Contents

Part – 1
1. Planning surveys 16
2. Stages of conducting survey 26
3. Types of Questions for a Survey 31
4. Types of sampling 35
Practice questions: 42
5. Other sources of Collecting Data 45
6. Remote sensing 49
7. GPS 58
8. Geographic information system 59
9. Aerial photography 73
Practice questions: 75
10. Scale 78
11. Population pyramid 80
Practice questions: 92

Part – 2
1. Town planning Legislation in India 116
2. Land 120
3. Land Assembly 123
Practice questions: 128
4. Local Governments in India 131
5. Space standards 140
PRACTICE QUESTIONS: 156

Part – 3
1. Urban economics 166
2. Certain key economic theories and concepts 173
3. The Rank-Size Rule 188
4.Supply and demand 191
5. Fiscal Resource Mobilization 197
Practice questions: 209
6. Financial appraisal 212
Practice questions: 233
Analysis of Planning Techniques & Management

Number of question asked (%)

7%

93%

Questions asked from PTM Questions asked from all other subjects

Chart Title
6%

94%

Marks weightage of PTM Marks weightage of all other subjects

Tips:
❖ Questions from PTM are mostly theoretical.
❖ Clear understanding of each aspect is required to solve question from this section.
❖ Land assembly techniques, different models of PPP and urban local government are
favorites from this section.
Part - I
1. PLANNING SURVEYS
The preparation of any plan for the development of an urban area, city or town requires
reliable factual data regarding existing physical and socio-economic conditions such as
housing, transport, industries, employment and social services such as schools, hospitals and
recreational facilities. The process of collecting such data is called a "Planning Survey".

The required data is collected in a particular base year. It may be at intervals of 4-5 years.
However, the information of a base year may be projected for a particular period to generate
a suitable data base for the future.

SCOPE OF PLANNING SURVEYS

• Planning Surveys are for a Comprehensive Development Plan (CDP), Outline

Development Plan (ODP), Master Plan/ Development Plan etc.
• Basic data is collected generally by a sample survey and this data will broadly cover
housing, transport, physical services, social services, amenities etc. Aspects like family
income, means of livelihood, and nature of employment are also covered.
• The Census provides valuable information, which could be used as the basis for a
planning survey. It consists of three primary documents

(i) House list - The house list contains information about the use to which a census
house was put, on the material of its walls and roof, whether, it was owned or rented
and the number of rooms, if it was used for dwelling, together with essential data
concerning houses that were used as establishments,
workshops or factories like name of establishment or proprietor, name of products
produced, repaired or serviced, number of persons working and kind of fuel or power,
if machinery was used, etc.

(ii) Household schedule - In the Household schedule information is given on the extent
of land cultivated by the Household, either owned or on lease from the Government,
or held from private persons, or institutions for payment in money, kind or share or
partly held from government and partly from private persons for payment in money,
kind, or share; the nature of household industry conducted by the household; the
duration of the industry in a year; the number of family workers engaged in cultivation
or household industry or both etc.

(iii) Individual slip- In the Individual-Slip, essential demographic data, like relationship
to head of household, age, marital status, birth place, social and cultural data like
nationality, religion, literacy and mother-tongue and economic data like, occupation,
industry, class of worker and activity etc. are given.
1.1 Components of Planning Survey
The preliminary planning survey may be considered to consist of the following components:
1. Preparation of Base Map of the urban area.
2. Existing Land Use Survey
3. Infrastructure Surveys
4. Survey of Community facilities like Schools, Hospitals, Clinic, Parks and
Playgrounds, etc.
5. Sample household survey for collecting essential data on housing,
transport services and amenities.

1.2 Techniques of preparing Base Maps

In the absence of an accurate base map, no planning exercise can be undertaken. The base
map should show all the streets, lanes and open spaces and division of area by plots with
survey numbers. The base map should show all physical features including contours.

Information required on base map for Urban Development Planning:

For urban development plans the base maps are to be drawn on large scale and should show
all or part of the physical, topography and cultural features and administrative and planning
boundaries as per the details given below:

Physical
(i) Hills
(ii) Water bodies
(iii) Agricultural lands
(iv) Forest Areas
Topographical
(i) Transport Network
(ii) Utility and service lines
(iii) Built up areas
(iv) Contours at appropriate intervals
Important city features
(i) Parks and Gardens
(ii) Important Landmarks (Important public buildings)
(iii) Important Archeological & Historical Monuments
Planning and Administrative boundaries
(i) municipal boundary
(ii) census ward
(iii) administrative sub-division limits (if any)
(iv) planning area boundary (if identified)
 (v) Settlement area (urban village or rural settlement within the municipal limits
or on the fringe of the municipal town)
(vi) cantonment area boundary (if any)
(vii) grids

Base Maps generally have standard layouts and standard sizes. Generally, all base maps have
North pointing upwards. North direction and scale (Graphic and Spatial) should invariably be
shown on every base map.

