Progress in Additive Manufacturing

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-021-00182-6

REVIEW ARTICLE

Current progress of 4D‑printing technology

Balakrishnan Subeshan1 · Yeshaswini Baddam1 · Eylem Asmatulu1

Received: 13 April 2020 / Accepted: 5 April 2021

© This is a U.S. government work and not under copyright protection in the U.S.; foreign copyright protection may apply 2021

Abstract
The combination of smart materials to print a three-dimensional (3D) product has primarily driven the development of inno-
vative technology, or four-dimensional (4D) printing. 3D-printing technology seems to have provided extensive enhancement
with materials, printers, and processes in the past decade. The additive manufacturing (AM) industry is discovering the
latest applications, materials, and 3D printers. AM can be defined as a method of formulating 3D parts through compiling
the material layer by layer, which is conventionally made of plastics, metals, or ceramics; nevertheless, “smart” materi-
als are also being used these days. These smart materials can be adjusted with printable characteristics or structures when
additional stimulants are implemented. These 3D-printed materials modify their shape or properties with time, which is
the fourth dimension and can merge with conventional 3D printing. 4D printing is the system whereby a 3D-printed object
changes itself into a different structure as the result of the impact of environmental stimuli such as temperature, light, or
other factors. 4D printing will open new possibilities that are convenient in significant applications, will work in extreme
surroundings, and will help create a transformable structure. The objective of this review is to examine and assess the repu-
tation and development of 4D-printing technology, including the 4D-printing process, materials, and potential applications.
This review determines that 4D-printing technology has potential applications in various fields, but more research work will
be essential for prospective accomplishments of this technology.

Keywords  3D printing · 4D printing · Additive manufacturing · Environmental stimuli · Smart materials

1 Introduction of 3D printing in distinctive industries is the result of growth

AM provides the content regarding the importance of manu-
facturing complex 3D materials through linking or apply-
ing supplementary materials [1–3]. 3D printing is a unique
AM technology that permits scientists, manufacturers, and
professional consumers to manufacture typical 3D objects
by applying computer-aided design. Improvement within
3D printing has enhanced the significance of this rapid
prototyping field because it leads to affordable and quick
objectification of CAD data [4]. As a result of the basic and
customizable characteristics of 3D printing, it has been used
in several industries, including the manufacturing offashions
and jewelry [5, 6], polymeric fabric materials [7], superca-
pacitors [8], metamaterials and its sensors in engineering [9,
10], bio-hybrid robotics [11], and tissues [12]. The extension
* Eylem Asmatulu
e.asmatulu@wichita.edu
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Wichita State
University, Wichita, KS 67260, US
in the type of printing processes and the numerous materials
selected for printing. Generally, 3D printing is performed
using many different techniques identified by ISO/ASTM
52900:2015, Additive Manufacturing: material jetting, vat
photopolymerization, powder bed fusion, material extru-
sion, and binder jetting [13, 14]. Table 1 provides further
information regarding a few of these printing-manufacturing
methods.
Many industries have begun using smart materials for
their research and development for a better understanding
of smart material’s behaviors for shape recovery, and how
those have been utilized for biomedical, electronics, robot-
ics, sensors, and actuators [16–19]. Cumulatively, initiatives
to organize smart materials and 3D printing encourage 3D
materials which are stimulated using external stimuli, which
include heat, pressure, magnetic fields, wind, and moisture.
The approach of generating these types of stimuli that are
receptive to 3D-printed materials was initially acknowledged
as 4D-printing technology, underscoring time in place of
the fourth dimension [20]. 4D printing is a technique for

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Table 1  Various printing- Printing-manufacturing method Precision (mm) Suitable materials

manufacturing methods
including their precision and Material jetting 0.1–0.3 Photopolymers
suitable materials [15]
Vat photopolymerization 0.05–0.15 Photopolymers
Powder bed fusion 0.25–0.75 Ceramic powders, metal powders
Material extrusion 0.18–0.25 Biomaterials, biological tissues, food
Binder jetting 0.05–0.1 Glass, ceramic powders, metal powders

generally involve expansion, contraction of the printed mate-

Fig. 1  Variance of 3D printing (left) and 4D printing (right) [22]
acquiring programmable substance that incorporates addi-
tive manufacturing through sensitive smart materials.
Preliminary prototypes have centered on commercial 3D
printers, which are selected to generate rigorous polymer
constructs renovated through water-swelling hinges, or
shape memory, including patterned design among rubbery
matrices [21]. Figure 1 displays the variance among 3D
printing and 4D printing [22].
Shape morphing following printing is a critical aspect
of 4D printing. Shape variances throughout the 4D-printed
materials are caused by many external stimuli, which
rials. Typically, self-folding and the self-activated effects of
4D-printed materials are achieved with smart materials. Fig-
ure 2 displays the 4D-printing approach that integrates 3D
printing and smart materials to establish parts that respond
to external stimuli [23]. The characteristics of these dynamic
transformations are distinguished by specific principles of
materials consisting of one smart material and bilayer con-
formations through the range of characteristics and hetero-
geneity [24, 25].
Two main characteristics are involved with smart materi-
als: shape change and shape memory. Shape-changing mate-
rials involve in two states in which the material evolves when
it is exposed to distinctive stimuli [26]. State 1, called the
permanent shape, is where the shape change material is not
exposed to any stimuli. Stimulated material a varied tempo-
rary shape, or state 2, whenever the material is exposed to an
external stimulus. The temporary shape shifts to its original
state 1 when the external stimulus is detached, as shown in
Fig. 3. Shape-memory materials can be programmed into
a transient shape [27], but they also can preserve a fixed
shape or state 1. After the exposure of external stimulus, the
materials are mechanically distorted into a transient shape
and set in that shape. The temporary shape endures while
the deformed shape is static, and the stimulus is detached.
The shape-memory material retrieves its permanent shape
even when re-exposed to a stimulus, as presented in Fig. 3.
Smart materials or stimulus-responsive materials [22] are
self-sensing, receptiveness, shape-memory, multifunctional,
and self-repair materials such as a hydrogel, elements with
shape memory, carbon fibers, smart textile materials, and
liquid crystal elastomers. These materials play a vital role
in the enhancement of 4D printing. Several smart materials
exist and are currently being advanced; nevertheless, several
of them cannot be 3D-printed forms [28].

