METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY

Lesson 7 - The Wind and Pressure System over the Ocean

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the topic, the students must be able to:

1. Explain

 qualitatively, with the aid of sketches, the circulation cells which would exist on a rotating earth
 not inclined to its orbits of rotation around the sun, and with homogeneous surface
 the formation of anabatic and katabatic winds

2. Describe

 the characteristics and location of the doldrums, intertropical convergence zone, trade winds,
sub-tropical oceanic highs, westerlies, and polar easterlies
 monsoon regime

3. List

 the areas which experience a true monsoon regime

 the regions of occurrence of anabatic and katabatic winds

4. Apply

 previous concepts to a qualitative explanation of the causes of monsoon regimes

 previous concepts to a qualitative explanation of weather associated with the January and July
monsoons of the Indian Ocean, China Sea, north coast of Australia, and west coast of Africa
 the concept of horizontal temperature differences to a qualitative explanation of the formation
of land and sea breezes

5. Draw the mean surface pressure and wind distribution over the earth’s surface in January and July

6. Provide examples of local winds

Synoptic Wind System

Synoptic wind system is of larger scale in nature and is caused by synoptic pressure differences and
temperature of the wind where it spans smaller distances - a few hundred to a few thousand kilometers,
and possessing shorter lifetimes, a few to several days, this class contains the migrating cyclones and
anticyclones that control day-to-day weather changes, this scale is smaller when compared to planetary
scale of wind system

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  Sometimes the planetary and synoptic scales are combined into a single classification termed
the large-scale, or macroscale. Large-scale wind systems are distinguished by the predominance
of horizontal motions over vertical motions and by the preeminent importance of the Coriolis
force in influencing wind characteristics. Examples of large-scale wind systems include the trade
winds and the westerlies.

Wind Forces

Pressure Gradient Force – is the movement of air from low pressure to high pressure, this is the force
exerted by an air relative to the pressure it embodies, and pressure is inversely proportional to
temperature thus, high temperature air is characterized as having low-pressure while low temperature
air is characterized as having high-pressure, and pressure here is the force exerted per unit area.

Coriolis Force – is the force exerted by the rotational motion of the

Earth (from West to East) in which, according to Ferrel’s law derived
from Coriolis Effect, it states that in northern hemispheres, wind
deflects towards the right and in southern hemisphere wind deflects
towards left. This means that in northern hemisphere, wind deflects
clockwise, while in southern hemisphere, wind deflects anti-
clockwise.

Geostrophic Wind Force - is the force exerted on a wind or

movement of air by a balance in both Coriolis and Pressure Gradient force, this is a wind formed from
the combination of the said forces which is parallel to the isobars (line of equal pressure).

Cyclonic Wind (Low Pressure Wind) – is the wind rotating at counter-clockwise (due to the combined
effects of Coriolis, pressure gradient force where there is an abnormal or excess force on either side that
tends to cause such wind) direction in Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in Southern Hemisphere.

Anticyclonic Wind (High Pressure Wind) - is the wind rotating at clockwise (due to the combined effects
of Coriolis, pressure gradient force where there is an abnormal or excess force on either side that tends
to cause such wind) direction in Northern Hemisphere and counter-clockwise in Southern Hemisphere.

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 Global Circulations

Circulation Cells on Rotating Earth Circulation Cells

of Non-rotating and no water Earth

1. Hadley Cell
2. Ferrel Cell
3. Polar Cell

During the night particularly with a clear sky at high places like the top of cliffs and
mountain with a steep slope cool and consequently the air over them also cools and the
pressure becomes high so that due to gravitation this denser air flows down the slope forming a
katabatic wind. (This may have no relation with atmospheric pressure distribution). Whe n it
reaches sea level it blows horizontally with violent force of about 7 on the Beaufort Wind scale
(28 to 33 kts). This wind is most common off the coast of Greenland and in the Adriatic.