1.3 Land Use Survey

Urban land may be put to a large number of uses. It may be residential, industrial, commercial
or recreational. Likewise, rural land in the vicinity, may be used for gardens like vegetable and
fruit, cash crops like tobacco, chilies or staple crops like wheat, rice or millets. The different
uses of urban and rural land follow established patterns around urban areas.

Urban land uses are innumerable and in carrying out a survey of urban land use. It has become
necessary to group these uses under certain well-defined heads. Such grouping has been
based upon similarity of functions as well as similarity of performance characteristics. For
instance, residential uses and storage godowns get grouped together. Similarly, industrial
uses can also be grouped together but an industry, which emits a large amount of smoke, and
noxious fumes cannot be put alongside an industry which produces no smoke and is able to
maintain clean premises such as an electronics industry, etc. The emission of smoke wastes
and such other
criterion form the performance characteristics of the Industry.

Land Use Depiction on Base Map

• Entire property to be marked under that use.
• In case of vertical mixing of Land uses in a building, predominant Land use to be
marked.
• In case of Horizontal Mixing, main use to be marked treating remaining uses as
ancillary uses.
• Those lands which do not have any structure on it, but which are used for a specific
purpose, the Land use should be marked e.g. Parks, Play grounds, open stack yards
etc.
1.4 Land Use Classification
Taking note of the functional similarity and compatibility or otherwise of uses, land use in
urban areas and the surroundings have been, for purposes of planning, classified into ten
groups (As per NBC - 2016) as given below.

Land Use Color Color code Description

1. Residential Yellow

2. Commercial Red

3. Industry Purple
4. Public & semi
Dark Blue
public
Light yellow background with
5. Mixed Use
yellow hatch

6. Recreational Light green

7. Transportation &
Brown / Grey
communication

8. Primary activity Dark

9. Protective and Light blue

undevelopable
zone

10. Special Area Pink

1.5 Sub Classification of Land uses

The classification of the uses into groups can be further extended into subgroups, where
necessary and the sub- groups can be further broken up into sub-subgroups for a general land
use survey.
Land use
R. Residential R-1 Primary residential zone
R-2 Unplanned/Informal residential zone
C Commercial C-1 Retail shopping zone
C-2 General business and commercial district centre
C-3 Wholesale, godowns, warehousing/regulated market
C-4 Service sector
C-5 Regulated/informal/weekly markets
I Industry I-1 Service and light industry
 I-2 Extensive and heavy industry
I-3 Special industrial zone- Hazardous, noxious and chemical
PS Public and PS-1 Govt/Semi Govt /Public offices
semi-public PS-2 Govt land (use undetermined)
PS-3 Police headquarter/Station, police line
PS-4 Educational and research
PS-5 Medical and health
PS-6 Social, cultural & religious
(including cremation and burial grounds)
PS-7 Utilities and services
M Mixed use M-1 Mixed industrial use zone
M-2 Mixed residential zone
M-3 Mixed commercial zone
P Recreational P-1 Playgrounds/Stadium/Sports complex
P-2 Parks and gardens- Public open spaces
P-3 Multi-open space (Maidan)
T Transportation T-1 Roads/Bus rapid transit system (BRTS)
and communication T-2 Railways/Mass rapid transit system (MRTS)
T-3 Airport
T-4 Seaports and dockyards
T-5 Bus depots/Truck terminals and freight complexes
T-6 Transmission and communication
A Primary activity PA-1 Agriculture
PA-2 Forest and horticulture
PA-3 Poultry and dairy farming
PA-4 Rural settlements
PA-5 Brick kiln and extractive areas
PA-6 Others (Fishing, pottery, etc.)
E Protective and E-1 Water bodies
undevelopable E-2 Special recreation zone/Protective areas,
use zone such as sanctuaries/reserve forests and eco-sensitive
zone
E-3 Undevelopable use zone
S Special area S-1 Old built-up (Core) area
S-2 Heritage and conservation areas
S-3 Scenic value areas
S-4 Government restricted area (such as defence)
S-5 Other uses/spot zone
Note - For transportation and communication facilities, brown colour, and for roads, grey colour may be used.
If so decided by the planning agency, different shades of grey may be used for both roads and facilities.
1.7 Survey of community facilities
This survey, like the utilities survey is to be carried out in a general way with the help of the
base map. As the land-use survey proceeds, the location of the various facilities will become
known and these locations are separately mapped to facilitate a study of their inter-
relationships, as well as their service areas.
A rapid reconnaissance will also reveal the capacity of the facilities such as total strength of
primary schools, extent of open spaces, accessibility to play grounds, distance to local shops
etc. and will help in assessing the planning problems especially at the local level.

