form, the form tends to make a repair. Such repairs should be kept to a minimum
act as a vibrating membrane, with a pumping up-and-down because they mar the appearance and reduce the concrete
effect. This is particularly true if the vibration is high-amplitude strength. Honeycomb is caused by using improper or faulty
and the plate is too thin or lacks adequate stiffeners. This in- vibrators, improper placement procedures, poor vibration
and-out movement can cause the forms to pump air into the procedures, inappropriate concrete mixtures, or congested
concrete, especially in the top 3 ft (1 m) of a wall or column lift, reinforcement. Unsystematic insertions of internal vibrators
creating a gap between the concrete and the form, and there are at haphazard angles are likely to cause an accumulation of
no subsequent layers of concrete to assist in closing the gap. It mortar at the top surface, while the lower portion of the layer
is advisable to use an internal vibrator in these areas. may be undervibrated (Fig. 7.1(b)). Honeycomb should be
Form vibration during stripping is sometimes beneficial. kept to a minimum because it reduces concrete strength and
The minute movement of the entire form surface helps to repairs can mar surface appearance. Chapter 9 of ACI 311.1R
loosen it from the concrete and permit easy removal without (SP-2) provides guidance on proper placing techniques to
damaging the concrete surface. minimize separation of coarse aggregate from mortar.
309R-18 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
seismic loads where the reinforcement often becomes approximately 4 in. (100 mm) of the form and also in the top
extremely congested and effective concrete consolidation, layer of the placement to assist air bubbles to rise and escape.
using conventional mixtures and procedures, becomes Slabs placed monolithically with joists or beams should be
impossible. constructed in the following manner: all joists and beams
The designer should communicate with the constructor should be placed and vibrated before the slab itself. A time
during the early structural design. Problem areas should be interval of about an hour will permit settlement and conse-
recognized in time to take appropriate remedial measures quent bleeding to take place in these elements before placing
such as staggering splices, bundling reinforcing steel, the concrete in the slab section. The slab concrete should be
modifying stirrup spacing, and increasing section size. placed and vibrated before the beam concrete reaches its
When conditions contributing to substandard consolidation time of initial setting. Vibrators should penetrate through the
exist, one or more of the following actions should be taken: slab into the previously placed beam concrete to consolidate
redesign the member; redesign the reinforcing steel; modify and bond the structural elements.
the mixture, in some cases to be self-consolidating; use mock-
up tests to develop a procedure; and alert the constructor to 8.4—Form vibration
critical conditions. The placing of concrete in congested areas Form vibration is suitable for many thin sections and is a
is discussed in more detail in Chapter 18. Consideration useful supplement to internal vibration at locations where
should be given to using mechanical connections instead of steel is unusually congested, where concrete cannot be
overlapping the reinforcement to minimize congestion. directly placed but needs to flow into position, or where an
internal vibrator cannot be inserted. Form vibration,
8.2—Mixture requirements however, can result in form pressures substantially higher
Structural concrete mixtures should be proportioned to than normal, and particular consideration should be given to
give the placeability, resistance to deterioration, strength, formwork design to resist these pressures.
and other properties required with proper regard to placement Procedures for form vibration are described in Section 7.6.
conditions. The concrete should work readily into the form In any use of form vibration, it is important to avoid excessive
corners and around reinforcement by the consolidation vibration at any given location. The vibrators should be
methods employed, without segregation or excessive free moved as necessary to keep them operating just below the
water collecting on the surface. Some guidance on propor- top surface of the concrete and not on unfilled areas of forms.
tioning can be found in Chapter 2, and ACI 301 provides
guidance for strength with respect to proportioning. In areas 8.5—Tunnel linings
of congested reinforcement, the procedures in Chapter 18 Form vibrators are used for concrete consolidation in
should be considered. tunnel linings. Frequently, form vibration is supplemented
by immersion vibrators that are used behind the form or
A plastic consistency (Table 2.1) is normally ample for
through access windows in the form. Tunnel-lining concrete
properly vibrated structural concrete in forms. What may be
is most commonly placed by pumping, with pump lines
regarded as a need for higher-slump concrete in many quarters,
positioned in the sidewalls and crown. It is important to have
is better satisfied with more thorough vibration. Concrete for
a workable yet cohesive mixture that will respond well to
heavy structural members can often be satisfactorily placed
vibration. The slump should be approximately 5 in. (130
at a lower slump when effectively vibrated.
mm) at the discharge end of the pumpline.
In those areas where thorough vibration cannot be achieved When the level of concrete behind the form reaches the
due to congested reinforcement or other obstructions, it may crown, an advancing slope of fresh concrete is produced.
be desirable to increase the slump by using chemical admix- This advancing slope will generally vary from 2-1/2 to 1 to
tures, such as high-range water-reducing admixtures as much as 5 to 1, horizontal to vertical. Form vibrators
(HRWRAs) to produce a flowing concrete that can be more should be operated within a few feet (1 m) of the advancing
effectively consolidated (ACI 309.3R). The use of flowing slope and should be frequently moved forward horizontally.
concrete, however, does not preclude the need for vibration. Special attention should be given to form vibration in the
crown so that concrete that has been pumped into the highest
8.3—Internal vibration points within the form is not drawn down by vibration. As
For most structural concrete, vibration is most effectively the placement proceeds, the withdrawal of the pumpline and
performed by means of standard immersion vibrators position and timing of vibration should ensure maximum
meeting the guidelines in Table 5.1. The vibrator selected filling of the form.
should be suitable for the mixture and placing conditions.