Fig. 2  4D printing linking 3D

printing and smart materials to
produce parts which respond for
external stimuli [23]

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Progress in Additive Manufacturing
Fig. 3  Shape-change and shape-memory materials
4D printing has the potential composition to perform
a substantial role in prospective devices, for the evident
benefits. Two-dimensional (2D) printed sheets can mini-
mize the space essential for conveyance, which in turn
limits the manual workforce [29]. 4D-printed actuators,
lacking motors, batteries, and wires, can permit research-
ers to execute micro/nano-actuators as well as smart
devices. Opportunities for 4D printing can be found in
different applications, for instance, biomedical devices,
drug delivery systems, homeland security, manufactur-
ing of precisely patterned surfaces regarding optics,
electronic devices, foldable unmanned aerial vehicles,
artificial muscles, grippers, structures alongside multi-
directional qualities, and soft actuators, sensors, and
controllers [30]. Since 4D-printing technology evolves,
further applications are expected to develop in forthcom-
ing years.
2 Materials involved in 4D‑printing
processes
Numerous progress has been accomplished in the area of
4D-printing processes. Several of this progress is based
on the material structures, the shape-changing perfor-
mances of materials, and how materials sustain its perfor-
mance in contact with various external stimuli. The two
classifications for newly progressed 4D-printing materials
are single materials and multiple materials.
2.1 4D printing involving single materials
How “smart” material affects is a crucial aspect of the
printed product, which potentially will comprise a single
or mixture of smart and conventional materials. Self-sens-
ing and shape memory are the characteristics that can be
found in some smart materials [31]. The majority of existing
industrialized 4D-printed materials contain shape-memory
alloys (SMAs), for example, copper–aluminum–nickel
and nickel–titanium (NiTi) [32]; shape-memory polymers
(SMPs) include (meth)acrylates, polyurethanes, and blends
of polyurethane (PEEK, PET) and polyvinyl chloride [33];
and active smart nanocomposites, such as lead–zirco-
nate–titanate, hydrogel, carbon fibers, and glass fibers [34].
Piezoelectric materials are a specific choice of smart mate-
rial that generally yields an electrical voltage while conduct-
ing a peripheral load and vice versa. Many industries use
piezoelectric material-based devices for their products, such
as energy accumulators, actuators, and transducers [35].
Manufacturing a 3D structure for a piezoelectric polymer is
complex and requires some improvements for the manufac-
turability of piezoelectric polymers [34]. The central extent
of the shape-memory effect (SME) is the modification of
thermal energy into mechanical energy, that is satisfied by
SMA [36]. SMA material’s physical changes can occur in
two stages: low and high temperature. The SMA modifies
its shape in the low-temperature stage and inverts its shape
throughout the high-temperature period, which is considered
an SME [36, 37]. Furthermore, SMPs stand for single smart
materials, which have excellent structured characteristics
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that respond to stimuli; they transmute their shape through
the method of external impulses, including magnetic field,
temperature, moisture, and light [38, 39]. These types of
smart materials have a few disadvantages when paired with
SMAs [31]. They are low in strength, working transition
temperature, and Young’s modulus. The benefits of SMP
materials are that they are low cost and low density with a
directly controllable working temperature.
SMP materials have a perfect structure that responds to
stimuli; they shape their shape by external impulses, includ-
ing temperature, humidity, magnetic field, and light [38, 39].
These categories of smart materials have drawbacks in the
context of MAS [31]. The benefits of SMP materials are low
cost, density, and comfortable operating temperature control.
Table 2 lists the development of 4D printing involving single
smart materials.
2.2 4D printing involving multiple materials
The presence of the 3D-printing method plays a primary
aspect in designing constituents with multiple materials.
Material jetting 3D-printing technology is the furthermost
effective beneficial technology utilized for multi-material
printing. Actuators are one kind of 4D-printed multi-mate-
rial element recommended for the performance of soft robots
[40]. Electroactive polymers (EAPs) are samples of smart
soft materials. Many of these materials could certainly
convert the energy of electrical into mechanical [41]. Self-
progress materials are an additional instance of 4D-printed
multi-materials. Exposition of water, while they shift into
their pre-built shape, and these materials are prepared with
hydrophilic polymers that absorb water to swell, possibly
twice the size of the original volume. Active origami is
another illustration of 4D-printed multi-materials. These
materials promote the deployment of large objects into small
volumes, such as airbags in automobiles, and photovoltaic
Table 2  Examples of 4D printing with smart single materials and multi-materials
Material/composite Printing method
Smart single materials
 SMPs—polyurethanes (PEEK, PET) Material jetting
 Soybean oil Vat photopolymerization Temperature over time
Epoxidized acrylate
 SMAs—nickel–titanium (NiTi) Powder bed fusion
Barium titanate nanoparticles Vat photopolymerization Electrical charge with applied stress
Polyethylene glycol diacrylate matrix
Smart multi-materials
 Composite of quantum dot suspension Material jetting
 Hydrophilic polymeric composite, and rigid material Material jetting
 Multilateral shape-memory polymer (TangoBlack Material jetting
plus and VeroWhitePlus)
 Dielectric elastomeric composite, and rigid material Material jetting
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Progress in Additive Manufacturing
solar cells in the panels due to its ability to change the shape
[42]. Recently, there are more progressions accomplished in
the medical field using 4D printing, which is often related to
4D bio-printing approach and laser aided bio-printing [43].
The demand increment in need of transplantable organs
and to obtain several biological operations, which brought
to choose multi-material as a way to switch strategies for
designing and assembling associated biological materials
which include tissues, molecules, cells, and biodegradable
biomaterials with particular planner called bio-printing [44,
45]. The premier advantages of bio-printing hold a high
level of precision in sensing the different cells to generate
high-density cell tissue. The fabrication of smart hydrogels
is a supplemental group of 4D bio-printing [46], in which
the multi-material provides a capability to react to external
stimuli, including light, magnetic field temperature, and pH
[47]. Table 2 shows the development of 4D-printing smart
multi-materials.
3 4D‑printing applications
Mostly all applications suitable by 4D printing can be cat-
egorized into three various classes as self-assembly, self-
adaptability, and self-repair [22]. 4D printing assists the
advantages of 3D printing and additionally contributes to
new changing abilities. 4D-printing technology can change
the present business community. The self-changing ability
material heads the choice to a wide selection of applica-
tions in several industries. The 4D-printing process merged
along 3D printing provides the foundation for revolutionary
business preparation that could function and challenge in
the modern business industry, which facilitates to dimin-
ish the capital restriction, enhance time efficiency, a lesser
portion of space for inventory appropriation and aggregated
External stimuli References
Temperature, magnetic fields, light, and moisture [38]
[39]
Temperature [32]
[34]
Quantum dots captivate UV light [48]
Volume of hydrophilic [49]
Polymer increases when exposed to water [49]
Temperature [50]
Progress in Additive Manufacturing
productivity of the business [51]. Various application fields
are demonstrated in the next sections.
3.1 Medical field
Various capabilities of SMPs, including self-healing and
memory consequences, are a couple of primary reasons for
the application of 4D printing through the medical field.
Each one of these characteristics is a convenient remedy to
the modern-day concerns in human health and settled by
SMPs. Along with these, SMPs are correspondingly rep-
resenting the medical equipment. Because of the services
of 4D-printing developments are in methodology to reduce
the current strength in specific attributes. The implants of
a specialized 4D-printed framework fabricate on the design
and combination of the right material that complements
the conditions of human anatomy. Recently, a 4D tracheal
stent was made of polycaprolactone resins, and almost all
the mechanical tests were performed [52]. Stable bone
prosthesis, self-tightening surgical sutures, oral prosthetics,
biomedical scaffolds, 4D-printed hearing aids, and precise
surgical devices are in the present and future extent of 4D
printing. The future of 4D printing tends to comprise all
sorts of implants and reconstructive surgery with little intru-
sion [53].
3.2 Aerospace industry
SMAs, along with other active materials, have a broader
presence in improving the design and overall performance
of aircraft in the aerospace field by shrinking complications
when compared to present ones. Generally, in most of the
applications of SMAs, temperature variation is the crucial
stimulus towards shape-changing. 4D-printed materials are
usually a finer substitution for alternative component with
different material options [54]. Even further inclusion of
SMAs generally extended in the fields of fixed-wing air-
craft, rotorcraft, and spacecraft. Skylar Tibbits from MIT,
along with the team from Airbus, worked together to build
a 4D-printed air inlet part. The partnership with Airbus
manufactured new air inlet, which automatically controls
the airflow and cools the engine [55]. The latest development
of 4D printing for ceramics is acquiring new applications
specifically to be the propulsion element of aerospace along
with electronic devices. 4D-printing technology will support
the devices to accommodate and execute complicated tasks
successfully [56].
3.3 Fashion industry
Issues and elevated needs of flexibility in apparel, footwear,
and jewelry provided new fashion outlines along with the
access of SMPs and SMAs. The functionality of shrinking
and stretching on the influence of temperature variation
caused by weather generated the inspiration of altering
clothes for weather change directing to personal satisfac-
tion. Water-resistive cloths even selected the thin sheets of
various SMPs joined with an adhesive material to offer the
needed cause. Plenty of studies has been released until now,
with the varieties and systems of SMPs and SMAs utilized
in several different processes in apparel [57].
3.4 Construction field
Thus far, we can discover different applications of SMPs
depending on their unique capabilities to make the building
adaptive, eco-friendly, convenient alongside energy sav-
ings. Besides, 4D printing will assist in constructing build-
ings with significant sustainability, productivity, maximum
energy savings, and eco-friendly from minimal lead time
[25]. The smart water pipeline approach relies on pipeline
diameter changes and water pressure, which either shrinks or
expands. Discovering the functionalities of 4D printing with
engineered living materials system allows for revolution-
ary modifications in militaristic strategies and development
in isolated places utilizing self-repair and self-adaptability
materials subjected to extreme conditions [58]. Nevertheless,
we have not glanced at 4D printing in the concrete industry,
but many studies can consider with its bright future [59].
4 Current status of 4D‑printing research
In this part, a compilation of current research studies on 4D
printing was reviewed by prioritizing research efforts based
on activation stimuli. Table 3 reviews the research summary
for 4D printing, as well as their mechanical properties and
industrial applications. Based on a summary of recent work
in this field, and roots that help to progress 4D-printing tech-
nology as a valuable aid for advanced manufacturing and
prototyping.
Baker et al. studied a new 4D-printing technique capable
of generating a diverse selection of trilayer structures. The
subsequent developments transform from flat 2D parts to
3D structures via submersion in water and revert to their
original design via dehydration process [60]. Noroozi et al.
developed self-bending/morphing/rolling constructs using
PLA via functionally graded 4D printing and revealed their
thermo-mechanical behaviors by a finite-element software.
Teoh et al. examined cross-folding structures utilizing
multi-material components with different axes and different
horizontal hinge thickness together with one homogeneous
material. For a single-material structure, the authors con-
ducted a series of tests along with different folding lines
as well as hinge thickness for the multi-folding process.
The authors reported that the structures, along with smaller
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Table 3  Recent research summary on 4D-printing materials including their properties