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Doldrums, Inter-tropical Convergence Zone, Trade Winds, Sub-tropical oceanic highs, Westerlies, and
Polar Easterlies

Doldrums and Inter-tropical Convergence Zone

 The "doldrums" is a popular nautical term that refers to

the belt around the Earth near the equator where
sailing ships sometimes get stuck on windless waters.
 Known to sailors around the world as the doldrums, the
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone, (ITCZ, pronounced
and sometimes referred to as the “itch”), is a belt
around the Earth extending approximately five degrees
north and south of the equator. Here, the prevailing
trade winds of the northern hemisphere blow to the
southwest and collide with the southern hemisphere’s
driving northeast trade winds.
 Due to intense solar heating near the equator, the
warm, moist air is forced up into the atmosphere like a
hot air balloon. As the air rises, it cools, causing persistent bands of showers and storms around
the Earth’s midsection. The rising air mass finally subsides in what is known as the horse
latitudes, where the air moves downward toward Earth’s surface.
 Because the air circulates in an upward direction, there is often little surface wind in the ITCZ.
That is why sailors well know that the area can calm sailing ships for weeks and that’s why they
call it the doldrums.

Trade Winds

Trade winds are part of the Hadley cell circulation. At the

equator, a low-pressure area of calm, light variable winds,
known Intertropical Convergence Zone as we discussed
above. The air lifts from here and at around 30° North and
South, the air begins to descend toward the surface in
subtropical high-pressure belts known as subtropical ridges.
At the surface, the air flows from these subtropical high-
pressure belts toward the Equator but is deflected toward
the west in both hemispheres by the Coriolis Effect. Thus,
these winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the
Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the

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Southern Hemisphere. Because winds are named for the direction from which the wind is blowing, these
winds are called the northeast trade winds in the Northern Hemisphere and the southeast trade winds
in the Southern Hemisphere. The trade winds meet at the doldrums.

Subtropical Oceanic Highs

Once rising air parcels reach the tropopause, its greater

stability acts like a lid to suppress further ascent
(remember that the air above the tropopause in the
stratosphere is quite stable). So, upon reaching the lid,
rising air parcels fan out laterally, heading poleward in
both hemispheres and thus becoming part of the upper
branches of the Hadley Cells. Parcels head toward the
subtropics, where they will eventually sink in concert with
the belt of subtropical high-pressure systems that girdles
the globe at latitudes in the general vicinity of 30-degrees
North and South. These "subtropical" highs form near the
fringes of the tropics and are semi-permanent, meaning
that they typically appear on long-term-average pressure
patterns. To see what I mean, check out the long-term
average of sea-level pressures from June through August
(top image below) and December through February
(bottom image below) to spot the subtropical highs.

During summer in the Northern Hemisphere (top image above), two dominant subtropical highs emerge
-- the Bermuda high over the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific high. The Bermuda high shares its name
with the island of Bermuda because, over the long haul during summer, the average position of this high
lies near Bermuda. These two subtropical highs owe their relative strength, in part, to the oceans.
During the Northern Hemisphere's summer, the oceans are generally cooler compared to the warmer
continents. In turn, cooler, denser maritime air that overlies the oceans serves to boost surface
pressures, paving the way for relatively robust subtropical highs during summer.

During the Northern Hemisphere's winter (bottom image above), when the oceans are warmer
compared to the continents, the dominant subtropical highs aren't as strong, with the Bermuda high
shifting eastward and gradually taking an average position near the Azores Islands. As a result, the
Atlantic subtropical high assumes the seasonal name, Azores high.

So, why do these subtropical high-pressure systems exist in the first place? Over the long haul, the clear
signal from the recurrent upward motion in the ascending branch of each Hadley Cell is a stream of air
flowing poleward at high altitudes. As the air flows poleward, it cools. And eventually, in the general
neighborhood of 30-degrees latitude, the poleward flow in the upper branch of each Hadley Cell
becomes convergent. In turn, this mass convergence of cold air moving in the upper branch of the
Hadley Cell adds weight to local air columns near 30-degrees latitude, increasing surface pressure there,
and helps to establish the persistent belt of subtropical highs.

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Westerlies

The directions of the Westerlies are opposite to trade winds

and that is why they are also called antitrade winds.
Westerlies blow in the middle latitudes between 30- and
60-degrees latitude and originate from the high-pressure
area in the horse latitudes towards the poles. Under the
effect of the Coriolis force, they become the south
westerlies in the northern hemisphere and Northern
westerlies in the southern hemisphere.