1.8 Household sample survey for gathering

ESSENTIAL DATA ON HOUSING, TRANSPORT SERVICES AND AMENITIES
The information that is to be collected under this survey may be classified broadly into the
following groups:
Housing
i) Existing number of houses,
ii) Condition of house, type of structure, age,
iii) Number of people living in each household,
iv) Number of habitable rooms,
v) Occupancy (tenant or owner),
vi) Services (drainage, drinking, water, electricity),
vii) Rent in relation to the income of the family, etc,
iv. Time taken to travel to place of employment, etc,
Education
i) Distance from primary or middle school to home,
ii) Mode and cost of travel from home to school, etc,
Recreation
i) Place of recreation,
ii) Type of recreation for adults and children, etc,
Shopping
i) Distance of nearest shopping centre
1.9 Socio‐Economic Survey
collection of socio‐economic data regarding characteristics of human populations, such as
size, growth, density, distribution, and vital statistics.
This survey forms base for understanding current sociodemographic characteristics of specific
area but also projections of future population and related infrastructure.

1.10 Infrastructure Surveys

Infrastructure survey includes the survey of existing infrastructure within and surrounding the
study area in terms of its population. The result of infrastructure survey is compared to
benchmarks and parameters provided by National/Government authorities. Such survey
includes physical as well social infrastructure. This survey is commonly integrated with the
land use survey to cohesively understand the use of land and to save on time and manpower.

• Physical infrastructure indicators: transportation, water supply, wastewater,

sewerage, and solid waste management infrastructure.
• Social infrastructure indicators: educational, civic and utilities, health care, recreation
infrastructure etcetera.
Benchmark providing agencies

CPHEEO – Central public health and environmental engineering organization.

CPCB – Central pollution control board
SPCB – State pollution control board

1.11 Transportation survey

Some of the common type of transportation surveys are;
Inventory of road network system
This is a comprehensive survey which can be used to study the profile of the roads in the area
of study. Features like Road/pavement widths, Road/pavement types, street lighting,
luminosity, drain types, encroachments, presence of vendor’s/street furniture, bus/auto
stops etc can be studied and detailed resulting in the most accurate and detailed profiling of
the existing conditions.
Speed and delay survey
This survey evaluates the quality of the traffic movement along a route and identifies the
location, cause and extent of the delays in the same route.
Different methods like Floating-car method, moving-vehicle method, ANPR, videos and GPS
to study the accurate Travel Time and Delays.
Traffic volume count
Traffic Volume Count (TVC) is counting of number of vehicles passing through a road over a
period of time. It is usually expressed in terms of Passenger Car Unit. TVC can be classified or
unclassified.
O-D survey
This survey identifies the travel pattern of vehicles along a road network. This survey spots
where most vehicles originate in a network and finish their journey and it also shows how
often they take this path.
Parking demand survey
Parking survey is a tool to identify the demand and capacity of parking by the planning
authorities. Parking survey is carried out both ON road and OFF road. This survey gives a
detailed report on duration of stay, turnover, frequency, accumulation, illegal parking,
revenue and capacity studies.

1.12 Density Surveys

Density surveys are done to understand the relationship between built‐up area and
population density. It is taken up for assessment of infrastructure requirements, to reduce
congestion, appropriate availability of land for specific activities and services required by
residents for good quality of life.
Residential Density

Residential density surveys are undertaken with the objective to understand the
accommodation density, built‐up area density (built‐up area per land area) and the residing
population density.
Residential density is normally expressed in terms of:

• Houses per unit land (dwelling units/hectare)

• Habitable rooms per unit land (rooms/hectare) (Accommodation density) and
• Persons per unit land (persons/hectare) (Population Density)
As accommodation density and population density are calculated for same unit of area, these
can be compared to reach at number of persons (occupancy rate) per habitable room. Thus
it is used to determine whether particular area is underutilized or over‐utilized. This
information can be used in future planning to decide which areas are to be decongested and
in which areas density can be increased. The following formulas are used for the calculation:
 Accommodation density = No. of habitable rooms in the study area / Net area of the study area