The recommended procedure for internal vibration is CHAPTER 9—MASS CONCRETE
described in Section 7.2. In walls and beams, two vibrators Mass concrete is any volume of concrete with dimensions
should generally be used: one for leveling the mixture imme- large enough to require that measures be taken to cope with
diately after placement, and the other for further systematic generation of heat from hydration of the cement and attendant
consolidation. On larger and more critical jobs, a third unit, volume change to minimize cracking. To reduce the heat rise
which may be less powerful than the other two, may be useful. and to achieve economy, low cement contents and large
It should be used in a row of closely spaced insertions within aggregates are used, and low slumps are maintained. These
GUIDE FOR CONSOLIDATION OF CONCRETE 309R-21
9.1—Mixture requirements
Proper proportioning and optimum use of chemical
admixtures, fly ash, and GGBFS in mass concrete facilitate
proper consolidation. Refer to ACI 211.1 for information on
mixture proportioning. Additional information on mass
concrete is found in ACI 207.1R.
9.2—Vibration equipment
Mass concrete containing aggregate larger than 1-1/2 in.
(40 mm) and low cement contents presents a unique vibra-
tion problem when low slump consistencies are used. This Fig. 9.1(a)—Stepped construction used for mass concrete
condition requires that powerful equipment meeting the construction (photo courtesy of U.S. Bureau of Reclamation).
requirements of Group 5 in Table 5.1 be available for proper
consolidation. Pneumatically driven vibrators are generally
used in the United States. The air supply should be ample,
and the force at the vibrator should be sufficient for adequate
consolidation. In heavily reinforced areas, vibrators with
small diameters may be needed to penetrate between the bars
and achieve proper consolidation.
9.3—Forms
For economy of forms and better control of temperature,
mass concrete is placed in fairly shallow lifts—usually 5 to
10 ft (1.5 to 3.0 m) thick. In addition to normal form require-
ments (Chapter 6), forms for mass concrete are often dependent
on anchors embedded in concrete for their strength and security
of position. Embedment depth for these anchors should
provide anchorage sufficient to withstand the impact of
concrete discharged from fast dumping large buckets as well
as the ordinary concrete pressures during vibration.
Fig. 9.1(b)—Flattening a pile of mass concrete just deposited
9.4—Vibration practices in form.
The lifts should be built up with multiple layers 12 to 20 in.
(300 to 500 mm) thick, depending on the aggregate size. should be inserted nearly vertically into the tops of the
Such lifts can be reliably consolidated with some penetration deposited piles at fairly uniform spacings and then reinserted
of the vibrator into lower layers. Heavily reinforced sections as necessary to flatten the pile to the proper depth and spread
may need thinner layers and proper attention to ensure the it to the area it should occupy (Fig. 9.1(b)). The subsequent
encasement of reinforcement by concrete. placements should then be systematically vibrated with the
Each layer is constructed in strips 6 to 12 ft (1.8 to 3.6 m) vibrator penetrating the full depth of the layer and into the
wide. The forward edge of each upper layer should be held preceding layer, but staying away from the forward edges
back 4 to 5 ft (1.2 to 1.5 m) from the one below so that it will (Fig. 9.1(c)). The edges in contact with the previous strip and
not move when vibrating the adjacent strip of lower-layer previous batch should be thoroughly knitted together. Each
batches placed along the edge. This procedure produces a vibrator operator should have a particular area of attention.
stair-step effect of the layers (Fig. 9.1(a)). The placement is Vibration at each point should continue until entrapped air
thus completed to full thickness and area with minimum ceases to escape. Depending on mixture and slump, this time
surface exposure. This practice minimizes warming of will usually range from 10 to 15 s. The insertions should be
pre-cooled concrete and cold joint problems between layers spaced and timed to achieve thorough consolidation, not
in warm weather. It also makes the placement easier in wet only near the surface, but also for the full depth of the layer
weather. Details for manufacture and placement of mass and below it.
concrete may be found elsewhere (U.S. Bureau of Reclama- The completed top surface of the block should be left fairly
tion 1988; ACI 207.1R). even and free of footprints and vibrator holes to facilitate the
For effective consolidation of mass concrete, the vibrator subsequent joint cleanup. The final vibration should be done
crew should follow a systematic procedure. The vibrators by a vibrator operator on plywood snowshoes using a small
309R-22 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
strength, and durability. ACI 302.1R covers recommended 10.4.2 Surface vibration—Slumps between 1 to 2 in. (25
procedures for floor and slab construction. to 50 mm) are generally recommended for concrete consol-
Stiff plastic mixtures are commonly used for durable, idated by vibrating screeds. For slumps in excess of 3 in.
abrasion-resistant surfaces. These require consolidation by (75 mm), vibrating screeds should be used with care, because
vibration or other effective means. Recommendations in this such concrete will have an accumulation of mortar on the
guide are primarily for this class of construction. finished surface after vibration.