 Note that Winds are named from the direction

(cardinal points) where they came from.
 Please note that in the southern hemisphere, there is more of ocean and less of land in
comparison to the northern hemisphere. Due to this reason, the westerlies blow with much
greater force in southern hemisphere in comparison to northern hemisphere.

Polar Easterlies

Polar easterlies blow from the polar high-pressure

belts towards the temperate low-pressure belts.
These are extremely cold winds that come from the
Tundra and Icecap regions of the poles. The Polar
Easterlies are more regular in the southern
hemisphere in comparison to the northern
hemisphere. These polar cold winds converge with
the warm easterlies near 60° latitudes and form the
Polar front or Mid Latitude front. This mid-latitude
front becomes the center of the origin of the
Temperate Cyclones.

Polar Highs (associated to Polar Vortex)

- are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles; the north polar
high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea.
- The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure
(a process called subsidence), just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air
to rise to create the low-pressure intertropical convergence zone.

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 - Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around
the 60th parallel of latitude. These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the

polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or
subtropical origin. This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the
polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere.

Polar Vortex

The polar vortex is a large area of low pressure and cold

air surrounding both of the Earth’s poles. It ALWAYS exists
near the poles but weakens in summer and strengthens in
winter. The term "vortex" refers to the counterclockwise
flow of air that helps keep the colder air near the Poles.
Many times during winter in the northern hemisphere, the
polar vortex will expand, sending cold air southward with
the jet stream (see graphic above). This occurs regularly
during wintertime and is often associated with large
outbreaks of Arctic air in the United States. The one that
occurred January 2014 is similar to many other cold
outbreaks that have occurred in the past, including several
notable colder outbreaks in 1977, 1982, 1985 and 1989.

Jet Streams

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  Jet streams are relatively narrow bands of strong wind in the upper levels of the atmosphere.
The winds blow from west to east in jet streams, but the flow often shifts to the north and
south. Jet streams follow the boundaries between hot and cold air.
 Since these hot and cold air boundaries are most pronounced in winter, jet streams are the
strongest for both the northern and southern hemisphere winters.
 In addition, with the three-cell circulations mentioned previously, the regions around 30° N/S
and 50°-60° N/S are areas where
temperature changes are the greatest.
 As the difference in temperature
increases between the two locations the
strength of the wind increases. Therefore,
the regions around 30° N/S and 50°-60°
N/S are also regions where the wind, in
the upper atmosphere, is the strongest.
 The 50°-60° N/S region is where the polar
jet located with the subtropical jet
located around 30°N. Jet streams vary in
height of four to eight miles and can reach
speeds of more than 275 mph (239 kts /
442 km/h).
 The actual appearance of jet streams
result from the complex interaction between many variables - such as the location of high and
low pressure systems, warm and cold air, and seasonal changes. They meander around the
globe, dipping and rising in altitude/latitude, splitting at times, and forming eddies, and even
disappearing altogether to appear somewhere else.
 Jet streams also "follow the sun" in that as the sun's elevation increases each day in the spring,
the average latitude of the jet stream shifts poleward. (By Summer in the Northern Hemisphere,
it is typically found near the U.S. Canadian border.) As Autumn approaches and the sun's
elevation decreases, the jet stream's average latitude moves toward the equator.

 Jet streams are often indicated by a line on a weather map indicating the location of the
strongest wind. However, jet streams are wider and not as distinct as a single line but are
actually regions where the wind speed increases toward a central core of greatest strength.

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  One way of visualizing this is to consider a river. The river's current is generally the strongest in
the center with decreasing strength as one approaches the river's bank. Therefore, it is said that
jet streams are "rivers of air".

Monsoon Regime

Monsoons are like land and sea breezes, but on a larger scale.
Monsoons blow for approximately six months from the northeast
and six months from the southwest,.They occur because of
seasonal changes in the temperature of land and water. In the
winter, they blow from land to water. In the summer, they blow
from water to land. In regions that experience monsoons, the
seawater offshore is extremely warm. The hot air absorbs a lot of
the moisture and carries it over the land. Summer monsoons bring
heavy rains on land. Monsoons occur in several places around the
globe. The most important monsoon in the world is in southern
Asia (Figure below). These monsoons are important because they
carry water to the many people who live there.

