ABSTRACT

In this report was studied the associated problems to stress-

sensitive formation, particularly the case of transient flow

behavior. Some papers concerning this area have been reviewed, and
their results were outlined in the literature review given in this
report. Some unsolved problems were identified. However, due to the

complexibility of the problem, the proposal will be focused on one

specific problem.
 INTRODUCTION

Well test analysis of unsteady-state liquid flow has been based on

the linearized diffussivity equation for idealized reservoirs6.

However, it is known that the permeability of sandstone cores is

reduced by applying external stress. The effect is greater in tight

than high-permeability cores. Some tight-gas-sand can lose more

than 90% of their permeability when restressed to the net

overburden7. It implies that the predicted production can be
overestimated when a stress-sensitive reservoir is considered to be

idealized.

Although the problem of estimating an arbitrary permeability

distribution from pressure data has not received much attention in
the well-testing literature, it has been actively investigated in

reservoir simulation8.

Four of the five papers that were studied in this report had

not given any analytical solution to the problem of permeability

variation under stress. Instead of that, they have focused on the

development of numerical models which have been solved by means of

high-speed digital computers.

Pedrosa4 has introduced an analytical model to account for the

permeability reduction under strees conditions. His model is

applicable to laminar flow for gas and liquid flow in unfractured

reservoirs. Therefore, the problem solved is very particular and it

is necessary to work on unsolved problems such as rapid flow and

fractured wells.

In this report, an analytical equation (without being solved)

is presented to account for permeability and porosity reduction

caused by an increasing in effective stress applicable to rapid

flow.
 LITERATURE REVIEW

PAPER I.
EFFECT OF ROCK STRESS ON GAS PRODUCTION FROM

LOW-PERMEABILITY RESERVOIRS

Juris Vairogs, C.L. Hearn, Donald W. Dareing and V.W. Rhoades.

A) PROBLEM BEING SOLVED

To demonstrate experimentally that permeability reduction is

proportionately greater in tight than high permeability cores. To

incorporate the strees effect into a mathematical model for
reservoir gas flow and to check (using this model) the extent of

production decrease that might be expected due to permeability's

sensitivity to stress.
B) HOW THE PROBLEM WAS SOLVED
1. Experimental Procedures

Several permeability values were measured on different kind of

cores when the rock is under a confining pressure. A 500 psig

confining pressure was the initial condition for each series of

permeability measurements.

Fig. 1 ilustrates the greater degree of permeability reduction

in tight than high-permeability cores with the confinig pressure.

As we can see, in cores with initial permeability less than 1 md,

the permeability is significantly reduced at high net confining.

Other important aspect found from this experiments was the

drastical decreasing of permeability due to stress when the core
has presence of shale stracks and hairline as it is shown of Fig.

2.
Also, Figs. 1 and 2 show that when the stress effect is

significant, most of the loss of permeability takes place by the

time the confining pressure reaches about 4000 psi.

2. Model

The relationship between the rock permeabilities produced in

the laboratory and the permeabilities in the reservoir the

following assumption was made:

1
σ c ≅ ( σ ′′′ z + σ ′′′θ ) (1)
2

The reduction of permeability due to effective stress was

incorporated into a numerical model for gas flow to a well in a
circular reservoir, based on the isothermal gas flow equation
1 ∂ p k ∂P ∂ P
(-r )= _φ ( ) (2)
r ∂r z µ ∂r ∂t z

The solution of equation (2) is not shown in the paper.

C) PREDICTION OF RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE (MAIN RESULTS)

The numerical model was used to calculate expected flow rates

using ideal gas properties to emphasize the stress effects and to

compare easily with analytical solutions. See Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6.
D) CRITICAL ANALYSIS

-Ideal gas conditions were used.

-In gas reservoirs is very possible to occur non darcy flow. The

model should have included this fact.

-Although it is a good work, the results were achieved by using

 simulations techiniques (numerical analysis) instead of well

testing procedures.
PAPER II.