Year Printing method Materials Mechanical and thermal properties of final material Application Refer-
ences

13
2018 Low-cost desktop mate- Origami-inspired Hydrogel and elastomer layer thicknesses of 0.4 mm and skin gap sizes between 1 and 5 mm, mountain and valley Curved-layer tool path to enable buckling [60]
rial extrusion machine structure folds with actuation angles of between 43°–191° and 32°–136° domes, the cylindrical or inflatable print
Elastomer: NinjaFlex bed
85A
Hydrogel: TecophilicTM
TPU (HP-93A-100)
2019 Material extrusion Polylactic acid (PLA) The structure heated up 65 °C to bend the sheet along the central line with different angles and deformed into a Practical self-morphing/rolling structures [61]
filaments conical panel
2019 Material jetting printer Elastomer: Tango +  Elastomer and the glassy polymer layered composite have higher Young’s modulus. Cubic frame directly assem- Exploited bending, coiling deformations, [62]
Glassy polymer: Viro bled upon heating to 65 °C. Buckyball and helix-shaped composite directly transformed from a planar rod mesh and their interactions
upon heating
2018 Material jetting: Objet500 DM8530 Young’s modulus Architectural, kinetic frontage and deploy- [42]
Connex3 printer DM8510 VW and DM8510: 1004 MPa able space structures
DM8510 and DM850: 914 MPa
DM8520 and DM8530: 770 MPa
Poisson ratio
DM8520 VW and DM8510: 0.5
VeroWhitePlus (VW) DM8510 and DM850: 0.5
DM8520 and DM8530: 0.5

2018 New creator pro desktop Polyurethane-based Young’s modulus Structural switches, self-confirming splints [63]
3D printer SMP filaments Glassy phase: 1660 MPa self-conforming substrates, and self-
Rubbery phase: 3.3 MPa coiling stents
Poisson ratio
Glassy phase: 0.35
Rubbery phase: 0.4
2017 Laser scanning vat tBA-co-DEGDA Young’s modulus at Tg Dynamic configurable parts, inexpensive [64]
photopolymerization network tBA-co-DEGDA network: 1.66 MPa and customized molds
process UV cross-linking of tBA Glass transition temperature
monomers tBA-co-DEGDA network: 53.96 °C
Young’s modulus at T < Tg
DEGDA cross-linkers tBA-co-DEGDA network: 230 MPa
Glass transition temperature
tBA-co-DEGDA network: 53.96 °C

2017 UV-LED vat photopolym- Methacrylate polycapro-
erization printer lactone precursor
Photoinitiator: 2,4,6-tri-
methylbenzoyl-diphe-
nylphosphineoxide
Melting temperature Biomedical devices to myriad clinical [65]
Methacrylate polycaprolactone precursor: 55 °C. The parameters for shape-memory behavior for a printed sample indications
with a degree of methacrylation of 88%, the Rf was 99% and Rr was 98%, after three cycles. The printed
PCL construct functions as a typical hard and tough polymer material below the melting temperature and as a
Hookean elastomer above the melting temperature
Progress in Additive Manufacturing
 Table 3  (continued)
Year Printing method Materials Mechanical and thermal properties of final material Application Refer-
ences

2017 Material extrusion printer Polyether-based polyure- For the hydrogel at pH 2 (with water content of 68%), the tensile strength σb, elongation at break εb, and Young’s Temperature-sensitive functionality [66]
thane hydrogel modulus E were 1321 ± 221, 4.31 ± 0.65, and 912 ± 70 kPa, respectively. In comparison, σb, εb, and E were
717 ± 112, 3.49 ± 0.80, and 580 ± 44 kPa, respectively, for the hydrogels equilibrated at pH 6 (WC 81 ± 1%)
Monomer: 2-hydroxy- The prepared sample was pH-sensitive, exhibited high extensibility
ethyl methacrylate
or N-isopropyl
acrylamide