Population density = Total population of the study area / Total Area of the study area

Occupancy rates = Population density / Accommodation density

1.13 Non‐Residential Density

Density in non‐residential areas is carried out for assessment and provision of appropriate
quantity and quality of services to the users of study area. Measurement of density in non‐
residential area in terms of room or occupant per acre does not provide useful information,
thus a method based upon the floor space index (FSI) is used to calculate non‐residential
density.
This survey seeks to obtain two-fold information about study area; first, a statement of the
total area devoted to different classes of land use within the non‐residential area,
distinguishing only between quite distinct kinds of use, e.g. shop, office, place of assembly.
Second, the intensity of use of each street blocks in the non‐residential area in terms of its
overall FSI. The FSI survey gives some idea whether the amount of land requires be increasing
or reducing for different land uses.
Field sheet for Non-residential survey

Types of survey based on the frequency

1.14 Cross-sectional surveys:
Cross-sectional surveys are those surveys that are administered to a small sample from a
larger population within a small time frame. Collecting information from the respondents at
a single period in time uses the cross-sectional type of survey. Cross-sectional surveys usually
utilize questionnaires to ask about a particular topic at one point in time. Sometimes, cross-
sectional surveys are used to identify the relationship between two variables, as in a
comparative study. An example of this is administering a cross-sectional survey about the
income levels and housing type for 2016.
1.15 Longitudinal surveys:
Longitudinal surveys are those surveys that help researchers to make an observation and
collect data over an extended period of time. When the researcher attempts to gather
information over a period of time or from one point in time up to another, he is doing a
longitudinal survey. The aim of longitudinal surveys is to collect data and examine the changes
in the data gathered.
These can be further classified into three distinct types;
Trend studies focus on the same population of people use opinion poll surveys to look at their
attitudes over time. While the population is always the same, trend studies usually select
different market research survey samples from that population.
Cohort research is a method in which a specific population is studied repeatedly as well, but
these studies center around how given groups with a common characteristic view social
phenomena over time. A common cohort design uses a class of students as its population.
For example, the freshman class of 2008 would be given a survey, and then the freshman class
of 2009 at the same school would be given the same survey, and any differences in opinion
would be noted.
Panel studies utilize the same sample from the same population over time. While more
complicated and difficult to carry out, this is the best design to truly find out changes over
time, because you are tracking opinions of the exact same respondents repeatedly.
2. Stages of conducting survey

choosing the defining the determining

technique question the sample

Data collection technique

• Information or data can be divided into two types, i.e. Primary data and Secondary
data.
• Primary data is collected first hand by investigator, thus through Primary survey.
• Secondary data is second hand data, initially collected by some other investigator for
other purpose but later on used by an investigator for his/her own purpose.

2.1 Primary survey technique

Primary data are those, which are collected for the first time and are always given in the form
of raw material and original in character. Before beginning the primary data collection
process, the technique of data collection, the questionnaire thereof and the survey sample
selection technique is to be finalized. To process, analysis and interpret primary data, suitable
statistical methods are needed.
Stages of conducting primary survey

Following are the broad categories of primary surveys:

2.1.1 Visual surveys / Reconnaissance survey
Visual surveys are direct inspection surveys, which are performed by survey teams moving in
a vehicle or walking. This type of survey can be used in the initial stages of the investigation,
often after preparing initial checklist. It performs variety of functions, such as:

• Familiarize with study area.

• Give initial impressions of the physical and social state of an area.
• Identify selected areas for further investigation.
• Generate ideas for development of checklist.
2.1.2 Inspection
Direct Inspection: The direct inspection of conditions or activities is employed in many kinds
of surveys where human communication is not required to elicit the information. It can be
used for observing traffic counts, recreation area use surveys, housing quality studies and
proxy observations where required.
Indirect Inspection: The findings of the initial survey can be substantiated with the help of
Key Indicator Survey, which are specific to the objectives of the analysis. Often, instead of
getting direct information on the variable, surveyors rely on observing approximations known
as proxies. A proxy is used to inform about a variable without direct investigation, instead
investigating its key indicators. Such as: instead of enquiring about the income range, the
surveyor can observe the housing condition, number of vehicles and other consumer goods.
Possible Proxy Indicators