PRESSURE TRANSIENT TEST IN FORMATIONS HAVING

STRESS-SENSITIVE PERMEABILITY

Juris Vairogs and Vaughan Rhoades.

A) PROBLEM BEING SOLVED

A theoretical investigation of the use of conventional

pressure transient analysis methods in stress-sensitive formations.

B) HOW THE PROBLEM WAS SOLVED
1. Drawdown testing

In Fig. 7 there are two curves illustrating the behavoir of

K/Kb ratio when exists a confinig pressure. The sand a curve was

used to simulate drawdown at rates of 200, 500 and 1000 Mscf/D

during transient and pseudosteady state production periods using

the properties of Methane at 340°F.

The effect of maximun possible permeability reduction on

pressure transient analisys was also investigated by starting

production at various points on the same permeability-stress curve.

This was done by assuming initial reservoir pressures of 5000, 7000

and 8500 psia and comparing pressure buildup data after equal
volumes of production. The initial permeability was set at 0.061 md

in all runs. Only, pore pressure, frame stress and permeability

were considered variable during production.

2. Discussion of results

A plot of dimensionless pressure vs. dimensionless time was

prepared from simulation results at initial pressure of 7000 psia
and producing rates of 200, 500 and 1000 Mscf/D (see Fig. 8). The

dimensionless quantities are defined by:

0.0002637 K it
tD= 3
φ ( µ C )i r w 2

i refers to the property at the time simulation starts.

(Ki=0.061 md).

T SC K ih [m( ) - m( , )]
-5
m D( r D ,t D )= 1.987x10 Pi rD tD 4
P SCT q SC
q SC P SCT
qD =
1.987x10 -5 K i hT SC m i

The slope of the curves are higher than there is the case of
constant permeability which means that conductivies determined from

drawdown test of stress-sensitive formations will be low. No

straight line is ever reached in the stress-sensitive case but at

low rates.

From this work was demostrated that the curvature in the

curves of Fig. 10 is mainly caused by stress-sensitive permeability

and not by viscosity effects.

Since the real-gas curve lies above the liquid line, it indicates
there is impediment to flow. At time 1 hr the lines close together
therefore skin factor calculations from drawdown test do not appear

to be reliable in highly stress-sensitive reservoirs. Also the Kh

value are much lower than the initial Kh of the reservoir.

3. Buildup testing

Buildup testing during the transient production period were

simulated for sand A and plotted on a Theis-Horner plot. Rates of

500, 1000 and 1250 Mscf/D and drawdown periods of two days were

used. There additional buildup test were run after producing

periods of 3000, 6000 and 9000 days at a rate of 500 Mscf/D.

Also, two cases simulating damage were run, in one case S=1 and in

the second case S=-3.

C. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Fig 9. shows a drawdown semilog plot of dimensional real gas

potential versus dimensionless time. From this plot can be seen

that mechanical obstruction generates and additional decrease in

permeability resulting in excess of skin factor ar early times. So

the skin factor values from buildup may not be representative. On
Fig. 10 there is Horner plot. The slope approach the theoretical

value of 1.15. The Kh determined from them is about 10 percent

below the true initial value.
D) CRITICAL ANALYSIS

-In this work only were considered the dependency of permeability

on pressure. The porosity and viscosity should have been

considered variables.

-The procedure was done by using simulation techniques, so no

analitical solution was presented to solve the problem of

permeability dependence in sensitive-stress reservoirs.

PAPER III.

PRODUCTION RATE DECLINE IN PRESSURE-SENSITIVE RESERVOIR

Fernando Samaniego and Heber Cinco L.

A) PROBLEM BEING SOLVED

Investigation of the influence of pressure-dependent fluid and

rock properties on well production decline in constant wellbore

pressure tests.
B) HOW THE PROBLEM WAS SOLVED

1. Mathematical Formulation

The mathematical model was based on assuming horizontal flow,

no gravity effects, a fully penetrating well, and isothermal

single-phase fluid, Darcy's law and isotropic homogeneous

formation.
The rock properties considered variable as function of pressure are
permeability, porosity and pore compresibility. A flow equation

considering the pressure dependency in both rock and fluid

properties is:

φ (P)µ (P)C t(P) ∂m(P)

∆ m(P)=
2
5
K(P) ∂t

Where m(p) is a pseudopressure function defined as

P K(P)ρ (P)dP
m(P)= ∫ Pb 6
[1- φ (P)] µ (P)

Equation (6) resembles the diffusivity equation but is non

linear because the diffusivity is pressure dependent.