UV initiator:
Progress in Additive Manufacturing

α-ketoglutaric acid

Cross-linking agent:
N,N′-methylene
bisacrylamide
2017 Material jetting printer Shape-memory poly- Young’s modulus Myriad technology [67]
meric composite fibers Elastomeric matrix: 1 MPa at 15 °C
in an elastomeric Fibers: 3.3 MPa at 60 °C, 13.3 MPa at 15 °C
matrix Glass transition temperature
Elastomeric matrix: 5 °C
Fibers: 35 °C
2016 Objet 3D printer—com- Multi-shape-memory Shape-memory effects in the temperature range between ~ 20 and ~ 70 °C Commercial purpose [68]
bination of two base polymeric composite The fiber is activated to bend when the temperature is increased. By tuning the volume fraction of the fibers,
materials to produce fibers in an elasto- bending deformation can be controlled. The deformation behavior for better understanding the phenomena
digital materials with meric matrix and aiding the design that can be programmed to fold and open themselves when subjected to heat 3D-printed
various component Elastomeric matrix: composite strips are connected at the ends
ratios TangoBlack
Fiber: DM8530,
DM9895
2016 Vat photopolymerization Polycaprolactone (PCL) Melting temperature Soft robotics, flexible electronics, medical [38]
Photoinitiator: 2,4,6-tri- Polycaprolactone (PCL): 60 °C devices
methylbenzoyl-diphe- Young’s Modulus: 230 MPa decreasing as the crystalline fraction drops
nylphosphineoxide Effectiveness of cross-links was greater than 93% and crystallite shape fixing performance was greater than 98%,
demonstrating excellent shape-memory behavior
2016 The homogenous yellow Soybean oil epoxidized Glass transition temperature Various functional tissue [39]
solution used as ink for acrylate Soybean: 20 °C. At a laser frequency of 8000 Hz, the thickness and width decreased dramatically to about 78% of
3D printing and printed Ciba Irgacure 819 the highest thickness and width
via vat photopolymeri-
zation with a tabletop
system
2016 Direct write printing Crystallized polylactic Glass transition temperature: PLA: 74.5 °C Soft robotics, flexible electronics, mini- [69]
of ink acid (c-PLA) com- c-PLA: 66 °C mally invasive medicine
posite c-PLA/Fe3O4: 71 °C
Polylactic acid (PLA) PLA, c-PLA, and c-PLA/Fe3O4 have excellent shape fixed behavior with a shape fixed ratio above 90%. The shape
recovery ratio increased from 91.42% for PLA to 99.02% and 95.14% for cPLA and c-PLA/Fe3O4, respectively
Benzophenone and
­Fe3O4 nanoparticles
Dichloromethane
(DCM)

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Table 3  (continued)
Year Printing method Materials Mechanical and thermal properties of final material Application Refer-
ences

13
2016 Rhinoceros 3D Printer Polylactic acid (PLA) Glass transition temperature Multipart graded scaffolds for tissue [70]
Smart polymer: − 8 °C, 9 °C, 21 °C, 35 °C, 0 °C engineering
Polycaprolactone triol Shape-memory tests revealed that the smart polymers display finely tunable recovery speed and exhibit greater
and hexamethylene than 92% shape fixing at − 18 °C or 0 °C and full shape recovery at physiological temperature
diisocyanate with
castor oil
2016 3D printer—use of Wood-derived cellulose Young’s modulus: Designated to shape-shifting architectures [71]
viscoelastic ink composite Wood-derived cellulose composite: E > 100 GPa for tissue engineering, biomedical
Nanofibrillated cellulose Programmable fabricated devices in the medical industry
Plant-inspired architectures that change shape on immersion in water, yielding complex three-dimensional mor-
Nanoclay phologies
Monomer: N,N-dimethyl
acrylamide
Photoinitiator: Irgacure
2959
Oxygen scavengers:
glucose and glucose
oxidase
2016 3D polymer printer (Mak- Polylactic acid (PLA) Printed composite sheet transforms into 3D configuration when cooled Solar cells, drug delivery, packaging, robot [72]
erBot Replicator 2) composite sheet Down to room temperature. The 3D structure can recover its initial flat shape reversibly under heating, since the actuator, and biological devices
Formation of the final 3D structure is due to the thermal elastic deformation during the cooling process
2016 3D printer Wood-reinforced bio- Young’s modulus Self-bending devices that stimulate in a [73]
composite 0° Compressed: 4000 MPa moisture
Matrix: polylactic 0° 100% width: 2300 MPa
acid (PLA) and 0° 200% width: 2000 MPa
poly(hydroxy 0° 300% width: 1400 MPa
alkanoates) 90° Compressed: 3750 MPa
90° 100% width: 1600 MPa
Fiber: 40 wt% wood or 90° 200% width: 1500 MPa
coconut 90° 300% width: 750 MPa
2016 3D printer 3D-printed pH-respon- N/A Production of flow-regulating devices and [74]
sive hydrogels catalytic supports
3D-printed poly(2-vinyl
pyridine)
12 wt% acrylonitrile-
butadienestyrene
(ABS)
2015 Customized vat photopo- Poly(dimethylsiloxane)- Membrane of radius = 5 mm deflects by y = 204 μm at P = 2.9 psi, which is a required amount of deflection for the Robotic pipettors or tedious manual [75]
lymerization 3D printer molded microdevices application pipetting
Rigid membrane
Poly(dimethylsiloxane)
2015 3D-bioplotter system Alginate/PNIPAAm Blocked stress Hydrogel sensors, soft robots and self- [76]
ionic covalent entan- 10% of NiPAAm: 10.2 kPa at 20 °C and 590 kPa at 60 °C assembling structures
glement hydrogels 15% of NiPAAm: 17.3 kPa at 20 °C and 770 kPa at 60 °C
20% of NiPAAm: 20.9 kPa at 20 °C and 930 kPa at 60 °C
By modifying the amount of thermally responsive PNIPAAm network in the hydrogels, the gels showed reversible
length changes of 41–49% when heated and cooled between 20 and 60 °C. Blocked stresses generated in tension
were in the range of 10–21 kPa
Progress in Additive Manufacturing
 Progress in Additive Manufacturing

thicknesses, retrieved first independent of the folding cycle.

Refer-
ences
Considering multi-material systems, merging multi-material

[77]

[48]

[78]
components with different axes affected the greatest strain as

Targeting specific military and commercial

well as Young’s modulus of the composite material, while

Deployable biomedical devices, and self-

the effect on ultimate tensile strength was varied [42].
Medicine, anthropology, and design

Bodaghi et al. investigated triple shape-memory polymers

by the use of 4D-printing technology and shape adaptive
structures with self-bending characteristics. The idea was
assembling robots
based on the hot–cold programming with the FDM print-
ing method to design triple-shaped memory polymers. Tests
Application

uncovered that the printed shape-memory polymers have

an elastoplastic reaction at low temperatures while it acts
hyper-flexibly at high temperatures in the large deformation
regimen [63].
Mechanical testing of composites made from such texturing inks showed that the magnetic alignment of 15 wt%

The self-transformation due to the properties of the material and design geometric mechanisms. The repeatability
Final printed material via proper ink formulation to programme the desired shape changes into the 3D objects.

(4.4 vol%) of platelets in the tensile loading direction increases the strength and elastic modulus by 49% and

Choong et al. manufactured complex geometry parts with

of the transformation due to wetting and the reversibility due to drying. The mechanical degradation due to

a photopolymer using SLA and analyzed the shape-memory

behavior of the parts. The result reveals that the material
repeated folding/unfolding and degradation of the expanding material due to wetting/drying cycles

can reach a high curing rate as well as precise printing that

is expected from the SLA process. In terms of mechanical
strength, printed parts are equivalent statistically to indus-
trial SMPs, and shape-memory tests demonstrated incred-
ible shape-memory execution with the higher sturdiness
of > 20 shape-memory cycles when compared to the current
4D-printed parts [64].
Zarek et al. analyzed series of medical imaging behaviors
to design a printable shape-memory endoluminal device,
characterized by a tracheal stent. Based on the anatomical
information, a methacrylate polycaprolactone precursor with
Mechanical and thermal properties of final material

a molecular weight of 10,000 g ­mol−1 was printed along

with a UV-LED stereolithography printer. The 4D-printed
stent developed successfully with overcoming the two draw-
backs includes that (1) personalized stent pairs the colon-
nade structure and the positioning of the cartilaginous rings
so that it will reduce relocations as well as a frequent reason
of tracheal stent failure, and (2) low silhouette of the shrunk
52%, respectively

SMP structure allows a less damaging deployment [65].