Vibrating screeds strikeoff and straightedge the concrete
10.2—Equipment in addition to providing consolidation. To perform significant
Surface vibration is recommended for consolidating slabs consolidation, the leading edge of the shoe should be at an
up to 6 in. (150 mm) thick, provided they are unreinforced or angle to the surface and the proper surcharge (height of
contain only light mesh. Vibrating screeds, supported on the unconsolidated concrete required to produce a finished
forms, screed boards, or rails, are the most common means. surface at the proper elevation) should be carried in front of
They should be low-frequency, 3000 to 6000 vibrations per the leading straightedge.
min (50 to 100 Hz), and high-amplitude to minimize When it is impractical to set screed boards or forms for
machine wear and provide adequate depth of consolidation vibrating screeds or other surface vibrators, the slump should
without creating an objectionable layer of fines at the be increased to between 3 and 4 in. (75 and 100 mm) and the
surface. Use of the high-frequency, low-amplitude type is primary consolidation obtained through the straightedging
acceptable when applied solely to accommodate the and finishing operations. Spading or internal vibration will
finishing operation. Unreinforced slabs 8 in. (200 mm) thick be required to consolidate concrete adequately around
may be consolidated by either internal or surface vibration. reinforcing steel, load-transfer devices, keyways, and the
Internal vibration, using equipment described in Table 5.1, edges of forms.
is recommended for all slabs more than 8 in. (200 mm) thick,
and it is also recommended for slabs of lesser thickness that 10.5—Heavy-duty industrial floors
contain reinforcement or other embedments, such as conduit. The wearing surface of heavy-duty industrial floors should
Internal vibration should also be provided adjacent to load be a high-strength, abrasion-resistant concrete. Refer to
transfer devices and forms. Table 2.1 in ACI 302.1R for information regarding the
various floor classifications and requirements. Many industrial
10.3—Structural slabs floors are placed as two courses, with conventional
Structural slabs that contain reinforcement and embedded concrete in the bottom course and a higher-strength
items such as conduits, pipes, pipe sleeves, etc., should be concrete in the top course. The top course should be placed
internally vibrated. Vibrating screeds are also used to facilitate before the bottom course has attained final setting. The use
finishing; a high-frequency, low-amplitude type may be used of two-course floor systems provides economy and a more
in this case. efficient use of materials.
Often, the slab will contain projecting columns, conduit, The top surface should be struck off slightly above the
or reinforcing bars that prevent setting forms or screed finish grade. The wearing course should then be consoli-
boards needed for a vibrating screed. Such floors should be dated by rolling, tamping, or other surface vibration. The use
screeded by hand, and slumps in excess of 2 in. (50 mm) are of a power-disc float with hammers will provide additional
required. At these slumps, adequate consolidation will be consolidation of the near-surface region. In this type of
obtained by internal vibration and the hand-screeding and concrete, the disc float should be used soon after the
finishing operations. screeding operation if sufficient mortar cannot be brought to
the surface to adequately fill the surface voids. Chemical
10.4—Slabs on ground admixtures may be used to increase the workability of
The procedures described in Chapter 11 should be followed mixtures to make consolidation easier.
on large jobs when practical. Many floor slabs, however, are
small, odd-shaped, or on nonuniform sections so that highly 10.6—Vacuum dewatering
mechanized procedures cannot be used. Such construction is The vacuum process is a method of improving the
covered by the procedures given in this chapter. concrete quality near the surface by removing part of the
10.4.1 Internal vibration—The vibrator head should be mixing water after the concrete has been placed; however,
completely immersed during vibration. For thick slabs, it some reconsolidation is involved (Fig. 10.1). Mats are
will be possible to insert the vibrator vertically, while for applied to the surface after the normal consolidation has
thinner slabs, it should be inserted at an angle or even horizon- been completed and then connected to vacuum pumps. The
tally. The vibrator’s contact with the subgrade should be kept suction applied by the pumps and the atmospheric pressure
to a minimum to prevent concrete material contamination (a consolidating force), acting simultaneously on the mats,
with foreign material. remove water and entrapped air from the region near the
The use of vibrating screeds, when edge forms or screed surface and closes up the spaces formerly occupied by the
rails can be used, will facilitate strikeoff operations after the water. When done slightly later than optimum, the entrapped
slab has been consolidated by internal vibration. By using a air voids can be concentrated as flattened discs just below the
vibrating screed, one can use a lower-slump concrete. surface, producing a lack of abrasion resistance.
309R-24 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Fig. 10.1—Vacuum dewatering of concrete slab is shown just behind the floor finishing
operation.