Good proxies are those which can be easily investigated, however, proxies can often be
misleading and must be used with care. Therefore, generating proxies require knowledge
about the relationship between the proxy and the variable it is trying to asses and its
relationship in the study area.
2.1.3 Personal Interview/Dialogue
A number of types of surveys are undertaken face to face or by telephonic conversation. In
case of quantitative survey, the structured dialogue is one‐way where precise questioning
takes place. Semi‐structured dialogue is a flexible two-way process where only some initial
topics are investigated. These topics can be revised as the practitioner gains insight in the
area as information flows‐in from the respondents. The semi‐structured dialogue is thus an
informal process but it needs to be managed expertly, particularly in the aspects listed below:

• Behavioral factors of the surveyors and respondents

• Questions not to be ambiguous or long
• Managing the conversation &careful probing to seek answers
• Judging responses without biases
• Cross‐checking with other respondents
• Recording the interview (audio/video)
• Avoiding errors
2.1.4 Focussed Group Discussion (FGD)
Focussed group discussion is a qualitative data collection and research technique. Questions
about opinions, perceptions, beliefs, attitude of people towards planning aims, services are
probed in these discussions. FGD can be used for learning about stakeholders, their
interrelationship and to know about a range of issues on the topic. This method costs fairly
low compared to surveys, as one can get results relatively quickly and increase the sample
size. FGDs can either be used to explore meaning of survey findings that cannot be explained
statically as well as before designing questionnaires.
Homogenous group of people are selected for FGD so that they are comfortable and have
free flow of discussion. Main objective and key questions of the meeting should be pre‐
decided. Group of 10 to 12 people and questions should be selected for a single FGD. More
than one, mostly three to

2.1.5 Participatory Rapid Appraisal

PRA is an intensive, systematic but semi‐structured learning experience carried out in a
community by a multi‐disciplinary team, which includes community members using various
tools given below. Participatory appraisal methods and tools can be used across all age groups
and cultures and do not rely on literacy skills. Methods of PRA are highly visual and comprise
a myriad of activities to elicit and triangulate the same information. Tools used in
participatory interviews or group meetings include brainstorming, mapping, ranking and
diagramming and can be broadly put in four categories

• Group dynamics, e.g. learning contracts, role reversals, feedback sessions

• Sampling, e.g. transect walks, wealth ranking, social mapping
• Interviewing, e.g. focus group discussions, semi‐structured interviews, triangulation
• Visualization e.g. Venn diagrams, matrix scoring, timelines
Participation usually takes place in familiar surroundings in the street, public places or
through community‐based activities.
2.1.6 Self‐Survey
These are often in the questionnaires sent to respondents through mail or survey forms
handed out or inserted in the newspapers and the filled questionnaires are mailed back to
the surveyor. It has various limitations, like; responses can be low and unsatisfactory.
Primary data collection techniques can be costly and very time consuming thus methods of
rapid information collection, which rely mostly on direct observation, is an alternative. This
method seeks several views of any one “fact” (cross checking), makes use of checklists and
semi‐structured dialogue. However, rapid methods must not be considered as substitutes to
specialist investigations and should be used for quick access to information for rapid decision
making only.

2.2 Secondary Data Collection techniques

Secondary data are those, which have already been collected by someone other than the
investigator himself. These are usually compiled and processed information but may be
relatively less accurate than the primary data. However, the problems associated with the
primary data collection such as time consumption, skilled manpower requirement do not
arise here. Secondary data can be collected from a number of sources, which can be broadly
classified, into two categories.
2.2.1 Published Sources
Mostly secondary data is collected from published sources, which makes it reliable. Some
important sources of published sources and statistical data are as follow:

• Published reports of Central and State Governments and local bodies.

• Statistical abstracts, census reports and other reports published by different Ministries
of the Government.
• Official publications of the foreign Governments.
• Reports and Publications of trade associations, chambers of commerce, financial
institutions etc.
• Journals, Magazines and periodicals.
• Periodic Publications of Government organizations like Central Statistical Organization
(CSO), National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO).
• Reports submitted by Economists, Research Scholars, Bureaus,
• Published works of research institutions and Universities
2.2.2 Unpublished Sources
Statistical and non‐statistical data can also be collected from various unpublished sources.
Some of the unpublished sources are

• The research works carried out by scholars, research associates and professionals.
• The records maintained by private firms and business enterprises, which may not have
been published due to business discretion.
• Records and statistics maintained by various departments and offices of the Central
and State Governments, Corporations, Undertakings among others.
3. Types of Questions for a Survey
The questions are the primary tools in collecting necessary information from the respondents
of a survey. By making the right choices on the type of survey questions, one is able to extract
only data that are related to the purpose or goal of the survey.
Before constructing questions, you must be knowledgeable about each type of question used
in survey research. These basically include:

3.1 Closed-Ended Questions

Closed-ended questions limit the answers of the respondents to response options provided
on the questionnaire.