Naficy and his colleagues developed pH-sensitive poly-
ether-based polyurethane and poly(acrylic acid) hydrogels
N/A

with the thickness in the range of 20–570 μm. The results

reveal that the volume of the hydrogel changed when the pH
SMP composite fibers in
an elastomeric matrix
Photoinitiator: Irgacure
Fumed silica particles
Polyurethane acrylate

is about 4. The tensile extensibilities of the hydrogel were

Hydrophilic acrylate

Elastomeric matrix:
Composite particle

Vinyl caprolactam

Epoxy diacrylate

found about 350%. Furthermore, depending on the pH level,

Fiber: Gray 60
TangoBlack
Polyethylene
monomers

Irgacure 819

average tensile strength and young modulus were found in

oligomer
Materials

the scale of 715–1320 and 580–910 kPa, respectively, after

819

tensile loading and unloading hydrogel demonstrated 100%

extension with the slight damage during quick healing,
magnetically responsive
printer—inks consist of

liquid resin of tunable

Material jetting printer

Material jetting printer

which is up to 75–85% of the initial loading cycle [66].

anisotropic particles
in a light-sensitive

Wei et al. generated a 4D active shape-changing con-

Printing method
Table 3  (continued)

Customized 3D

composition

structs via direct-write printing of PLA-based inks followed

up by UV cross-linking. The outcomes show that by the
presentation of a UV cross-linking agent, the printed objects
present a great shape-memory conduct, which empow-
2015

2014

2014
Year

ers three-dimensional (3D)–one-dimensional (1D)–3D,

13

3D–two-dimensional (2D)–3D, and 3D–3D–3D arrange-
ment changes [69].
Furthermore, another biomedical study investigated the
4D printing of biomimetic gradient tissue scaffolds along
with highly biocompatible polymers which were prepared
through castor oil mixed with polycaprolactone triol and
a cross-linking agent (e.g., hexamethylene diisocyanate or
poly(hexamethylene diisocyanate)). The test result exhibits
that the compression modulus and surface hydrophobicity
of synthesized polymers is close to polycaprolactone, also
it shows outstanding shape-memory effects together with
various recovery speeds at a physiological temperature from
a fixed transitory shape. By the desired porosity and shape-
memory outcome, this study will open up new possibilities
in the tissue engineering applications [70].
Nadgorny et  al. studied on 3D printing of hot-melt
extruded poly(2vinylpyridine) (P2VP) and its thermal and
rheological characterizations. The test results indicated
that as a reinforcement, 12 wt% ABS addition into P2VP
improved the mechanical as well as processing perfor-
mances. The 3D-printed components show dynamic and
reversible pH-dependent swelling [74].
Raviv et al. presented a novel technique for simulating
as well as manufacturing self-advancing structures that
can transform into a determined shape, changing property
and capacity after the production [49]. This study provides
the test of self-evolving complex structures. Conventional
mechanical methods for stretching, bending, and folding
are supplanted by expanding printed materials. The authors
demonstrated that a strong surface could be programmed
to detect the environment and effectively self-deform [48].
Bakarich et  al. manufactured a temperature-sensitive
valve made of hydrogels, which have been used in 4D print-
ing because of its high strength and reversible volume pro-
cess because of the surrounding environmental changes.
Alginate/poly (N-isopropyl acrylamide) (PNIPAAm) inks
were developed for manufacturing the valve at an operating
temperature from 20 to 60 °C. The valve’s flow has reduced
due to changing length from 41 to 49% at 60 °C, and the
glass transition temperature of the valve from 32 to 35 °C
[76]. Ge et al. manufactured PAC hinges using SMP fib-
ers of a material called Gray 60 and with a glass transi-
tion temperature of 47 °C. The bending angle of the PAC
hinge was restrained, concerning the strain change and hinge
length was attained for a 10 mm long hinge [78]. Using the
SMP’s thermal reaction, more than two shape changes can
be obtained as the temperature rises. Wu et al. produced
composite materials with various SMP fibers. In this study,
two fibers were selected with glass transition temperatures of
57 °C and 38 °C. The matrix was manufactured with Tango-
Black + , which has a low glass transition temperature value
among the materials used. The fibers were extruded into a
matrix made up of two-layer composites [68].
13
Progress in Additive Manufacturing
The PAC concept was used in biomedical scaffolds man-
ufactured with a vat photopolymerization printing method
mounted by Miao et al. Given the biocompatibility of the
biomedical scaffolding, polymerized soybean oil acrylate
was utilized as a repeating element for the SMP thermal
reaction. A UV laser initiated the polymerization procedure,
and the laser frequency causes the degree of polymerization.
The printed object consisted of a polymer-based on soybean
oil, which restored its original shape at 37 °C [39]. Au et al.
used fluid flow pressure to manufacture an automatic con-
trol valve using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). The flow is
monitored by a 3D-printed material, which transformed its
state to the pressure-induced through the flow, which was
made of flexible PDMS with Young’s modulus of ~ 2 MPa,
as a substitute for smart materials, includes hydrogels or
hydro-reactive SMP. Lacking the usage of SMP, Au et al.
prepared smart objects with 3D printing. pH-sensitive poly-
mers are determined for the drug delivery systems to dif-
ferentiate healthy and sick cells. Since healthy cancer cells
do not become eminent from conservative anticancer drugs,
an SMP reaction in temperature or pH has been used in the
drug delivery systems [75].
Bodaghi et al. showed that actuating units using different
SMP fibers could be flexibly fabricated. Anisotropy-based
expansion and contraction were obtained during the printing.
The authors have produced flat and cylindrical shapes made
up of periodically placed actuating units. The rubbery stage
would be foremost above the glass transition temperature,
and the primary mechanism of actuation depends on cau-
tiously placed SMP fibers at low and high temperatures [49].
Xu et al. established a new polybutadiene rubber func-
tionalized by the thermal reaction. The hydrogel is treated
in a spiral structure, and when heated to 60 °C, it becomes a
transient mold. Poly (N-isopropyl acrylamide) is a thermally
sensitive material, in which the polymeric chains converted
to hydrophilic once the ambient temperature drops below
the critical temperature of the solution [43]. Zhang et al.
utilized the benefits of the 3D-printing method described to
produce low cost, lightweight heat-responsive 3D objects.
The scholars printed the polylactic acid (PLA) strips in place
of a thermal response layer on a solid piece on a venous
structure, cut the printed sheet to six-petal shape. The cut
bilayer piece is rolled up as a flowing shape under thermal
stimulation. These lightweight structures can be applied to
adaptive metamaterials, the bandgap of which may change
as a result of the transformation of the lattice structure by
the appropriate thermal stimulation [72].
Ding et al. industrialized another method to produce the
shape change of 3D-printed materials. Unlike other printed
SMPs, the printed form is transient, and the solid form forms
over time and temperature. When producing a rigid double-
layer SMP of an elastomer, the coefficient of thermal expan-
sion of the material has doubled the material to bend. An
Progress in Additive Manufacturing
internal compression tension imprinted on the elastomer part
is created, which is measured using the layer printing time
and curing time. After leaving the printing base tray, the
3D-printed part retains its form until it warms up above the
glass transition temperature, it becomes its automated shape.
An increase in temperature decreases the internal strain in
part. This process has several benefits over the others, which
makes it possible to print and store a custom structure. The
single rod can be converted into frames so that the enabling
assemblies can be much higher than the printing base tray.
It also saves a lot of time and materials by printing the parts
in flat packaging that can be converted [62].
Duigou et al., using FDM, biocomposites made from
natural fibers were printed with a two-layer microstructure.
A water gradient stimulates bilayer biocomposites. The
thickness of the print controls rigidity and swelling capac-
ity because of the transformations in the porosity of micro-
structure. Increasing the thickness of the filament improved
porosity, but reduced cohesion between the selected materi-
als, which lowered tensile stress and improved water absorp-
tion rates [73]. Kokkinis et al. have printed smart key con-
nectors that were changed due to the stimulus loads. The
3D-printed portions contain double layers that swell during
exposure to a specific solvent and use the method with mag-
netic support to check the alignment of the particles using
rigid anisotropic particles in the liquid resin. Before the UV
curing, a weak magnetic field is projected to the 3D-printed
layer. Wei and others have introduced ­Fe3O4 magnetic iron
oxide nanoparticles within the SMP. These nanoparticles are
heated at a distance by alternating magnetic fields, permit-
ting the self-healing progression to distort the 4D transfor-
mation, and expertly printed PLA nanocomposite ink with
direct writing technology and has created a self-expanding
intravascular stent that can be magnetically controlled and
operated remotely [77].
4D printing has turned out to be mainstream since it
offers numerous advantages in a single piece with one-time
production. Researchers have investigated the functions of
many shapes. Unlike 3D printing, 4D printing depends on
building a 2D structure with lots of stress. For example,
upon heating, the stress is discharged, and the structure
additionally develops with period into 3D. Such procedures
conquer the average layer-by-layer printing impediment.
Current 4D-printing techniques depend on limited control
of the anisotropic filler direction in a polymer lattice to cre-
ate pressure. Such a successive procedure naturally restricts
its speed, even with the way that it overlooks the long mul-
tilayer development in the z-direction. Materials and proce-
dures empower the printing of multi-dimensional responsive
polymers, together with hydrogels and SMPs. Below are the
examples of various collection of 4D-printing components
using the various impacts of external stimuli.
Ge et al. demonstrated self-folding changes from 2D level
sheets to 3D shapes instantly, which incorporate a function-
ing origami box, and planes (Fig. 4a, b). The thermal energy
activates these shape-moving practices in the standard
shape-memory cycles through the customary programming
and regaining steps [78].
Mao et al. coordinated SMPs and hydrogels into a 3D
engineering form to make parts that can switch among two
firm arrangements reversibly [81]. The idea was shown in
a trilayer strip with a reversible twisting actuation behavior
(Fig. 4c). Further sophisticated designs consist of a macro-
structure and a lotus flower formation shown in Fig. 4d,
e. Figure 4f demonstrates the self-folding structures. The
printed structure was transformed into a flat piece (unlocked)
at 90 °C, and then cooled down to 10 °C where the flat
shape is sustained. After this programming stage, the opened
structure is submerged in water at 90 °C, and the regaining
process is observed from both top and side, as appeared in
Fig. 4f.
To provide flexibility in printed part geometries while
keeping the processing time short, new approach was
developed, which is called ultrafast 4D printing. Huang at
el. avoided layer upon layer development in the z-direction
and would instead print on a 2D level flat sheet of a cross-
linked hydrophilic poly(HEMA) from light initiation using
the projector and a glass mold (Fig. 5a) [83]. Advanced con-
trol of the UV light exposure time by individual pixel level
inside the 2D film empowered the production of a pixelated
polymer coordinated with spatially variables of monomer
transformation (Fig. 5b). Following submersion in water,
an inner pressure was made because of the growing differ-
entiation among the pixels, transforming the level sheet into
a recommended 3D design (Fig. 5c). Constraints related to
the geometry of the 3D structures can be correctly modified
by the exposure outline (Fig. 5d). Relying on the light pat-
tern, an assortment of 3D shapes can be fabricated (Fig. 5e).
Through the appropriate decision of the UV monomer
framework, different responsive boosts can be developed as
the 3D-printed hydrogel structure. Figure 5f demonstrates
that a 3D-printed shape can additionally transform into
another 3D shape as soon as the ionic quality is reformed.
Ding et al. studied on a direct SMP-based 4D-printing
method, where the controlling stages were incorporated with
the printing step [67]. The printed segment could straight-
forwardly change its shape due to warming and omitting
the added post-process of thermo-mechanical programming.
An elastomer was printed with SMP to produce a laminated
strip. The printed elastomer layer comprised a compressive
strain that was constrained via the material structure and
parameters of printing involving curing light intensity along
with the photocuring period. The compressive strain was
developed in the flat laminate and sealed with the SMP due
to the robust bonding of the elastomer to the SMP. Following
13
 Progress in Additive Manufacturing