CHAPTER 11—PAVEMENTS pavement thicknesses are 8 in. (200 mm) or more. When
11.1—General equipment moves rapidly over slabs to attain high production
Highway and airfield pavement construction includes rates, internal vibration may be needed in pavements as thin
applications such as continuously reinforced pavements and as 4 in. (100 mm). Hydraulic vibrators have increased rapidly
bridge decks and may use concrete at rates in excess of 500 yd3 in popularity in recent years, mainly because the frequency is
(400 m3) per h. Automated equipment capable of handling 1 adjustable and maintenance requirements are low.
to 2 in. (25 to 50 mm) slump concrete is generally used for
Surface vibrators may be used for pavements less than 8 in.
placing and finishing. At the other extreme, residential devel-
(200 mm) thick and have been successfully used for pavements
opments may require less than 100 yd3 (80 m3) of concrete per
up to 10 in. (250 mm) thick using greater vibrational effort.
day. Considerable handwork is frequently used, necessitating
The production rate, however, will be lower than that
slumps in the range of 2 to 4 in. (50 to 100 mm).
obtained with internal vibrators. Also, surface vibration in
This chapter is directed at highway and airfield construc-
combination with striking off, screeding, and floating can
tion. The procedures described generally apply either to
fixed-form or slipformed pavements. Zero-slump concrete bring excess fine material to the surface. This can happen as
pavements are placed using RCC as described in Section 9.5. a result of improper mixture proportions, overworking the
surface, or both.
11.2—Mixture requirements The speed of the paving train controls the time of vibration,
The concrete mixture should have adequate placeability and the equipment and mixture proportions should be
and finishability to achieve the desired consolidation and selected accordingly.
finish. The slump should be 2 in. (50 mm) or less to keep 11.3.2 General requirements—Both surface and internal
segregation to a minimum and to maintain the concrete vibrators should be controlled by an automatic on-off switch
performance. that operates the vibrators simultaneously, and only when
The concrete received at the placing point should be the paving machine is in forward motion.
uniform. Variations in the mixture may result in segregation The ability to vary frequency is desirable to permit
or inadequate consolidation, causing the pavement to have adjustment for the job conditions and materials being used.
poor riding qualities and resistance to deterioration. For
Standby vibrator units should be available for replacement
fiber-reinforced concrete, internal vibrators should be used
or if needed for additional vibration.
at a closer spacing and for a longer period of time to obtain
satisfactory results (ACI 544.1R). 11.3.3 Internal vibrators—In addition to the usual internal
vibrators described in Chapter 5, L-shaped spuds are also
11.3—Equipment available for pavement construction. The latter are especially
11.3.1 Selection of equipment—All pavements should be adapted for consolidating the thinner slabs and for operating
consolidated by full-width vibration. The type of vibration— above the mesh in reinforced pavements.
internal or surface—is determined by the slab thickness, the The vibrators are usually gang-mounted on a horizontal
rate of production, consistency, and other characteristics of frame (Fig. 11.1) that should be located immediately in front
the concrete mixture. of the first screed or extrusion plate. The frame should be
Internal vibrators, usually gang-mounted spud vibrators, adjustable forward and backward to compensate for differ-
meeting the guidelines in Table 5.1 should be used when ences in concrete consistency from job to job.
GUIDE FOR CONSOLIDATION OF CONCRETE 309R-25
11.4—Vibration procedures
11.4.1 Internal vibrations using gang-mounted vibrators—
The centrifugal force and vibrator spacing are dependent upon
the aggregate to be used, mixture characteristics, rate of
concrete delivery, method of reinforcement placement, and
paver speed. Vibrators with a centrifugal force near the low
end of the range, shown in Group 3 in Table 5.1, should be
used for mixtures with small coarse-aggregate and high fine- Fig. 11.2(b)—Older screeds with trucks permitting cam-like
aggregate contents. Normally, the trial spacing should be 20 actions to raise screed to clear concrete surface when moving
to 30 in. (500 to 750 mm). The lower the centrifugal force for second pass.
and the shallower the slab, the closer the spacing. The location
of the outside vibrators is critical, especially in slipform paving. has a uniform texture and sheen, with coarse aggregate particles
When nonuniformity or mortar streaking occurs in barely visible on or immediately below the surface.
vibrator paths while operating at normal paving speeds, the For pavements less than 10 in. (250 mm) thick, the vibrators
vibrators should be lowered in the concrete, the angularity should be operated parallel with, or at a slight angle to, the
changed, the frequency increased or decreased, the ampli- subbase. For thicker nonreinforced pavements, the vibrators
tude changed (usually by changing the eccentric mass), or should be close to the vertical, with the vibrator tip preferably
additional vibrators added until the streaking is eliminated. approximately 2 in. (50 mm) from the subbase and the top of the
Proper consolidation is achieved when the concrete surface vibrator 2 to 4 in. (50 to 100 mm) below the pavement surface.
309R-26 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
A 4 to 6 in. (100 to 150 mm) surcharge of concrete should of influence. It is better to space the insertions too closely
be carried over the vibrators during the placing operation. than too far apart.