• Advantages: time-efficient; responses are easy to code and interpret; ideal for
quantitative type of research
• Disadvantages: respondents are required to choose a response that does not exactly
reflect their answer; the researcher cannot further explore the meaning of the
responses
Further types of close ended questions are:

• Dichotomous or two-point questions (e.g. Yes or No, Unsatisfied or Satisfied)

• Multiple choice questions (e.g. A, B, C or D)
• Scaled questions that are making use of rating scales such as the Likert scale.

3.2 Open-Ended Questions

In open-ended questions, there are no predefined options or categories included. The
participants should supply their own answers.
Advantages: participants can respond to the questions exactly as how they would like to
answer them; the researcher can investigate the meaning of the responses; ideal for
qualitative type of research
Disadvantages: time-consuming; responses are difficult to code and interpret
Types of open-ended questions include:

• Completely unstructured questions- openly ask the opinion or view of the respondent
• Word association questions - the participant states the first word that pops in his mind
once a series of words are presented
• Thematic Apperception Test – a picture is presented to the respondent which he
explains on his own point-of-view
• Sentence, story or picture completion – the respondent continues an incomplete
sentence or story, or writes on empty conversation balloons in a picture
3.3 Matrix Questions
Matrix questions are also closed-ended questions but are arranged one under the other, such
that the questions form a matrix or a table with identical response options placed on top. For
example:

3.4 Contingency Questions

Questions that need to be answered only when the respondent provides a particular response
to a question prior to them are called contingency questions. Asking these questions
effectively avoids asking people questions that are not applicable to them. For example:
Have you ever visited Taj mahal?
Yes ___ No
If YES, how many times have you visited?
Once
2-3 times
more than 3 times
The second question above is what we refer to as a contingency question following up a
closed-ended question.

3.5 Level of measurement

A researcher named Stanley Stevens coined these terms. There are four measurement scales:

• Nominal or categorical scale

• Ordinal scale

• Interval scale

• Ratio scale
3.5.1 Nominal scale
Nominal scales are used for labeling variables, without any quantitative value. “Nominal”
scales could simply be called “labels.” Here are some examples, below. Notice that all of
these scales are mutually exclusive (no overlap) and none of them have any numerical
significance. A good way to remember all of this is that “nominal” sounds a lot like “name”
and nominal scales are kind of like “names” or labels. A sub-type of nominal scale with only
two categories (e.g. male/female) is called dichotomous.

3.5.2 Ordinal scale

With ordinal scales, it is the order of the values is what’s important and significant, but the
differences between each one is not really known. There is a specific order of choices like
asking of priorities, housing conditions, climate etc. Take a look at the example below. In each
case, we know that a #4 is better than a #3 or #2, but we don’t know–and cannot quantify–
how much better it is. For example, is the difference between “OK” and “Unhappy” the same
as the difference between “Very Happy” and “Happy?” We can’t say.

Ordinal scales are typically measures of non-numeric concepts like satisfaction, happiness,
discomfort, etc.
3.5.3 Interval scale
Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know not only the order, but also the exact
differences between the values. The classic example of an interval scale
is Celsius temperature because the difference between each value is the same. For example,
the difference between 60 and 50 degrees is a measurable 10 degrees. Time is another good
example of an interval scale in which the increments are known, consistent, and measurable,
like time taken to shift from LIG housing to MIG housing, time interval to change from two
wheelers to four wheelers etc.
The problem with interval scales: they don’t have a “true zero.” For example, there is no such
thing as “no temperature.” Without a true zero, it is impossible to compute ratios. With
interval data, we can add and subtract, but cannot multiply or divide. We cannot calculate
ratios, which brings us to our last measurement scale.
3.5.4 Ratio scale
Ratio scales tell us about the order, they tell us the exact value between units, and they also
have an absolute zero–which allows for a wide range of both descriptive and inferential
statistics to be applied. Everything above about interval data applies to ratio scales + ratio
scales have a clear definition of zero. Good examples of ratio variables include height and
weight.
Ratio scales provide a wealth of possibilities when it comes to statistical analysis. These
variables can be meaningfully added, subtracted, multiplied, divided (ratios). Central
tendency can be measured by mode, median, or mean; measures of dispersion, such as
standard deviation and coefficient of variation can also be calculated from ratio scales.
Examples of Ratio scale