Fig. 4  A collection of 4D-printed components/structures which schematic diagram of reversible actuation device wherein SMP and
change under the impact of external stimuli [79, 79]. a, b Various elastomer layers confine a hydrogel; d, e self-folding time responsive
active origami assemblies were created which are assembled and macro-structure and lotus flower [81]; f plane and side view compari-
folded as flat sheets, such as a box and origami airplanes [81]; c son of experiments and simulations of time responsive folding [82]

the printing process, the temperature was elevated over the can be accessed involving a helix, 3D dome and flower con-
Tg of the SMP, and the implicit compressive strain was tain many petals by various curvatures (Fig. 5h–j).
released, which was set off to arrange a perpetual bending Gladman et al. studied the 2D-to-3D bending and twisting
shape (Fig. 5g). Different kinds of intricate 3D shapes that property along with the intricate flower morphologies, which

13
Progress in Additive Manufacturing
Fig. 5  4D printing by digitally defined transformation and direct 4D
printing through built-in stress [68, 80, 83]. Digitally defined trans-
formation steps include the following: a printing arrangement; b spa-
tial chemical heterogeneity resulting as of digitally programmed light
exposure; c the planar sheet through patterned circles swollen into
cap shape; d 2D layout geometry of printed part; e adaptability of
was formed through the biomimetic 4D-printing technology
exhibited in Fig. 6a–g [71]. This shape-shifting performance
happened primarily due to the transformations in swelling
proportions of active materials submerged.
Figure 7 displays a compilation of 4D studies. Zhang et al.
(2016) established 2D-to-3D self-bending action via generat-
ing a flower kind construction as revealed in Fig. 7a–c [72].
This intricate structure was generated via cutting paper into
the flowerlike 3D structure. In this shape-shifting behavior,
the heat was used as a stimulus. The shape-shifting activity
was facilitated through various thermal expansion coeffi-
cients of the active as well as non-active materials.
From the prior mechanism, the external load is not com-
prised in the cycle of the unconstrained-thermo-mechanics
system, where two temperatures are essential [22]. One is
more significant than the critical temperature associated
printing includes face, buckled structure; f 3D-printed part shifting its
shape underneath specific stimulation [68]. The following steps gen-
erate 4D printing by built-in internal stress: g printing progression;
h–j different structures that 3D printed in a misshapen formation and
deployed upon exposure to heat [79]
with the structure (TH > TC), and the other one is lesser
than the critical temperature (TL < TC). As appeared in
Fig. 7d, the printed arrangement was first heated to TH.
The cycle at that point begins at TH and continues in an
accompanying way. In the first place, the first arrangement
was cooled to TL, where the ideal shape was accomplished
toward the finish of this progression. At that point, the
structure can be warmed to TH to recoup its unique shape.
In this component, the external stimuli were temperature.
As shown in Fig. 7e, Jiang, and Wang constructed elas-
tomer metamaterials, which could utilize as per reversible
shape-shifting connectors. External mechanical loadings
facilitate shape-shifting behavior. These materials could
be employed by the 4D method to join parts for flexible
twisting or else bending [22].
13
 Progress in Additive Manufacturing