Greater surcharge loads are likely to cause surging behind The vibrator should operate in one location until the
the screed or extrusion plate and prevent full release of concrete is consolidated thoroughly, then withdrawn slowly
entrapped air. to ensure closing the hole resulting from the vibrator inser-
For reinforced pavement with thicknesses less than 10 in. tion. The length of time to effect thorough consolidation will
(250 mm), the vibrators should be parallel with the subbase vary with the concrete workability and the centrifugal force
above and as near as practical to the reinforcement but at of the vibrator. Vibration time may be as short as 5 seconds
least two vibrator diameters below the surface. When the or as long as 20 seconds per point of application.
reinforcement is close to the surface, the concrete should be
placed in multiple passes to permit consolidation. If inad- 11.5—Special precautions
equate consolidation occurs at the bottom of the slab under When placing air-entrained concrete, the air content of the
the steel, space the vibrators closer together, increase the consolidated concrete in place should be checked. Certain
vibratory effort, or decrease the paver speed. Because it is methods of consolidating and finishing pavements will
common practice to attach the vibratory unit to the equipment affect the characteristics of the air-void system. When air
carrying the first transverse screed, the proper adjustment of the entrainment is required for frost resistance, the air-void
vibrators will depend on the forward speed of this equipment. parameters in the hardened concrete should be verified. If the
Reinforced slabs in which the reinforcement is placed by intended property of the air-void system falls below the
vibration after full-depth concrete placement require initial necessary level, changes, such as decreasing amplitude,
consolidation before steel placement. In continuously rein- should be made in the vibrating procedures or in the amount
forced pavements where the steel is placed on chairs before or type of air-entraining admixture being used. The depth
concrete placement, care should be taken to ensure that the and location of reinforcing steel should be checked behind
concrete below the reinforcing steel is adequately consoli- the vibrators to ensure that the reinforcement has not been
dated. For reinforcement placed with a mesh depressor, less dislocated.
vibration will normally be required than for either mesh When fixed forms are used, the pavement edge should be
placed on chairs or for concrete placed in two courses. For examined after form removal to determine the effectiveness of
reinforced slabs placed in two courses, the vibrators should the vibrators. If honeycomb is observed, one or more of the
be used in both courses. following changes should be made to prevent its recurrence:
Olsen, Winn, and Ledbetter (1984) provide additional 1. Position vibrators closer to the forms;
information on consolidation of concrete pavements. 2. Increase frequency or amplitude of the vibrators; or
11.4.2 Surface vibration 3. Reduce the forward speed of the paving equipment.
11.4.2.1 The vibratory-pan unit should be positioned In slipform paving, the equipment should move forward as
behind the surface strike-off equipment. The vibration continuously as possible, especially in warm weather.
frequency should be set in accordance with the forward Delays and starting and stopping the paver may produce
speed of the equipment on which it is mounted. A surcharge tearing of the surface and edges of already consolidated
should not be allowed to build up in front of the pan because concrete. Tearing can extend to a depth of 6 to 8 in. (150 to
it will dampen the vibrations. An internal spud vibrator may 200 mm) and result in a loss of consolidation. The condition
be used to consolidate concrete along each form. is caused by the development of excessive friction between
11.4.2.2 When a paving machine is not used, it is usually the top or side form of the paver and concrete. Factors that
advisable to make two passes of the screed or roller. The first can contribute to tearing include thickness of the slab,
strikes off and consolidates the concrete, and the second concrete with very low slump, concrete temperature, wind
provides the surface finish. Maximum frequency should be and humidity, mixture proportions, particle shape of the
used on the first pass and a reduced frequency on the second. coarse aggregate, rate of slump loss, and adjustment and
In this case, surface appearance is not a satisfactory criterion operation of the slipform paver. Once tearing has occurred,
of the adequacy of consolidation. An understanding of the the only means of restoring integrity to the concrete is to use
effectiveness of consolidation below the surface is required. immersion vibrators and revibrate the affected area. If
11.4.3 Manual vibration—Hand-held immersion vibrators tearing is near or on the edge, installation of side forms may
should be used adjacent to all headers (bulkheads) and joint be required to retain the concrete during vibration.
assemblies unless a vibratory dowel installer or full-width Cores should be taken periodically to check the adequacy
internal vibration is used. They should also be used in other of consolidation. Those taken to check pavement thickness
areas where gang-mounted vibrators are not practicable. The may be suitable for this purpose. The top surface of cores
vibrator head should be completely immersed in as near a should be examined to determine the thickness of the mortar
vertical position as practicable to avoid segregation and layer above the coarse aggregate. Mortar thicknesses over
mortar streaking. The concrete should be vibrated to the coarse aggregate in excess of 1/8 in. (3 mm) indicate over-
required depth by systematic vibration of overlapping areas. vibration or overfinishing, which can result in reduced abrasion
The insertion spacing should generally be 20 to 30 in. (500 resistance. This also indicates an overmortared mixture. The
to 750 mm) or approximately 1-1/2 times the effective radius inspector should record locations of breakdowns, delays, or
GUIDE FOR CONSOLIDATION OF CONCRETE 309R-27
other unusual events and should request additional cores 12.2—Mixture requirements
from these areas. The workability of the mixture is an important consideration
The density of fresh concrete immediately after vibration in selecting the consolidation method for precast work. In
can be determined by the use of properly calibrated nuclear precast work, the consistencies from stiff plastic to flowing
gauges (ASTM C 1040). These gauges measure relative are often used:
density, which is the plastic mass per unit volume measured a) Stiff plastic mixtures with slump between 1 to 3 in. (25
in the standard manner (ASTM C 138). This can provide a to 75 mm)—these mixtures are cohesive and plastic; to
useful means for indicating when the desired degree of b) Flowing mixtures with over 7.5 in. (190 mm) slump—
consolidation has been achieved. Useful results can be flow readily, and have a potential for segregation if over-
obtained on large jobs where the cost can be justified, where vibration is applied.