In order to generalize the application non dimensional techniques

were used. Once the respective dimensionless groups were defined.

Replacing them in equation (6):

∂ ∆ m D( r D ,t D ) 1 ∂∆ m D( r D ,t D ) ∂∆ m D( r D ,t D )
2
+ = α D [ ∆ m D( r D ,t D )] (8)
∂r D2
rD ∂r D ∂t D

_mD and αD are the dimensionless pressure and dimensionless

diffusivity respectively.
Because of the dificulty in finding an analytical solution to

equation (8), the flow equation was solved numerically by the

method of finite differences. Therefore, a computer model was

developed. To observe the effect of the pressure dependent
parameter, they were studied by changing one of them while keeping

the others constant.

C) MAIN RESULTS

It was found that variable property decline solutions do not

follow any of the existent decline type curves. However, the patern

followed is a exponential decline with semiligarithmic slope.

For all practical ratios Pi/Pwf and for transient flow conditions,

production rate decline expressed in terms of dimensionless rate is

essentially the same as the case for constant property liquid flow.

The reservoir properties were evaluated for the case of having

variable rock and fluid properties by using type-curve matching of

constant pressure tests. It was found a great difference between

the permeability calculated from constant property and variable

property analysis.
Solutions for bounded reservoirs show that production rate

decline faster in pressure-sensitive than in constant-property

systems.
D) CRITICAL ANALYSIS

The solution was achieved by using computer modeling

techniques. No analytical solution was given to account for the

permeability reduction problem applied to well testing. Also, rapid

flow was not considered.

PAPER IV.

PRESSURE TRANSIENT RESPONSE IN STRESS-SENSITIVE FORMATIONS

O. A. Pedrosa.
A) PROBLEM BEING SOLVED

To present an analytical solution to a flow equation which

accounts for the reduction in permeability caused by an increasing

in effective strees.
B) HOW THE PROBLEM WAS SOLVED

A new parameter has been introduced by pedrosa to study fluid

flow through stress-dependent porous media. This parameter has been

called the Permeability modulus which is defined as:

1 ∂K
Γ= 8
K ∂P

For practical purposes, Γ can be assumed constant; thus,

permeability varies exponentially with pore pressure.

1. Mathematical Model

The model is developed assuming that a single phase fluid

flows through an isotropic porous media and homogeneous medium

neglecting gravitational effects, no source or sink, and isothemal

conditions. Also, it is assumed laminar flow.

∂n
2
1 1 ∂n
+ = 9
∂ r D ∂ r D 1- Γ Dn ∂t D
2

The term n was introduced to reduce the non-linear behavior in

the flow equation. It is relationed to the dimensionless pressure

as:
1
PD = ln [1- Γ Dn] 10
rD

Equation (10) was solved analytically using the perturbation

technique which transforms the nonlinear conditions in a sequence

of linear problems.

The model was also developed for gas flow.

C) MAIN RESULTS

Some type curves were created to analyze both drawdown tests

and pressure buildup data in stress-sensitive formations. However,

there is no confiability in the drawdown test analysis if there are
variations in flow rates.

The permeability at the initial pressure can be estimated from

a Horner plot. Then, dimensionless pressure for the buildup data
can be calculated and plotted in a semilog plot as the same scale

as in fig. 11. If only stress-sensitivity affects the test data,

the calculated values of dimensionless pressure must follow one of

the ΓD curves in fig. 11. Then, from the match, the permeability
modulus can be obtained.
D) CRITICAL ANALYSIS

-If the pressure data do not match to any one of the ΓD curves, it

exists an indication that additional fenomena cause the excesive

pressure drop. Therefore, it is possible to have a no laminar

flow regime which is not considered by the model.
-With this model is possible to partially interpretate pressure

data in homogeneous formations considering laminar flow. It

remains unsolved the case for no laminar flow, artifiacially or

naturally fractured wells and horizontal wells.