Fig. 6  The flower morpholo-

gies produced by biomimetic
4D printing. Basic flowers
comprised of a and b bilayers
oriented by the long axis of
separate petal, with time-lapse
series of the flowers through
the swelling method (c) printed
construction (d) and resultant
swollen construction (e) of
a flower exhibiting a variety
of morphologies (f). Due to
the fact of the print route, this
orchid design shows four unique
structures, including bending,
twisting as well as ruffling
corolla nearby the main funnel-
like realm [22, 71]

Jamal et al. demonstrated a shape adjustment for tissue
engineering use wherein a 2D bio-origami planar outline
transformed to a 3D form rely on the self-bending process
(Fig. 7f, g) [84]. Ge et al. offered a method for printing
multi-material SMPs along with a high resolution which
was equal to fewer microns [78], where the methodology
was facilitated via a high-resolution projection micro-ste-
reolithography (PμSL) additive manufacturing approach in
conjunction through an automatic material exchange mecha-
nism (Fig. 7h).
Gladman et al. developed a model that can predict final
curvature via the print path and facilitate through bio 4D
printing to replicate the intricate curvature of calla lily
flower (Fig. 8a) [71]. The design empowers the interpreta-
tion of a complex 3D surface (Fig. 8b) into the two-layered
print way (Fig. 8d) vital to accomplish this shape utiliz-
ing just the local curvatures (Fig. 8c), swelling proportion,
elastic constants as well as the size of the structure. The
great understanding among the last 3D shape, determined
hypothetically (Fig. 8e) and printed tentatively (Fig. 8f),
shows the exceptional sway on smooth slopes in curvature
and the resulting capability to produce shapes that are nearly
unfeasible to generate via any other technique.
5 Challenges for 4D printing
4D printing has an inspiring future since it has the potential
to eliminate numerous industrial obstacles. This technology
has various advantages; however, the challenges aligned
with positive implementations and usage are correspond-
ingly expressed. These challenges could be corresponding
to materials, design, or technology. Considering the tech-
nology-related challenges, the poor accessibility and irrel-
evancy of manufacturing technology is a significant chal-
lenge in the 4D-printing field [85]. Presently, there is an
inadequate amount of AM printing technologies that fit for
4D printing. Commonly, only two major AM technologies

13
Progress in Additive Manufacturing

Fig. 7  Flower designed a 4D structure. a The flat printed material, elastomer metamaterials [9]. A bio-origami 2D pattern converts into
b the final output of flat material, c a complicated structure formed a 3D object by self-bending: f the self-folding of PEG bilayer. g A
by tearing the paper off of 3D structure [72], d representation of the fluorescent micrograph of a self-folded bilayer [84]. h A diagram of a
unconstrained-thermo-mechanics mechanism in 4D printing, and e multi-material AM system [22, 78]

13

Fig. 8  Projected 4D printing of biomimetic designs. Calla lily flower
a stimulates the mathematically created model (b), using a precise
curvature (c), which guides the print route (d) gained as of the curva-
were utilized for 4D printing: material jetting technology
to produce multi-material parts and powder-based fusion
technology to produce metallic parts. These are the utter-
most technologies utilized for industry and academic-related
research and development sector, but insufficient sorts of
smart materials are accessible in the 4D-printing field [59].
However, material jetting has drawbacks, including high
equipment costs, strict requirements for resin properties,
and a limited choice of materials. Alternatively, the powder
bed fusion printing method is more versatile, but have limi-
tations on low print speeds, relatively low resolution [86].
Additional 3D-printing stages are useful for great potential
in contributing to the future of 4D printing. Variations in the
phase transformation attitude, oxidation, rapid solidification,
micro-structural issues, and directional cooling system is
considered as the complications as a result of the properties
of the smart materials [87, 88]. Additional research is neces-
sary for the field of the 3D printer with various configura-
tions and smart material to have these kinds of issues as
these could confront the performance of 4D printing.
One of the challenges in terms of design constraints is
the design constraints of smart structures. Smart structures
can adjust and be used dynamically for the environment
[89]. They can sense and respond to variations in their
13
Progress in Additive Manufacturing
ture model to build the flower while swelling. e, f After swelling, the
changed calla lily f shows the identical gradients of curvature similar
to the projected model [22, 71]
environment instantaneously. An instance of the smart struc-
ture is the incompatible actuator for soft robots. The mem-
branes must be able to deform before the actuator operates.
However, there is currently no design report that can directly
create a pre-strain membrane and no 3D-printing technology
that can produce the membrane directly against shape chang-
ing [90]. Additional research in the area of smart structure
design will be required to resolve these types of problems,
as they demand the successful development of 4D printing.
Many industries are starting to spend enormous time resolv-
ing these problems that can revolutionize production rates.
Additional challenges contain slow and imprecise actua-
tion, deficient control in intermediate states of deformation,
and inadequate material supply for specific applications.
Future studies could explore reliable supplement methods
for the application of stimuli, including, training the heat
application system in thermal responsive SMPs, or tech-
niques in maintaining moisture absorption over hydrogels
[91]. Moreover, property variations appear to be an out-
come of macro-scale structural transformations that could
be unfavorable. Comprehending the impacts of the level of
structural patterns and the mechanics of the renovations per-
mit additional versatility and applicability, which usually
Progress in Additive Manufacturing
demonstrates the potential function and future possibilities
in the subject of 4D printing.
Other significant challenges for 4D printing include the
inability to provide support structures for complex objects,
absence of multi-material printers, lack of affordable print-
ers and smart materials, long printing times, and less reli-
ability. In addition, stimuli-responsive materials are usually
fabricated of a limited variety of polymers and limited to
specific environmental conditions, such as heat, pressure,
chemicals, and others [50, 92]. Structural transformation
and duration subject to numerous factors; various environ-
mental conditions may initiate various responsive times,
which leads to a challenge. Current 4D-printed structures,
self-assembled or self-folded, are generally limited in size,
limiting the accuracy in spatial manipulation of 4D-printed
structures [55, 93]. Furthermore, the most responsive mate-
rials are activated by a single type of stimulus for engineer-
ing purposes, and 3D-printed components must adapt to
complex microenvironments where multiple signals may
be required. Therefore, there is a need to develop new, more
easily tunable materials, such as magnetic and electroactive
materials with good mechanical, electrochemical tuning, and
rapid response should be developed.
Many challenges involve advanced simulation and topo-
logical transformation to meet manufacturing and mate-
rial constraints in the near future based on the software.
Chung et al. discussed the requirements of the appropriate
4D-printing software. The limitations were discussed with
six software solutions that were introduced that fully sup-
port the relevant steps of the 4D-printing process [94]. So
far, commercial software has been used for the control of
shape-changing systems. In addition, numerous mathemati-
cal models have been used to recognize the relationship
between energy storage and the release process during the
shape-memory cycle, to illustrate creep behavior or describe
the polymer chain relaxation process. Though present tools
are not sufficient to determine the total type of all respon-
sive materials, and continued development in these areas,
especially for 4D-printing applications, is the current era’s
driving force. In addition, the need to consider the ease of
operation and multitasking feature use in the hardware and
software features. 4D printing is also a challenge for mate-
rials with robust shape-changing capability during many
repetitive cycles [95–98].
To accelerate the innovation of 4D printing, it is essen-
tial to incorporate the rational computer design of sophisti-
cated processes that stimuli-responsive to further improve
their extensive adoption in fabricating complex objects in
mechanical self-transformation, soft robotics, and bio-engi-
neering [85, 99, 100]. In addition, the activation process
of the mechanical deformation of the material is minimal,
and mainly the material detected in the volume category is
exposed to heat, swelling, etc. [101]. A more sophisticated
activation method needs to be developed, where the activa-
tion of the material can be done in a more controlled and
precise manner, for example, by an electrical process with
induction or resistance heating. Finally, combined with the
sophisticated and intricate design of intelligent 4D struc-
tures of smart materials, more comprehensive 4D-printing
concepts and tools must be developed, or the current highly
functional 3D printers must be updated [102–104].
6 Future prospects of 4D printing
Numerous research and development projects for 4D print-
ing are underway in healthcare, electronics, automotive,
aerospace and defense, fashion and durable consumer
goods, textiles, and industrial machinery. Despite being at
the cutting edge of technology, the potential of 4D printing
is enormous and is recognized by many experts in the field.
The various advancements in 4D printing offer an exciting
future, where the technology will be applied in all different
industrial and manufacturing sectors [28, 93, 105–107]. To
be successful in the future of 4D printing, there is a need
to develop a new, highly customizable material that under-
goes appropriate deformation in response to various external
stimuli. New 4D-printing software is required for different
types of 4D-printing techniques [108]. Software develop-
ment in this field must consider the base smart material,
printing technique, geometric and structural requirements of
the product, and shape change in the 4D-printing technique
[85]. 4D-printing techniques must be widely developed to
accommodate a variety of materials, not just one material.
4D printing has great potential in many areas of engineering.
However, significant efforts are needed to develop faster and
cheaper printing techniques [109–112].
A future application of 4D printing is to overcome the
limitations related to the need to work in extreme conditions
[20, 85]. An example of this is the production of 3D-printed
self-assembled satellite parts through its hinges manufac-
tured of smart materials. The self-assembled satellite mod-
ule is manufactured on Earth. It might be designed to adopt a
condensed structure; beforehand, it is being launched [113].
One more probable prospect of 4D printing is the expansion
of personal response products. These products can be use-
ful for the needs of users or the physical health conditions
of users, such as body temperature, sweat, and biometric
datasets [90].
The scientific features of 4D printing include the progress
of research concepts on mathematical models and novel
smart materials. AM continues to be a rising industry, and
the continuous investigation of novel materials and meth-
ods has directed substantial enhancements in 4D printing
[93]. The new technology offers achievable manufactur-
ing methods for compact structures that can be deployed.
13