trained and certified testing personnel are available, the In precast work using flowing and self-consolidating
instrument is properly calibrated, and the concrete mixture is concrete (SCC), it may be necessary to adjust the mixture
reasonably uniform. proportions, within reasonable limits, to provide compati-
Excessive entrapped-air voids in the cores indicate a bility with the available precasting equipment.
need for additional vibration or a change in the location or
spacing of vibrators. Intrusion of subbase material into the
12.3—Forming material
concrete may result from internal vibrators set too low or at
The consolidation method should be compatible with the
an incorrect angle.
form or mold material. Steel, wood, and reinforced concrete
Changing job conditions such as weather, rate of progress,
are generally preferred. Forms may be lined with fiberglass
changes in equipment, and slump may necessitate a change
or other plastics to produce special surfaces. Rubber has also
in the characteristics or position of the vibrators. The
been used.
inspector should watch for nonuniformity behind the vibrators.
Care should be taken to prevent form damage during
Nonuniformity caused by improper use of gang vibrators has
consolidation. For example, internal vibrators should have a
been known to produce lines of weakness that can develop
rubber tip, and contact between the vibrator and form should
into longitudinal cracks.
be avoided.
CHAPTER 12—PRECAST PRODUCTS
12.1—General 12.4—Choice of consolidation method
The consolidation method for precast products should be In the precast industry, external form vibration (Fig. 12.1) or
selected on the basis of the end use of the product, concrete vibrating tables are preferred over internal vibration. They give
mixture, forming material, and production technique so that more uniform control and allow more economical techniques to
the entire operation can be efficiently planned and coordinated. be adopted in day-to-day production of similar units. When the
Chapter 12 summarizes pertinent data for some precast section involves large concrete masses remote from external
concrete products. vibrators, supplemental internal vibration should be provided.
309R-28 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Tamping is an effective method of consolidating stiff vibration times may lose much of the entrained air, and some
concrete placed in thin layers. Pressure vibration is suitable for of the low-density aggregate particles may float.
stiff mixtures; a given concrete volume is placed in a mold and Segregation of concrete mixture components during
a force is applied to the top concurrent with the vibration. vibration is caused by differences in their densities. In normal-
The curing method may affect the choice and operation of density concrete, the coarse aggregate has a higher density than
consolidation equipment. External form vibrators that are the mortar and, therefore, tends to sink during vibration. In low-
not removable and are exposed to steam and moisture are density (lightweight) structural concrete, the reverse is true,
likely to have high maintenance costs, especially if they are although the tendency for the coarse aggregate to float is less
electrically powered. when the mortar contains low-density fine aggregate.
(point of zero amplitude) is reached near the back end, and the
amplitude will increase to a relatively small value at the
extreme back end. The node can be verified and located by
moving one’s hand over the vibrator surface. If the node is
less than one-fifth of the head length away from the back end,
the average amplitude may be taken as one-half the measured
tip amplitude. If the node point is at a greater distance from
the back end, a second measurement (probably near the back
end) should be taken. The average amplitude can then be
determined as the mean of the two measurements.
16.3.3 Frequency and amplitude for external vibration—
The frequency and amplitude of form vibrators and vibrating
tables should be determined at a sufficient number of points
to establish their distribution over the surface.
The frequency may be determined by a vibrating-reed or
resonant-reed tachometer.
The amplitude may be determined by using a vibrograph. The
model shown in Fig. 16.3 measures amplitude within an accu-
racy of approximately 0.0005 in. (0.013 mm). It also records the
waveform, which provides the frequency, and is portable.
CHAPTER 17—CONSOLIDATION OF
TEST SPECIMENS
17.1—Strength
In ASTM standards (C 31, C 192, and C 1018) for making
control specimens for strength tests:
a. Rodding is required for concrete with slumps of more
than 3 in. (75 mm). Vibration is prohibited because of the
danger of excessively removing entrained air and causing
segregation;
Fig. 16.2—Visual effect scale for measuring amplitude of b. Either rodding or vibration is permitted for slumps in
vibrator operating in air. the 1 to 3 in. (25 to 75 mm) range;
c. For slumps less than 1 in. (25 mm), vibration is required;
d. For concrete of very low water content, external table
vibration combined with a surcharged load or tamping is
required; and
e. For concrete containing fiber reinforcement, external
vibration is required by ASTM C 1018. Extremely low-
slump fiber concrete cannot be well consolidated in test
specimens.