PAPER V.

ON THE DETERMINATION OF
THE PRESSURE DEPENDENT CHARACTERISTICS

OF A RESERVOIR THROUGH TRANSIENT PRESSURE TESTING

Fernando Samaniego and Heber Cinco L.

A) PROBLEM BEING SOLVED

To present a practical procedure to determine the pressure

dependent characteristics of a reservoir from transient pressure

analysis.
B) HOW THE PROBLEM WAS SOLVED

For liquid flow the expression that allows an estimation of

the pressure dependent parameter K(pwf)/{1-φ(pwf)} for liquid case

neglecting the dependency of porosity with respect to time is:

1
K(Pwf)
= 1.1513
α oρ (Pi) µ (pwf) ∂Pwf
11
[1- φ (pwf)] h(Pi)[1- φ (Pi)] ρ (Pwf) ∂ f cd

Where;

1 q
f cd (t)= log(t - t n-1 ) - (1- o ) 12
2.3026 q(t)

In equation (12), αo is a conversion factor. It is assumed

that h(Pi) may be estimated from another sources, for instances

well logging. Equation (12) was derivated by using dimensionless

quantities and pseudopressure functions. Also, for drawdown and

buildup test a mathematical model was developed to account for gas

behavior and liquid flow.

C) MAIN RESULTS

From these studies was found that drawdown analysis gives good

estimatives of the presssure dependent parameter (K(φ)/{1-φ(P)} or

K(P) at high pressures. Furthermore by combining both drawdown and

buildup test results a good definition of the pressure dependent

parameter can be obtained. So that, the best way to obtain the rock

stress sensitive parameters is to carry out a drawdown at a high

rate which conduces to a notorious pressure decrement, allowing the

estimation of the pressure dependent parameter in a wide range of

pressure. To complement this test, a buildup should be run once the

drawdown is concluded.
D) CRITICAL ANALYSIS

Although there is presented a good approximation to the

solution of considering the permeability as a variable of the
pressure, there is no analytical solution to the no linear flow

equation considering variations in rock properties. Also, this

procedure were done by using simulation techniques, and the results

were applied to well testing.

Nondarcy flow was no considered.

 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A) STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

5
Samaniego and Cinco-ley have presented a practical procedure

to determine the pressure dependent characteristics of the

reservoir in terms of K(P)/{1-φ(P)}, however they do not present an

analytical solution to the nonlinear flow equation when the

permeability is considered variable.

The best approximation to the problem has been presented by
Pedrosa4 who developed an analytical model considering laminar flow

and unfractured reservoirs. He introduced a new concept, the

permeability modulus which defines a dependency of permeability on

pressure.
B) OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

To establish a flow equation accounting for the variations in

rock and fluid properties respect to the pressure considering

nondarcy flow.
C) PROPOSED APPROACH

The following assumptions will be considered:

-Homogeneous and isotropic medium, it implies Kr = KΘ = Kz = K. Let

us call from now the permeability as k(p) since it is dependant

on pressure.

-No gravitational effects.

-No source or sink.

-Isothermal conditions.

-Non-darcy flow.
 The continuity equation for radial flow is:

1∂ ∂( φρ )
(r ρ u)+ q = 13
r ∂r ∂t

The Forchheimer equation for rapid flow accounting for

variable permeability, k(p), is:

∂P µ
= u + βρ u 2
∂r k(p)

or;

k(p) ∂P β k(p)ρ u 2
= u+
µ ∂r µ

Since the Reynolds number in porous media is defined as

β K ρu
Re =
µ

Therefore it is obtained:

k(p) ∂P
= (1+ Re)u (15)
µ ∂r

Defining δ as inverse factor of the Darcy Number to account

for no-laminar flow (Recalling that the Darcy Number, Da = 1 + Re).

