Critical Theory and the Medieval Text: Reading Latin Literature

Final Assignment: The Inextinguishable Fire of Medieval Poetry: Interpreting De ramis cadunt folia
by
Anja Božič

The main intention of this paper is to offer an analysis of the medieval poem, De ramis cadunt folia,
found in one of conductus manuscripts of Saint-Martial (Paris, BN lat. 3719 fol. 42r-v).1 In doing so, I
intend to use more than one critical approach. This will not only to demonstrate the limitations of
individual approaches, but also illustrate the immense openness of the literature to a variety of
interpretations and understandings. In my opinion, it is impossible to assign a poem a fixed meaning,
nevertheless, acknowledging this unattainability, I will delineate the most obvious directions that
different critical approaches point to.
The main idea of De ramis is the primary contrast between the fire-like nature and the constant
burning of the inner desire and the frigidity of the changing natural world outside. The point of view in
the poem is first personal; this is revealed in line 2 of the fourth stanza (sed ego solus caleo).
De ramis is a poem is of six stanzas. Each stanza consists of six lines of eight syllables except for the
lines 4 and 6 which consist of four syllables. The verse is Iambic tetrameter and dimeter with the
exception of the last stanza, where it passes into two trochees in the first line (ignis grecus). The
rhyme pattern in all of the stanzas is ababab. 2 With the exception of stanza 4, the rhymes are all
formed out of two ending syllables.3
The tension of the main message of the poem is reflected also from the structure of the poem which
consists of two parts, forming an opposition. The first three stanzas set the stage for the comparison
and describe a process, external to the lyric subject; the advent of the autumn and winter solstice with
the destructive force of cold. Over the course of these three stanzas, the atmosphere seems to be
getting colder and colder, as if in imitation of the winter approaching: in the first stanza, the warmth is
only leaving (calor liquit), in the second stanza a hurtful cold (frigus nocet) approaches, and in the
third stanza snow is already falling throughout the day (dies niveus).
The descriptions of nature are followed by the motion downwards, initiated in the first stanza by the
leaves falling from the trees. Here, the gaze of the speaker is still directed upwards, in the sun and the
heavenly place it occupies. In the second stanza, the main object observed are the birds, flying up in
the sky or sitting in the trees, as if this were part of some kind of a middle sphere forming a bridge
between the sky and the earth. Finally, the focus moves down to the ground; to the rivers and
meadows, and prepares for turning to the speaker in the following stanza 4. Yet, not without a final
look up into the sky, to confirm the sun is really fleeing away to the confines of sky, as announced in
the first stanza. This creates sort of a link between stanzas 3 and 1, thus interconnecting these three
stanzas into one part.
Moreover, the action seems to slow down over the course of these three stanzas. In the first stanza
there are active images and several verbs announcing change (folia candunt, viror periit, calor liquit et
habiit, sol peciit). The second stanza is already calmer and more passive (avis leditur, ignis eteris
adimitur), while the third stanza uses even more static and descriptive imagery (est inde dies niveus,
nox frigida), or describes what is not happening (nec caret, nec virent). The sound creates a similar
effect: the first stanza uses shorter words and even though there are many closed vocals (i-s), they are
being exchanged swiftly with other vocals, thus creating an almost staccato rhythm which could
suggest, for instance, the sharp, stinging and biting sound of the frost. In the second stanza longer
words become more frequent; for instance, both shorter lines are formed of only one word, which
slows down the rhythm. The onomatopoetic play arises also from the alternation between sounds r and
l, reproducing the juxtaposition between the cold, negative images (frigus, calor periit, conqueritur)
1
I made use of Peter Dronken’s edition of the poem and his translation (and thus interpretation) of the poem.
Peter Dronken, Medieval Latin and the Rise of the European Love Lyric (Oxford: Claredon Press, 1968), 288–
290.
2
The syllables of the rhyme change, of course, but the pattern remains the same in each stanza.
3
In Stanza 3, there is just repetition of est in the final syllable.
and the warm, positive images (sol, philomena, calor, lympha). The same alternation continues also
subsequently; the soft sound of l is linked to the extreme warmness of the speaker’s object of desire,
for instance in the epithet lux luminis.
In stanza 4 the perspective changes and moves to the internal world of the speaker. The transition is
very obvious in the first two lines of the fourth stanza, in which the speaker directly states the contrast
between the freezing outside world described earlier and his internal feelings (Modo frigescit quidquid
est, sed solus ego caleo). The second line is very powerful owing to the alliteration displayed in the
beginning and short syllables with an abundance of open vocals and l-s, especially compared to the
coldness of r-s in the previous stanzas and still present in the first line of stanza 4 (frigescit). It has a
strong dramatic effect, which in a way extends over the next two lines (3–4). In line 3 immo brings
additional emphasis and slows down the pace with its soft consonants (m-s). Ardeo in line 4 at the
same time echoes caleo from line 2, yet also strongly resonates by itself, especially owing to a pause
afterwards. Lines 2 and 4 are, in my opinion, among the most powerful lines of the poem.