• Mass
• Length
• Duration
3.5.5 Comparative analysis of all four scales
4. Types of sampling
It would normally be impractical to study a whole population, for example when doing a
questionnaire survey. Sampling is a method that allows researchers to infer information about
a population based on results from a subset of the population, without having to investigate
every individual. Reducing the number of individuals in a study reduces the cost and
workload, and may make it easier to obtain high quality information, but this has to be
balanced against having a large enough sample size with enough power to detect a true
association.
There are several different sampling techniques available, and they can be subdivided into
two groups: probability sampling and non-probability sampling. In probability (random)
sampling, you start with a complete sampling frame of all eligible individuals from which you
select your sample. In this way, all eligible individuals have a chance of being chosen for the
sample, and you will be able to generalize the results from your study. Probability sampling
methods tend to be more time-consuming and expensive than non-probability sampling. In
non-probability (non-random) sampling, you do not start with a complete sampling frame, so
some individuals have no chance of being selected. Consequently, you cannot estimate the
effect of sampling error and there is a significant risk of ending up with a non-representative
sample which produces non-generalizable results. However, non-probability sampling
methods tend to be cheaper and more convenient, and they are useful for exploratory
research and hypothesis generation.

4.1 Probability sampling

4.1.1 Simple Random Sampling
In simple random sampling, the members of the sample are selected randomly and purely by
chance. As every member has an equal chance of being selected in the sample, random
selection of members does not affect the quality of the sample.
4.1.2 Stratified Random Sampling
In stratified random sampling, first, the population is divided into sub-groups (known as
strata) and then members from each sub-group are selected randomly. This technique is
adopted when the population is not highly homogeneous.
Advantages
The reasons to use stratified sampling rather than simple random sampling include
• If measurements within strata have lower standard deviation, stratification gives
smaller error in estimation.
• For many applications, measurements become more manageable and/or cheaper
when the population is grouped into strata.
• It is often desirable to have estimates of population parameters for groups within
the population.

Disadvantages
• Stratified sampling is not useful when the population cannot be exhaustively
partitioned into disjoint subgroups.
4.1.3 Systematic Sampling
In systematic sampling, a member occurring after a fixed interval is selected. The member
occurring after fixed interval is known as Kth element. For EX, if a research wants to select
member occurring after every ten members, the Kth element become 10th element. It means
for selecting a sample from 100 members will be as follows: Sample (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60,
70, 80, 90, 100)

4.1.4 Cluster Sampling

In cluster sampling, various segments of a population are treated as clusters and members
from each cluster are selected randomly. It seems similar to stratified sampling but there is
difference in both. In stratified sampling, the researcher divides the population into
homogeneous sub-groups on the basis of similar characteristics e.g. age, sex, profession,
religion and so on. On the other hand, in cluster sampling, the does not divide the population
into sub-groups or cluster but randomly select from already existing or naturally occurring
sub-groups.
4.1.5 Stratified sampling Vs cluster sampling

Stratified sampling cluster sampling

4.1.6 Multi-stage Sampling

Multi-stage sampling represents a more complicated form of cluster sampling in which larger
clusters are further subdivided into smaller, more targeted groupings for the purposes of
surveying. Despite its name, multi-stage sampling can in fact be easier to implement and can
create a more representative sample of the population than a single sampling technique.
Particularly in cases where a general sampling frame requires preliminary construction, multi-
stage sampling can help reduce costs of large-scale survey research and limit the aspects of a
population which needs to be included within the frame for sampling.
In traditional cluster sampling, a total population of interest is first divided into ‘clusters’ (for
example, a total population into geographic regions, household income levels, etc), and from
each cluster individual subjects are selected by random sampling. This approach however,
may be considered overly-expensive or time consuming for the investigator. Using multi-stage
sampling, investigators can instead divide these first-stage clusters further into second-stage
cluster using a second element (for example, first ‘clustering’ a total population by geographic
region, and next dividing each regional cluster into second-stage clusters by neighborhood).
Multi-stage sampling begins first with the construction of the clusters. Next, the investigator
identifies which elements to sample from within the clusters, and so on until they are ready
to survey.
Advantages