1
δ=
1+ Re

Solving for u from eq. (15)

δ k(p) ∂P
u=
µ ∂r
Substituting the velocity, u, in the continuity equation
 1 ∂ r ρδ k(p) ∂P ∂
( )+ q = ( φρ ) (16)
r ∂r µ ∂r ∂t

Multiplying the whole equation by r and taking derivative to

the left term of equation (16);

∂P ∂ρ ∂P ∂µ ∂P ∂δ ∂P ∂k(p) ∂P ∂ P]
2
µ [ ρδ k(p) + rδ k(p) r ρδ k(p)
+ r ρ k(p)] + r ρδ + rδ k(p) ρ
∂r - ∂r ∂r 2∂r ∂r ∂2+ ∂r= r ∂ ( φρ∂r) ∂r
r qr ∂r 2
µ µ ∂t

Dividing this equation by k(p)rƒδ and multiplying all the

terms of the equation by µ we have:

1 ∂P 1 ∂ρ ∂P 1 ∂δ ∂P 1µ ∂k(p)
∂ ∂P ∂ 2P 1 ∂µ ∂P qµ
+ + + ( φρ )+ 2 - + =
r ∂r ρ ∂r ∂r δ ∂r ∂r k(p) ρδ ∂∂rt ∂r ∂ r µ ∂r ∂r k(p)ρδ
k(p)

Expanding this equation as:

1 ∂P 1 ∂ρ ∂P ∂P 1 ∂δ ∂P ∂P 1q µ ∂k(p) ∂Pµ ∂P ∂ ∂ 2P 1 ∂µ ∂P ∂P
+ + ++ = + ( φρ -) (17)
k(p)ρδ∂P k(p)
r ∂r ρ ∂P ∂r ∂r δ ∂P ∂r ∂r k(p) ∂r ρδ
∂r ∂t ∂ r 2 µ ∂P ∂r ∂r

Recalling the permeability modulus defined by Pedrosa is:

1 ∂K
Γ= (18)
K ∂P

In lightly compressible fluids, the isothermal compressibility

is given by:
1 ∂ρ
C= (19)
ρ ∂P

Defining arbitrarily the factors A1 and A2 respectively as:

 1 ∂δ
A1 = (20)
δ ∂P
1 ∂µ
A2 = (21)
µ ∂P

Replacing the concepts expressed by equations (18), (19), (20)

and (21) in equation (17) it yields:

1 ∂P ∂P
2
∂P
2
∂P ∂P
2 2
∂P
2
qµ µ ∂
+C 2 + A1 2 + Γ 2 + 2 - A2 2 + = ( φρ )
r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r K(p)ρδ k(p)ρδ ∂t

Simplifying;

∂ P 1 ∂P
2
qµ µ ∂
(C + A1 + Γ - A2 ) + + = ( φρ ) (22)
∂r 2
r ∂r K(p)ρδ k(p)ρδ ∂t

Taking derivative to the right member of equation (22)

∂( φρ ) ∂ρ ∂φ
=φ +ρ
∂t ∂t ∂t

or;

∂( φρ ) ∂ρ ∂P ∂φ ∂P
=φ +ρ (23)
∂t ∂P ∂t ∂P ∂t

The formation compressibility is defined as:

1 ∂φ
Cf = (24)
φ ∂P

According to the concepts introduced by equations (19) and

(21), equation (23) can be rewritten as:

∂( φρ ) ∂P
= [ φ C ρ + ρ C fφ ]
∂t ∂t

Assuming that Ct = C + Cf, therefore;

 ∂( φρ ) ∂P
= φC f ρ
∂t ∂t

or;

µ ∂( φρ ) φ C tµ ∂P
= (25)
k(p)ρδ ∂t k(p)δ ∂t

From equations (18), (19), (20), (21) and (24), it is found

that:

K = K b e Γ(P- P b ) (26)
φ = φ oeC (P- P )
f b
(27)
ρ = ρ beC(P- P ) b
(28)
δ = δ oe A (P- P )
1 b
(29)
µ = µ be A (P- P )
2 b
(30)

Therefore, the flow equation will be:

∂ P 1 ∂P q µ be A2 µ bC tφ be( C f + A2 - A1-Γ )(P- P b ) ∂P

2 ( - Γ -C- A1)(P- p b )
(C + A1 + Γ - A2 ) + + =
∂ r 2 r ∂r K b ρ bδ b K bδ b ∂t

This equation is a partial differential equation strongly

nonlinear. Although, there are some complicated analitical methods

to solve it, its solution will not developed in this report. Also,
generating data using the solution of the flow equation and then

analyzing the output information is out of the scope of this

project, since the complexibility of the solution and its

application require not also good experience and knowledge in this

field but also and adequated dedication, availability of

informations and time.

With the solution of this flow equation, it is expected to

generate type curves in order to interpretate data pressure for

oil reservoirs when both mechanisms of stress-sensitivity

formations and nonlaminar flow may be present. Since there is no

problem for the dependency of fluid properties and porosity on

pressure, the type curves might be generated for different ΓD, as

pedrosa did, then the pressure data can be used to obtain

dimensionless pressures and plotted as the same scale as the type

curves, so that the data can be matched to find a ΓD which will be

used to have more real values of permeability.

 NOMENCLATURE

A1Factor to account for the dependency of the inverse factor, δ, of

Darcy Number on Pressure
A2Factor to account for the viscosity dependency on pressure
ß Non-Darcy flow factor
C Fluid compressibility
CfFormation compressibility
δ Inverse of Darcy number
φPorosity
Γ Permeability modulus
hFormation thickness
K Permeability
k(p) Variable permeability
K500Permeability of the core at 500 psig net confining pressure
m(p)Real-gas potential
µViscosity
P Pressure
PwfFlowing well pressure
qFlow rate
r Radius
Re Reynolds Number
ƒDensity
SSkin factor
σcConfining pressure
σ'''Effective macrostress
σ''Effective microstress
t Time
T Temperature or time
u Fluid velocity

SUBSCRIPTS

bBase conditions
cConvolution
dDrawdown
DDimensionless
i Initial
rRadial
SC Standard conditions
Θ Tangential
wWellbore
zVertical
 REFERENCES

1.Vairogs, J., Hearn, C.L., Dareing, D.W. and Rhoades, V.W.:

"Effect of Rock Stress on Gas Production From Low-Permeability
Reservoirs". JPT (Sept. 1971) 1161-1167.

2.Vairogs, J. and Rhoades, V.W.: "Pressure Transient Test in

Formations Having Stress-Sensitive Permeability". JPT (Aug.
1973) 965-970.

3. Samaniego, F. and Cinco-Ley, H.: "Production Rate Decline in

Pressure Sensitive Reservoirs". Technology (Jul. 1980) 75-86.
4.Pedrosa O.A.: "Pressure Transient Response in Stress-Sensitive
Formations". Paper SPE 15115, presented at the 56th California
Regional Meeting of SPE, Oakland, CA, April 2-4, 1986.
5.Samaniego, F. and Cinco-Ley, H.: "On the Determination of the
Pressure-Dependent Characteristics of a Reservoir Through
Transient Pressure Testing". Paper SPE 19774, presented at the
64th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of the SPE
held in San Antonio, Tx, Oct 8-11, 1989.
6.Raghavan, R., Scorer, D.T. and Miller, F.G.: "An Investigation by
Numerical Methods of the Effect of Pressure Dependent Rock
and Fluid Properties on Well Flow Test". Soc. Pet. Eng. J.
(Jun. 1972) 267-276.

7.Ostensen, R.W.: "The Effect of Stress-Dependent Permeability on

Gas Production and Well testing. SPEFE J.( Jun. 1986) 227-235.
8.Oliver, D.S.: The Averaging Process in Permeability Estimation
From Well-Test Data". SPEFE (Sept. 1990) 319-324.