Abundance of more open vowels in comparison to the first three stanzas continues in stanzas 5 and 6.
The image of the (retiring) sun, which has been so far repeated in every stanza (1–3) at least per
negationem is now replaced by the fire of the speaker’s internal desire for a girl (virgo). The latter is
the focus of the fifth stanza. The speaker associates her exclusively with positive and warm images
and her tender touch and her kiss are described as nurturing the speaker’s (metaphorical) internal fire,
which adds to the contrast between this part of the poem and the coldness reflected from stanzas 1–3.
The sound works into the same direction; there are many soft consonants, i.e. labials and l-s, which
accompanied by markedly more u-s and o-s produce a soft and tender mellifluous sounding (in suo
lucet occulo lux luminis).
Moreover, the speaker’s desired one is not only a personification of warmness and light, but even
linked to divinity (nec es plus numinis). She is thus considerably ethereal, unnamed, and non-descript,
which simultaneously makes her hard to be imagined. At first glance, this could serve to underscore
her unattainability, especially if we interpret the langeo in the last line of stanza 4 as an honest and
miserable exclamation of the speaker. Yet, the ethereality makes her at the same time very universal,
while her angel-like representation is in strange contrast to the speaker’s burning and fairly body-
oriented desire.
This contrast can be explained with a touch of feminist approach. The poem describes the female in a
typically idealized manner and it reproduces the image of complacent femininity. She is but an object
of the speaker’s desire, available to satisfy the speaker’s sexual needs by her tenderness and kissing,
valuable not because of herself, but in order to “nurture” the speaker’s fire. One might ask on this
point whether the speaker still refers only to the metaphorical fire of desire – or can we extend the
nurturing effect also to a real fireplace; especially since the image of a domestic ideal around lively
flames of a family fireside is just offering itself as a contrast to the freezing exterior. The desired
female is thus nothing but a useful concept used by the speaker to illustrate the archetype of a warm
home tended to by a beautiful woman in complete subordination to the speaker. Within the lines of
this interpretation, langeo in the last line of stanza 4 would only denote a sentimental and overreacted
exclamation, far from any real suffering of the speaker.
Stanza 6 is meant to resolve the tension between the stanzas 1–3 and 4–6, and to highlight the meaning
of the entire poem. It refers to the Greek fire, to bring an image of fire that is difficult to put out 4 and
compares it to desire. The speaker concludes that even the Greek fire can nevertheless be
extinguished, while the metaphorical fire of desire persists, even in the saddest lover (misserrimo), and
burns with ever more powerful force. In this manner, the stanza in a way reiterates the message of the
entire poem. This is reflected even more abundantly in the last line, comprising a single word,
4
The Greek fire was an incendiary weapon used in Byzantine warfare from the 7th century onwards. The
substance was probably made of crude oil, mixed with resin, and it could be thrown in pots or discharged from
tubes. According to the ancient historians, it caught fire spontaneously and could not be put out with water. The
only substances capable of extinguishing the fire were old urine, strong vinegar, and by means of depriving the
fire of oxygen, namely, by using sand. Judith Herrin, “Greek Fire,” in Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval
Empire (Princeton University Press: Oxford, 2007), 141–147.
promising fertility, uberrimo, which draws a perfect contrast to the first line of the poem about the
falling leaves. Thus it connects the stanza within the overall structure of the poem, connecting all its
parts into an organic whole.
The rhythm alas the sound, are marked in this stanza. In the first line the rhythm changes for the only
time; from Iambs it surpasses into two trochees in the beginning of the line, however, it immediately
turns back into Iambic verse in the second line of the stanza. In my opinion, this is meant to emphasize
the contrast between the first two lines, referring to the Greek fire, and the rest of the stanza, referring
to desire. This is even enforced by the repetition of extinguitur in the third line. The repetition draws
attention also to the adjacent words and highlights in a way the negative particle non, thus making the
contrast (between ignis Grecus and iste ignis) even stronger. Moreover, the stanza consists only of
passive forms of verbs, which, in my opinion, enforces the notion of undependability and inviolability
of the burning desire. In contrast to the Greek fire which needs the assistance of an active human agent
for its ignition and can be extinguished by particular means, too, the fire of desire is not affected
neither by external agents, nor does it have to be sustained, even if it is not reciprocated.