However, the new smart materials will play a key role in
advanced commercial applications in the near future [114].
Due to the progress of novel smart materials and additive
manufacturing technologies, the possible applications of the
4D-printing process can capitalize in forthcoming years, and
4D printing is anticipated to bring considerable benefits [20,
115]. Shortly, we can expect a significant increase in a vari-
ety of smart printing materials, as well as an improvement
in features of printed elements, such as strength, durability,
and quality of surface finish [116]. Continuous improvement
in 4D printing can also lead to a modification in 4D-printing
trends, with present research events primarily focused on
changing the shape of printed parts. There is no doubt that
SMP’s use increases the need to modify existing 3D printers
to make them compatible to some extent [117, 118].
It is necessary to develop smart materials that do not have
limited compatibility and can offer full functionality with a
multi-stimulus system. The next repetition of smart devices
must essentially go through complex movements that allow
them to work more effectively in any environment. Mul-
tifunctional materials that can perform many functions on
their own must be carefully adapted to create smart devices
[119]. It is essential to advance fully automated, high-res-
olution printers that are affordable, easy to use, and com-
mercially feasible. 4D printing needs to be expanded beyond
the current application to take advantage of its powerful
reach. There is an obligation to develop new smart mate-
rials implemented in new shape programming techniques
[120–122]. Widespread research requires the availability of
a group of more complex structures and the diversification
of the existing list of basic smart materials for 4D-printing
processes. Another critical area of research in 4D printing is
the degradation of structures. Structures capable of changing
shape over time are subject to degeneration, and therefore,
considerable research is needed to make the change process
reproducible and more viable in the long run [123–127].
4D-printed products discovered potential applications in
human body systems, such as wearable sensors, artificial
muscles, and implantable biomedical devices. 4D printing
is ideal for printing contact lenses and personalized body
products [128–130]. Other practical applications and by-
products include buildable aircraft structures such as aircraft
wing modifications, mechanically adjustable, functionally
positioned reconfigurable structures, and deformable pho-
tovoltaic solar cells [131–135]. This developing technol-
ogy contributes to improving the sustainable environment
by lessening the waste of natural resources, reducing long-
term costs, and providing sustainable substitutions to exist-
ing products. The 4D-printing market witness a series of
new green products and partnerships along the value chain
that translate into efficient use of resources and sustainable
consumption [136–139].
13
Progress in Additive Manufacturing
7 Conclusions
4D printing has inspired many companies with significant
attention and produced remarkable considerations for a
few years. We have been reviewed, along with some of the
results from ongoing studies. This study describes the basic
concepts of 4D printing, and various possible 4D-printing
mechanisms, materials, methods, and applications to date.
The study of the possible use of stimuli-responsive materi-
als is already of interest for research, but the integration
of 3D printing makes this research a very emerging trend.
These changes have been classified according to the original
form of the print media. The difference between 4D printing
between single material and multiple materials is the limited
rate of change. For the 4D printing from a single material,
the restrictive aspect is the smartness of the selected mate-
rials. In the case of multiple materials of 4D printing, the
level of variations in multi-material components, in particu-
lar variations in the complete shape, is generally governed
by the design of the 4D-printing parts (stretching, compres-
sion, bending, etc.) and the difficulty of the integrated design
of these components. 4D printing can print an object that
better response to the external environment than the con-
ventional methods for practical applications. However, like
several other developing technologies, there are numerous
challenges related to the developments of 4D-printing pro-
cesses for multifunctional purposes. Even though a signifi-
cant majority of these challenges have been under investi-
gation and trial stages, more efforts need to be applied to
address those challenges for future developments in the
field. The progression in new printing technologies, smart
materials, structural models, and modeling software permits
the 4D-printing processes to gratify the needs and demands
for different industrial applications, including defense, bio-
medicine, tissue engineering, soft robotics, electronics, and
security. The next step could be the large-scale development
of printers merging AM and robotics with multi-material
printing options, and expansion on a nanoscale object, for
targeting drug delivery deployment to the body. This study
may open new possibilities to make those progress by speci-
fying challenges and concerns.
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