• Cost and speed that the survey can be done in

• Convenience of finding the survey sample
• Normally more accurate than cluster sampling for the same size sample
Disadvantages

• Not as accurate as Simple Random Sample if the sample is the same size
• More testing is difficult to do
4.2 Non Probability sampling
4.2.1 Purposive Sampling or judgmental sampling
It is a type of sampling where the members for a sample are selected according to the purpose
of the study. For example, if a researcher wants to study the impact of drugs abuse on health.
Every member of the society is not the best respondent for this study. Only the drug addicts
can be the best respondents for this study.
4.2.2 Convenience Sampling
It is a type of sampling where the members of the sample are selected on the basis of their
convenient accessibility. Only those members are selected which are easily accessible to the
researcher.

4.2.3 Snow-ball Sampling

Snow-ball sampling is also called chain sampling. It is a type of sampling where one
respondent identifies other respondents. Snow-ball sampling is adopted in situations where
it is difficult to identify the members of the sample.

For example, a researcher wants to study 'problems faced by migrants in an area'. The
researcher may not know enough number of migrants in the area to collect data from them.
In such a case, the researcher may ask a migrant to help him locate other migrants to be
interviewed.
4.2.4 Quota Sampling
In this type of sampling, the members are selected according to some specific characteristics
chosen by the researcher. These specific characteristics serve as a quota for selection of
members of the sample. Hence, the members are selected on the basis of these specific
characteristics such as age, sex, religion, profession, ethnicity, interest and so on.

4.2.5 Sample size

Survey Name Sampling Size
Population Sampling
rate
<50,000 1 in 5
Household Survey 50,000 ‐ 1,50,000 1 in 8
1,50,000 – 3,00,000 1 in 15
3,00,000 ‐ 5,00,000 1 in 20
>10,00,000 1 in 25

• Two sections for a road section with similar land

Inventory of road network
system
Speed and delay studies
Road Side Origin and
destination surveys at
uses
• Two samples for a road section with similar land
use
• Samples to be collected where ever section has
variation
The average of around six runs
The survey should normally be conducted for three
consecutive days, on sample basis, if possible during a
representative week in the year and must encompass
the weekly market day and one working day

Safety studies (accident Accident record for last 2 years

studies, including collision &
traffic incidences)
Each typology to be covered / representative sample to
Parking Supply
be collected
Classified traffic volume As even day count will then give the Average Daily
counts Traffic (ADT)
Practice questions:
Level 1 (Easy Questions)

1. The color used to show Industrial area in a master plan is

a. Purple
b. Green
c. Blue
d. Orange

2. The color used to show Public and Semi Public in a master plan is
a. Purple
b. Green
c. Dark Blue
d. Orange

3. Data of human population is collected in

a. Transpiration survey
b. Ecological survey
c. Socioeconomic survey
d. Infrastructure survey

4. Survey done to be familiarize with the study area is

a. Reconnaissance survey
b. Inspection
c. Self-survey
d. Interview

5. Survey done to be familiarize with the study area is

a. Reconnaissance survey
b. Inspection
c. Self-survey
d. Interview

6. Scales that is used for labeling variables, without any quantitative value
a. Nominal or categorical scale
b. Ordinal scale
c. Interval scale
d. Ratio scale

7. A member occurring after a fixed interval is selected in

a. Cluster sampling
b. Systematic sampling
c. Stratified sampling
d. Multi staged sampling
 8. Members of the sample are selected on the basis of their convenient accessibility in
a. Snow ball sampling
b. Quota sampling
c. Judgmental sampling
d. Convenience Sampling

Level 2 (Moderate Questions)

1. Questions that need to be answered only when the respondent provides a particular
response to a question prior to them are called
a. contingency question
b. Constant question
c. Secondary question
d. Nominal question

2. If there are no predefined options or categories included in the question, it is called

a. open-ended question
b. Matrix question
c. Contingency question
d. In-Definitive question

3. Match the level of measurement is Group – I with their example in group – II

Group – I Group - II
P. Nominal 1. Weight
Q. Ordinal 2. Name of people
R. Interval 3. Grades
S. Ratio 4. Degree centigrade

a. P-3, Q-4, R-1, S-2

b. P-3, Q-1, R-4, S-2
c. P-2, Q-3, R-4, S-1
d. P-3, Q-1, R-4, S-2

ANSWERS:
Level 1 (Easy Questions)
1. a 2. c 3. c
4. a 5. a 6. b
7. d

Level 2 (Moderate Questions)

1. a 2. a 3. c