The tone works in the same direction. This stanza contains an abundance of superlatives which,
together with the long and repeated extinguitur, create a cacophonic and violent effect with their r-s
(extinguitur, acerrimo, miserrimo, uberrimo). Nevertheless, this seems to be muffled in the final two
lines, in which the abundance of softer consonants (immo, fomento, uberrimo) tones down the
quenching force of the superlatives. The poem thus seems to slow down which could be interpreted in
two contrasting ways. It could be a sort of resignation to which the openness of the ablative and dative
endings (o-s) adds the somehow sorrowful sound, almost as if implying yielding wails. Another
argument for this interpretation would be reading iste, which denotes the burning desire, in a negative
manner, not least since this pronoun often implies scorn or contempt. It would be possible to argue
that fomentum uberrimum, the “most fruitful kindling” refers to the aforementioned (bitter) wine and it
invokes an image of the lyrical subject trying to drink away his sorrows of unattainable love:
unsuccessfully and in drunkenness even strengthening his desires; with the bitter aftertaste of vinum
accerimum referred to above. This interpretation would go hand in hand with understanding the
exclamation langeo (stanaza 4, line 6) literally, as an honest expression of suffering. Even line 2 of the
third stanza (sed soulus ego caleo) could be read with a somehow negative and sad intonation, if we
put an emphasis on solus (not caleo) as an expression of the loneliness of the speaker.
Alternatively, the final lines of the last stanza could also be understood optimistically, associating
alitur uberrimo with positive notions of elevation and fertility. In this manner the poem is in a way
praising the unceasing force of desire (or even love). It seems as if the English translation suggests this
interpretation, since it translates fomentum uberrimum as the “most fruitful kindling.” The notion of
fertility could be also conveniently linked back to the first line of stanza 5, which describes the
speaker’s object of desire as nurturing the fire by her kissing and tender touches (Nutrutur ignis
osculo). This connection thus extends the gendered interpretation throughout the entire poem and adds
another aspect to the ideological construction of the woman in the poem: she is not only idealized, but
also represented with regard to her fertility.
If we choose to understand the discourse in the poem as that of a male speaker, it is possible to say that
in the poem he is constructing a hegemonic masculinity. Nevertheless, there is no firm proof that the
speaker is a male, since the poem is deemed anonymous. 5 It could have been by all means written also
by a woman. In fact, breaking loose of the (closed) perspective of the closed reading, and admitting
some social and historical concepts into the analysis of the poem, it is possible to pinpoint several
symbols in the poem that would offer yet another interpretation.
De ramis has been preserved in a manuscript of compositions, in style of conductus. The term
conductus denotes a metrical poem in Latin during 12th and 13th centuries, used for festive and
processional purposes.6 Most likely it was sung while the lectionary was carried from its place of

5
The only time the speaker refers to himself in a gendered manner is in line 2 of stanza 4, in which the adjective
solus is used in male form.
6
Leonard Ellinwood, “The ‘Conductus,’” The Musical Quarterly 27.2 (1941), 165–204.
safekeeping to the place from which it was to be read. Some of the poem’s imagery and phrases seem,
indeed, to be borrowed from the sacred context. The figura etymologica of lux luminis sounds close to
the liturgical phrases, such as saecula saculorum or rex regis. Moreover, the harsh frigidity of winter
could represent the secular world, continuously transformed by the forces of nature. Its contrast is the
rich and stable inner world of a loyal believer, nourished by the love of divinity, which overpowers the
forces of nature with its constistency.
This interpretation is confronted by the obviously physical aspect of love in the lines 1–2 of stanza 5,
which refer to kissing and touching (Nutritur ignis osculo et lenu tactu virginis). However, the carnal
desire could also be seen as an intermediate step between the secular love and true(-r) love as reflected
from the virgo’s eyes. This transition, i.e. from carnality to one of the higher senses, the sight, could
signify also the transition to religious love, untainted by the carnal aspect and residing only in the
eyes: as in the highest and purest sense of the medieval understanding. The speaker could thus be
representing the fervent earthly love for a woman as sort of a liminal and transitional state through
which the sublimity of eternal love and lightness could be attained. On the other hand, virgo could
simply imply divine purity or even a more concrete reference to Holy Marry. With such reading, the
gender of the speaker is utterly insignificant.
As I have demonstrated in this paper, a number of interpretations can thus be offered for this medieval
poem. One might ask, though, does it matter how “true” they are to the communicative intentions of
its author? In my opinion, the most precious quality of a poem or any kind of literature, is precisely
this openness to different interpretations and diverse understandings by its various readers; provided,
of course, that their own openness allows it. The final experience should appertain to each individual
reader according to his/her own impressions and the tendency to unveil the authors’ intentions should
be replaced, instead, with honest enjoyment and better appreciation of the existent literary pieces.