For internal vibrators, ASTM requires a minimum
frequency of 7000 vibrations per min (120 Hz) and head
diameter between 0.75 and 1.5 in. (20 and 40 mm). Table 5.1
recommends a minimum of 9000 vibrations per min (150 Hz)
for internal vibrators in thin members. For vibrating tables, a
minimum frequency of 3600 vibrations per min (60 Hz) is
required, with higher frequencies suggested.
The intensity and time of vibration for laboratory specimens
is not closely regulated. The standards merely suggest that
Fig. 16.3—Using vibrograph to determine amplitude and consolidation has been achieved as soon as the specimen’s
frequency of vibrating form. surface is smooth.
As most test specimens are cast horizontally, they do not
For flexible-shaft electric and most pneumatic vibrators, a match those in construction. If it is desired to match field
measurement should be taken near the tip and another near concrete in the laboratory, suitable consolidation procedures
the back end of the head and these results averaged. should be followed. Some prefer core strengths or the
For the motor-in-head and pendulum vibrators where the strength of cubes cut from the concrete obtained from the
eccentric is near the tip, the amplitude will generally be rela- structure as a means for estimating the strength of concrete
tively large at the tip. It will decrease rapidly until a node in the structure.
309R-32 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
211.3R Guide for Selecting Proportions for No-Slump E 329 Standard Specification for Agencies Engaged
Concrete in the Testing and/or Inspection of Materials
212.3R Chemical Admixtures for Concrete Used in Construction
233R Slag Cement in Concrete and Mortar
234R Guide for the Use of Silica Fume in Concrete U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
301 Specifications for Structural Concrete CRD C 160 Standard Practice for Making Roller-
302.1R Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction Compacted Concrete in Cylinder Molds Using
303R Guide to Cast-in-Place Architectural Concrete a Vibrating Table
Practice CRD C 521 Standard Test Method for Frequency and
304.1R Guide for Use of Preplaced Aggregate Concrete Amplitude of Vibrators for Concrete
for Structural and Mass Concrete Applications
304.3R Heavyweight Concrete: Measuring, Mixing, These publications may be obtained from the following
Transporting, and Placing organizations:
309.1R Behavior of Fresh Concrete During Vibration
309.2R Identification and Control of Visual Effects of American Concrete Institute
Consolidation on Formed Concrete Surfaces P.O. Box 9094
309.3R Guide to Consolidation of Concrete in Farmington Hills, MI 48333-9094
Congested Areas
309.5R Compaction of Roller-Compacted Concrete ASTM International
311.1R ACI Manual of Concrete Inspection 100 Barr Harbor Drive
(SP-2) West Conshohocken, PA 19428
311.4R Guide for Concrete Inspection
325.10R State-of-the-Art Report on Roller Compacted U.S Army Corps of Engineers
Concrete Pavements U.S. Army Waterways Experiment Station
347 Guide to Formwork for Concrete 3909 Halls Ferry Rd.
Vicksburg, Miss. 39180-6133
504R Guide to Joint Sealants for Concrete Structures
544.1R State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced
19.2—Cited references
Concrete Altowaiji, W. A. K.; Darwin, D.; and Donahey, R. C.,
1984, “Preliminary Study of the Effect of Revibration on
ASTM International Concrete-Steel Bond Strength,” SL Report No. 84-2,
C 31 Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test University of Kansas Center for Research, Lawrence, Kans.,
Specimens in the Field Nov., 29 pp.
C 138 Test Method for Unit Weight, Yield, and Air Chan, Y.; Chen, Y.; and Liu, Y., 2003, “Effect of Consolida-
Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete tion on Bond of Reinforcement in Concrete of Different
C 143 Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Workabilities,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 100, No. 4, July-
Concrete Aug., pp. 294-301.
C 173 Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Daczko, J., and Attiogbe, E., 2003, “Self-Consolidating
Concrete by Volumetric Method Concrete—A Technology for the 21st Century,” Structural
C 192 Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Engineer, Jan.
Specimens in the Laboratory Ferraris, C. F., 1999, “Measurement of the Rheological
C 231 Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Properties of High Performance Concrete: State of the Art
Concrete by the Pressure Method Report,” Journal of Research of the National Institute of
C 637 Standard Specifications for Aggregates for Standards and Technology, V. 104, No. 5.
Radiation-Shielding Concrete Forssblad, L., 1971, “Concrete Compaction in the Manu-
C 638 Descriptive Nomenclatures of Constituents of facture of Concrete Products and Prefabricated Building
Aggregates for Radiation-Shielding Concrete Units,” The Swedish Association, Malmo.
C 1018 Test Method for Flexural Toughness and First- Hurd, M. K., 1995, Formwork for Concrete, SP-4, 6th
Crack Strength of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Edition, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
(Using Beam with Third-Point Loading) Mich., 464 pp.