Temperature of Monsoon Climate

Though mean annual temperature is fairly high but summer and winter seasons are sharply
differentiated due to northward (summer solstice) and southward movement of the sun (winter
solstice).

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Summer and Winter Solstices

The seasons on Earth change because the planet is slightly tilted on its axis as it travels around the Sun.
This means different points on Earth receive more or less sunlight at different times of year. If Earth

were not tilted, the Sun would always appear to be directly above the Equator, the amount of light a
given location receives would be fixed, and there would be no seasons. There also would be no need to
mark equinoxes or solstices.

The two solstices happen in June (20 or 21) and December (21 or 22). These are the days when the Sun’s
path in the sky is the farthest north or south from the Equator. A hemisphere’s winter solstice is the
shortest day of the year and its summer solstice the year’s longest. In the Northern Hemisphere the June
solstice marks the start of summer: this is when the North Pole is tilted closest to the Sun, and the Sun’s
rays are directly overhead at the Tropic of Cancer. The December solstice marks the start of winter: at
this point the South Pole is tilted closest to the Sun, and the Sun’s rays are directly overhead at the
Tropic of Capricorn. (In the Southern Hemisphere the seasons are reversed.)

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The equinoxes happen in March (about March 21) and September (about September 23). These are the
days when the Sun is exactly above the Equator, which makes day and night of equal length.

Local Winds

Bora refers to katabatic wind that blows down the slopes of the mountains on the north and east coast
of the Adriatic Sea; often dangerous as it often blows without any warning and in violent gust.

Gregale is a strong NE wind in the central and western Mediterranean Sea in Malta and Sicily.

Levanter refers to east wind in the Strait of Gibraltar. It brings much moisture, clouds, haze and fog,
sometimes rain.

Scirocco is southerly wind in the Mediterranean coming from North Africa; it causes fog.

Harmattan is an east wind on the west coast of Africa between Cape Verde and the Gulf of Guinea in
November to March. It brings clouds of dust and sand from the Sahara.

Mistral is a strong N or NW wind in the Gulf of Lyons of gale force and produces rough seas.

Norther is a north wind of gale force along the coast of Chile. Gulf of Mexico and western Carribean
during winter.

Pampero is a squall occurring at the passage of a cold front in Rio de la Plata, it blows from the north
and back suddenly to a S or SW direction; Frequent in June to September.

Shamal is a NW wind in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman and along the Makran coast.

Southerly Buster refers to a south wind on the SE coast of Australia that occurs mainly in summer; as a
warning a long cumulus roll appears on the horizon and the wind drops to a calm then suddenly blows
with gale force accompanied by rapid fall in temperature.

Sumatra refers to a squally wind from the SW during the month of May to October, in the Strait of
Malacca and west coast of Malaya.

Williwaw is an unpredictable and violent wind rising suddenly in Aleutian waters especially close to the
mountainous coast of the islands in that region.

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Papagayo is a north to north easterly wind which periodically blows through the gap in the mountain
ranges of central America. It is named after the Gulf of Papagayo on the Pacific coast near Costa Rica.
Papagayo can be stronger than the trade winds which normally blows in this region.

Brubu refers to a squall in the East Indies.

Borasco is a thunderstorm or violent squall especially in the Mediterranean.

Abroholas is a squally frequent wind that occurs from May through August between Cabo de Sao Tome
and Cabo Frio on the Coast of Brazil.

Café Doctor is dry south-easterly wind that blows on the South African coast during Summer.

Tehuantepecer is a violent north to northwesterly wind funneled through the Gulf of Tehuantepec on
the Pacific coast of Mexico and can be felt up to 100 miles out to the Pacific ocean. It occurs during
winter in the northern part of America.

Mean Surface Pressure and Wind Distribution (January and July)

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  You can look at the figure on the subtropical oceanic highs for a more detailed and perceptible
representation of pressure and wind distribution.

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