C 1040 Test Method for Density of Unhardened and Kirkham, R. H. H., 1963, “The Compaction of Concrete
Hardened Concrete in Place by Nuclear by Surface Vibration,” Reports, Conference on Vibration-
Methods Compaction Techniques, Budapest, pp. 251-268.
C 1170 Test Methods for Determining Consistency Kolek, J., 1963, “Research on the Vibration of Fresh
and Density of Roller-Compacted Concrete Concrete,” Reports, Conference on Vibration-Compaction
Using a Vibrating Table Techniques, Budapest, pp. 61-76.
C 1176 Practice for Making Roller-Compacted Concrete Mielenz, R. C.; Wolkodoff, V. E.; Backstrom, J. E.; and
in Cylinder Molds Using a Vibrating Table Flack, H. L., 1958, “Origin, Evolution and Effects of the
GUIDE FOR CONSOLIDATION OF CONCRETE 309R-35
Air-Void System in Concrete,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings often superimposed, but simple harmonic motion is reasonably
V. 55, No. 1-4: “Entrained Air in Unhardened Concrete,” consistent with experimental data.) This figure shows the path
July, pp. 95-122; 261-272; “Influence of Water/Cement of any point on the head of an operating vibrator and the rela-
Ratio and Compaction,” Sept., pp. 359-376; and “Air Void tionship between frequency, amplitude, and acceleration.
System in Job Concrete,” Oct., pp. 507-518.
National Fire Protection Association 1990, “National A.2—Action of a rotary vibrator
Electrical Code (70 P-90),” Quincy, Mass., 751 pp. Rotating the eccentric inside the vibrator head or casing
Neville, A. M., 1981, Properties of Concrete, 3rd Edition, causes the head to revolve in an orbit; that is, any point on the
Pitman Publishing, Inc., Marshfield, Chapter 4. casing follows a circular path whose radius is the amplitude of
Okamura H., and Ouchi M., 1999, “Self-Compacting the vibrator. Figure A.2 shows the action of a rotary vibrator
Concrete: Development, Present Use and Future,” Proceedings and gives the significant parameters, for example, mass,
of the 1st International Rilem Symposium “Self-Compacting eccentric moment, frequency, centrifugal force, and
Concrete,” A. Skarendahl and O. Petersson, eds., Stockholm, computed average amplitude.
Sweden. The centrifugal force computed in this manner is not
Olsen, M. P. J.; Winn, D. P.; and Ledbetter, W. B., 1984, strictly correct, because it is for the hypothetical case where
“Consolidation of Concrete Pavement,” Research Report the vibrator shell has zero amplitude while the rotor (eccentric)
No. 341-1, Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M turns in its bearings. In spite of these limitations, however,
University, College Station, Tex., Aug. the values obtained are useful as an approximate indicator of
Reading, T. J., 1967, “What You Should Know about the relative effectiveness of different vibrators.
Vibration,” Concrete Construction, V. 12, No. 6, June, pp.
213-217. A.3—Vibratory motion in the concrete
Samuelsson, P., 1970, “Voids in Concrete Surfaces,” ACI When immersed in concrete, the orbiting head (now
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 67, No. 11, Nov., pp. 868-874. under load) has a somewhat lesser amplitude than when
Tuthill, L. H., 1967, “How the California Water Project operating in air. The concrete is subjected to vibratory
Endeavors to Get Uniformly Excellent Concrete,” Civil impulses, which produce wave motions emanating at right
Engineering, ASCE, V. 37, No. 7, July pp. 43-44. angles to the head. These pressure waves are mainly
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1981, Concrete Manual, 8th responsible for the consolidation.
Edition, Denver, Colo., 627 pp. The waves decay rapidly with distance from the source
Vollick, C. A., 1958, “Effects of Revibrating Concrete,” because of the expanding area of the wave front and the
ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 54, No. 9, Mar., pp. 721-732. absorption of energy (damping) by the concrete. This decay
Vollick, C. A., 1966, “Uniformity and Workability,” (reduction in amplitude) causes a reduction in the acceleration
Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and (intensity of vibration). Where the acceleration in the
Concrete-Making Materials, STP-169A, ASTM Interna- concrete is less than about 1g (m/s2) (refer to conversion
tional, West Conshohocken, Pa., Apr., pp. 73-89. factor as given in Section 5.2.3.) for plastic mixtures, or
approximately 3g for stiff mixtures, the vibration is no
APPENDIX—FUNDAMENTALS OF VIBRATION longer effective. Considerable amplitude at the vibrator is
A.1—Principles of simple harmonic motion required to attain a satisfactory radius of influence.
The movement of an internal rotary concrete vibrator is The response of fresh concrete to vibration is largely a
essentially harmonic motion, characterized by a sinusoidal function of its rheological (flow) properties. Much more
waveform, as shown in Fig. A.1. (Actually, harmonics are research is needed on this subject.
309R-36 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
*
It should be noted that amplitude as used here (and elsewhere in this report) is peak amplitude, which is half the peak-to-peak amplitude or displacement used by some in describing
vibrations.